HISTORY OF DIGBOI REFINERY The worlds petroleum industry dates back to the first refinery of 5 bbl capacity at Pittsburgh

started by Samuel kier in 1885. Incidentally, Drake dug the first oil well in August 1859 at Titusville. Indian Oil industry was not lagging very much at its inception as in 1888, boring started at Digboi near Borbil and it was on October 18, 1889 oil was struck at a depth of 662 ft in 1890. In 1893, the govt. granted rights to a syndicate known Assam Oil Syndicate, which build a small refinery at Margherita (25 km away from Digboi) where oil was sent to Digboi. In 1889, Assam Railway and Trading Company promoted the Assam Oil Company to take over. The petroleum interested including the Makum and Digboi concession and rights from the Assam Oil Syndicate with head quarter at Digboi. A refinery at Digboi was commissioned in 1901 supplementing the earlier refinery build at Margherita. After its commissioning in 1901, the first commercial activity of the refinery which started with the dispatch of kerosene to the market in January 1902. In 1921, the Assam Oil Company was taken over by Burma Oil Company and reconstructed as the Digboi refinery with higher capacity. The Digboi refinery became an effective and commercially viable unit. In 1981, another turning point came when the refining and marketing interest of Assam Oil Company where rested with the Indian Oil Corporation Limited while by an act of the parliament, the crude oil production activities were transferred to the Oil India Limited(OIL). Today, AOD, Digboi is a fully fledged part of IOCL and occupies an important place in the NE India as well as the world because of its special product like wax. INTRODUCTION The Digboi Refinery in Northern Eastern Indian is Indias oldest refinery. And was commissioned in 1901.Origanally a part of Assam Oil Company, it became a part of Indian Oil in 1981.Its original refining capacity had been 0.5 MMTPA since 1901.Modernisation project of this refinery has been completed and the refinery now has an increased capacity of 0.65 MMTPA.The Digboi refinery produces distillates, heavy ends and excellent quality wax from Indigenous crude oil produced at the Assam oil fields. Petroleum products are supplied mainly to North-eastern India primarily through road and by rail wagons. A new delayed coking unit of

170000TPA capacity was commissioned in 1999.Anew solvent processing unit for maximizing production of micro-crystalline wax was installed and commissioned in 2003.The refinery has also commissioned a hydrotreater in 2003 to improve the quality of diesel. General safety rules of Digboi refinery 1. Smoking is strictly prohibited inside the refinery. 2. All persons before entering the refinery must deposit matches, lighters, mobile phone etc.at the security gate. 3. No person is allowed to enter the refinery without shoes. Use of slippers, sandals or sandals shoes is strictly prohibited. 4. All vehicles, mobiles engines and generator sets inside the refinery must have standard spark arrestors fitted at the exhaust. 5. Use of tapes/cassette, players/mobile phone/radio/transistors etc inside the refinery is strictly prohibited. 6. Use of public address system, VCP/VCR etc.will be permitted for official Use only with prior permission from competent authority. 7. Use of fire hydrant line water for washing is strictly prohibited. 8. Any person entering an operating unit/project site must wear safety helmet. 9. Photography inside the refinery without prior permission is strictly prohibited. 10. Speed limit for all vehicles inside the refinery should not exceed more than 20 km per hour and no overloading is allowed except for fire tenders and ambulance in case of emergency only.

Hard hat areas inside the Digboi refinery The following areas have been identified as the hard hat areas and one must wear helmet while moving into these areas. 1. 2. 3. 4. Plant battery limit areas and connected off-sites Areas below the pipe racks. All tank farm areas. Construction sites.

The following areas have been identified as non-hard hat areas and wearing Helmet is not mandatory in these areas;

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Process control rooms. Quality control department. Office premises. Wax rundown shed. Roads inside the refinery, ETP.NTP. Drum plant. Significant risks of Digboi refinery

1. Working at height. 2. Storage/operations of H2 bullets. 3. Erection of heavy equipment. 4. Shifting/transporting of heavy equipment. 5. Earth excavation of civil foundation. 6. Water draining from process vessels/tanks. 7. Operations of HP section of WHFU/CRU/HDT. 8. Coking cutting operations of NDCU. 9. Working in confined space. 10.Water draining Ex.LPG Bullets at LDU. 11. Transfer of LPG from storage to Bulk Tanker at LDU.

MAINTENANCE, ALIGNMENT AND CONDITION MONITORING

Introduction to maintenance The drive to reduce operating cost invariably leads to pressure for a reduction in the downtime available for maintenance and an increase in the period between planned major outages. These policies if taken beyond the breakdown point can actually result in increased operating costs, particularly on critical plant. Consideration is to be given to the various actions necessary to introduce scope for extension and optimization of the period between maintenance outages with minimum risk to the integrity of the plant. Importance of maintenance Equipment and machinery is very important part to the total productive effort. The equipment and machinery cost a lot of money and therefore their idle or downtime becomes much more expensive. For this reason, it is vitally important that the equipment should be properly maintained and kept in such a condition, which permits them to be used at their optimum capacity without any interruption or hindrance. Improper maintenance or neglected equipment will sooner or later require expensive and frequently repairs because with the passage of time all machine or other facilities wear out and need to be maintained to function properly. EQUIPMENT ERECTION AND ALIGNMENT (STATIC AND ROTARY EQUIPMENT) Alignment is the process of positioning two(or more) machines that are coupled so that the central lines of rotating shaft form a single line when the machines are working at normal operating condition. Misaligned machines cause bearing failure, shaft failure, sealing failure, coupling failure, coupling wear, overheating, energy loss, high vibration etc. With shaft alignment is meant adjustment of the relative position of two coupled machine e.g. motor and pump, so that the centre line of the axis will be concentric when the machine are running during normal working condition. The objective of shaft alignment is to increase the operating life span of the rotating machinery. The most common components likely to fail due to misalignment are bearings, seals, couplings and shafts.

Benefits of accurate alignment

Minimize wear in the coupling components failure from cyclic fatigue

Types of misalignment There are three types of misalignment namely offset or parallel, angular and skewed (combination of both offset and angular) alignments. Offset Misalignment: If the misaligned shafts centerlines are parallel but not coincident, then the misalignment is said to be parallel (or offset) misalignment. Offset (Parallel) misalignment produces both a shear force and bending moment on the coupled end of each shaft.

Offset misalignment

angular misalignment

Angular Misalignment: If the misaligned shafts meet at a point but are not parallel, then the misalignment is called angular misalignment. Skewed misalignment: combination of both offset and angular misalignment. Alignment Methods 1. Rough Alignment (a) Using straight edge (b) Twin wire method 2. Precision Alignment (a) Face & Rim

(b) Reverse indicator Rough Alignment Using straight edge Using twin wire

Face & Rim Method Advantages: 1. More accurate than face & rim method. 2. Readings are not affected by axial float. 3. Possible to keep the coupling s Disadvantages: 1. Both shafts have to be rotated. 2. Should not be used on close coupled shafts. 3. Difficult to take reading Reverse Indicator method

Advantages: 1. More accurate than face & rim method. 2. Readings are not affected by axial float. 3. Possible to keep the coupling spool Disadvantages: 1. Both shafts have to be rotated. 2. Should not be used on close coupled shafts. 3. Difficult to take readings on long.

Alignment Tolerance
Off Set RPM 0000 - 1000 1000 - 2000 2000 - 3000 3000 - 4000 4000 - 5000 mm 0.13 0.10 0.07 0.05 0.03 Angular mm / 100 mm 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05

Rules for Good Alignment Clean the machine base. Remove rust burrs etc. Use steel or brass shims. Check indicator sag. Check soft foot. Check dial gauges before taking readings. Use correct bolt tightening procedure. Dont lift the machine more than necessary. Try to put the stem of dial gauge perpendicular to the surface of coupling. Use jack bolts.

Laser Alignment A modern Laser Shaft Alignment system utilizes laser-based technology to ensure that the shafts are coupled together along a perfect rotational centerline. A Laser Shaft Alignment System offers precision alignment of shafts to within hundredths of a millimeter.

Advantages: 1. Easy to use. 2. Use Reverse Indicator Method. 3. Machine does the calculations.

4. 0 - 20m maximum working distance. 5. Selectable high resolution 0.1, 0.01, 0.001mm. 6. No indicator sag. 7. Soft foot measurement program. 8. Horizontal shaft alignment with min 600 rotation. 9. Vertical shaft alignment program. 10. Thermal or offset compensation. 11. Machine train alignment program. 12. Cordon shaft alignment. 13. Straightness, Flatness, Perpendicularly, Parallelism measurement. 14. Spindle alignment. 15. Static feet correction. 16. Continuous monitoring. Shaft alignment with easy laser It is based on the reverse indicator method with two laser/measuring units mounted on each side of the coupling. System includes two measurement programs: Horizontal shaft alignment and Soft foot*. The displayed measurement resolution can be set as low as 0.05 mils/thou [0.001 mm]. When the measurement is complete we can produce a printout, save in the display unit or transfer the data to PC.
*

Measuring alignment with easy laser

SYSTEMATIC CONDITION MONITORING The term conditional monitoring basically means to monitor the conditions of the different motor and pumps engaged in different operations. This is basically done with the help of an instrument called SHOCK PULSE ANLAYSER which determines the SPM and the vibration along different axis. The purpose of system condition monitoring is: (a) To avoid unnecessary overhauls of machine in good working order and routine replacements of serviceable bearings. (b) To improve the life expectancy of rolling bearings by optimizing their lubrication. (c) To detect trouble spots in time for planned repairs and replacements avoiding both breakdown and unnecessary production stops. The condition monitoring functions are used in two widely used monitoring techniques: (1) SPMs patented shock pulse method for bearing monitoring. (2) Broad band vibrations velocity measurement. Condition monitoring of ball and roller bearings using the patented SPM method (Shock Pulse Method) Vibration monitoring Machinery alignment Maintenance instruments Causes of machine failures: 50 % bearing problems 20 % Misalignment 20 % Unbalance 10 % other reasons Causes of bearing failures: 40% lubrication 30%Vibration 20% Installation faults 10% Fatigue failure

SHOCK PULSE MACHINE (SPM)INSTRUMENT Also known as shock pulse analyzer combines the functions of a shock pulse meter, a vibration meter and a tachometer. It is used to check the operating condition of rotating machines in order to detect mechanicals faults and supply data for effective preventive maintenance. By using this instrument, maintenance personnel can monitor: (A). bearing damage development in rolling machine. (B). the lubrication condition of rolling bearing. (C). vibration severity indicating structural looseness, misalignment and out of balance. MEASUREMENTS Shock pulse transducers The basic requirement for condition monitoring is access to suitable measuring point. Three alternatives ways of measuring shock pulses: (1) a hand held probe is pressed against the bearing housing. (2) An adapter is primarily installed in the bearing housing. Reading is taken by attaching a transducer with connector to an adapter. (3) A shock pulse transducer is permanently installed on the bearing housing and via coaxial cable connected to a measuring terminal. Readings are taken by connecting to the terminals of the device. Machine vibrations Vibration is the internal or the external force which causes the machine to go backward or forward. Machine vibration is measured with a small piezo-electric accelerometer. The transducer is normally attached with a magnetic base to a bearing housing or some other suitable measuring point. The transducer can be held by hand against non magnetic material or it can be fitted with 100 mm probe rip. Vibration transducer is sensitive along its main axis. This allows accurate readings of radial and axial machine vibration in any direction. Vibration readings taken in three directions (vertical, horizontal in the radial plane, plus an axial reading) are used to trace the underlying cause of excessive vibration such as out of balance, structural looseness or axial play. The value thus measured is the r.m.s value. Tachometer function

Used for non-contact measurements, the tachometer probe directs a light beams against a piece of reflecting foil attached to the shaft wheel or belt. The measuring circuit count the reflected light pulses. Measuring distance is up to .6m. The maximum range for optical readings is 20000rpm. Instrument operation, input data and output results Instrumental operation Input data required for Analyzer: 1. Norm No. (10 - 58) : Calculated by instrument after giving bearing number and RPM 2. Type No. (1 - 8) : Depends upon bearing geometry. 3. Comp. No. (-30 - +30) : To calibrate the measuring point location 4. Accumulation No. (1 9) : To define the instrument measuring cycle time Input data required for Tester: 1. Shaft diameter (Bearing inner diameter, Maximum 1999mm) 2. Rotational speed of bearing (RPM, 10 19999 RPM) 3. dBi Decibel initial value is calculated by the instrument after giving shaft diameter and RPM input. (-9 to 40) Output results from the instrument 1. Normalized results - Needs certain input data to evaluate the bearing condition. 2. Un Normalized results - No need of any data input. Instrument displays the absolute shock pulse magnitude in decibel scale Normalized results - Analyzer: 1. Code : A/B/C/D or E2/E3/E5 2. Lub No. : 0 40 Indicates lubricant film thickness 3. Cond No. : 20 65 Indicates severity of bearing damage 4. LR : Lower occurrence rate, Decibel shock value of the shock pulses whose occurrence rate is 45 pulses per second. (-19 to 99 dBsv.) 5. HR : Higher occurrence rate, Decibel shock value of the shock pulses whose occurrence rate is 1000 pulses per second. (-19to99dBsv.) Normalized results - Tester:

dBm : Decibel maximum value, Decibel shock value of the shock pulses whose occurrence rate is 5 pulses per second.(-9to60dBN) dBm = dBsv dBi dBc : Decibel carpet value, Decibel shock value of the shock pulses whose occurrence rate is 300 pulses per second. (-9 to 60 dBN) UN Normalized result 1. Analyzer : Only LR and HR values are displayed when 0 NORM NO. Input is given to the instrument. These values can be trended to evaluate the bearing condition. 2. Tester : Only decibel shock values are displayed when -- dBi input is given to the instrument. These values can be trended to evaluate the bearing condition. Evaluation of Shock Pulse Readings Three steps in evaluation of readings: Trending 1. Collect SPM & VIB readings over a period of time. 2. Plot the graphs and see the variation. Comparing 1. Compare readings of similar machines. 2. Compare SPM readings with VIB readings and analyze. Normalizing 1. Establish own limits after hands on experience on the same machine Shock pulse pattern of bearing Good Bearing: Code : A (Green Zone) Lub No: 1 40 1. Low LR and HR values 2. LR HR = dB 3. dB value is ideal 4 8 dB 4. Trend shows no variation or minor change in LR/HR Poor Lubricated Bearing: Code : B (Yellow Zone) Lub No : 0 or 1 Cond : 20 to 30 1. High HR values, close to LR

2. 3. 4. 5.

LR HR = dB dB value is < 4 dB Trend shows gradual increase in HR reading. Increase in bearing temperature

Damaged Bearing: Code : C or D (Yellow or Red) Cond No. : 30 to 65 1. High LR values, Distinctive peaks in shock pulse pattern. 2. LR HR = dB 3. dB value is > 10dB 4. Trend shows gradual increase in LR reading. 5. Increase in bearing temperature ERROR CODES - E2 / E3 / E5 E2 External disturbance like cavitations, scraping of loose parts, gear noise, steam screaming, rubbing etc. E3 Signal low. E5 Norm No. too low. Norm No. should be more than 18 to obtain evaluated results with probe. Vibration of the motor has a limit and it depends upon the class of the motor. CLASS Class I Class II Class III Limitations according to their classes: CLASS Class I Class II Class III Class IV LIMITATION Normal 1.8 = 4.5 ( Stop ) Normal 2.8 = 7.1 ( Stop ) Normal 4.5 = 11.2 ( Stop ) Normal 7.1 = 18 ( Stop ) CAPACITY OF THE MOTOR ( IN KW) 15 15 75 75 - 100

ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM DISTILLATION UNIT (AVU) Introduction The crude and vacuum distillation unit of Digboi refinery is designed to process 0.65 MMTPA of crude oil blend comprising Duliajan, Digboi and Kharsang crude oil. The crude distillation unit(CDU) can be operated based on four different cases of operation viz. Normal case, MTO case, ATF case and solar oil(SO) case. Accordingly vacuum distillation unit (VDU) will be operated on two case i.e. Normal & Solar Oil case. Products from CDU during normal case of operation are overhead vapors, Light Kero (Lt Kero), Heavy Kero (Hy kero), Light Gas Oil (LGO), Heavy Gas Oil (HGO) and Reduced Crude Oil (RCO). When unit operates on MTO cases, MTO will be produced instead of Lt Kero. When unit operates on ATF case, ATF will be produced instead of Hy Kero. When unit operates on Solar Oil case, SO will be produced instead of HGO. All other products will remain same as for normal case. The Vacuum Distillation Unit (VDU) is designed to produce High Speed Diesel (HSD), Pressable Waxy Distillate (PWD), Heavy Waxy Distillate (HWD) and Vacuum Residue (VR) as product. Design capacity The feed and product capacities for normal and other cases of operation of CDU and VDU are given in table. The other cases of operation correspond to production of MTO, Solar Oil and ATF. Unit design capacity Unit Feed Case TBP cut MT/hr CDU Crude Normal/MTO/Solar As per 81.25(0.65 Oil/ATF design MMTPA) basis VDU RCO Normal 370+ 30.25 VDU RCO Solar oil 335+ 35.58 The number of days of operation required for production of 2000TPA of MTO is 44 and for production of 2000 TPA of Solar oil is 40.

Process description CDU/VDU is integrated unit having no battery limit segregation. For the sake of simplicity in description, entire unit is divided into 3 sections as below. Crude Distillation Unit (CDU) Stabilizer section Vacuum Distillation Unit(VDU) CDU separates oil into overhead vapors (Fuel Gas & Stabilized Naphtha), Lt Kero, Hy Kero, LGO, HGO and RCO. Crude Distillation Unit (CDU) Crude preheat train-I Crude oil preheat train is divided into two section; first is upstream of the desalter and the second is downstream of the desalter. Section after the desalter is again divided into two parallel heat exchanger trains. Crude is charged into the unit by crude charge pump which takes suction from offsite crude pumps. The crude oil is heated in preheated exchanger train to achieve desalting temperature and heat recovery by successive heat exchanger with HSD product +PA, top PA, HY KERO,HGO AND HK PA. In this section crude is heated from the storage temperature to desalting temperature of 128.5 C. Desalting is done at 128.5C and 10 kg/cm2a. There is a temperature drop of 5 C in desalter. Desalter Crude oil brings along with its salts, particularly those of sodium etc. metals like Arsenic vanadium etc. and mud. Although these are present only in small amount their presence can result in serious problems in downstream equipment like heat exchangers, heaters and columns. Hence the need of their removal is important before processing. At high temperatures, magnesium chloride decomposes and forms hydrochloric acid corroding tray in the top section, overhead condenser etc. the presence of calcium and sodium salts can cause plugging of heat exchangers and heat tubes, thereby rapidly reducing heat transfer efficiencies. The presence of arsenic will poison platinum catalysts that are used in downstream processing. Presence of these salts also promotes coke formation in heater tubes which results in high pressure drop as well as less heat transfer rates. The

excessive coke formation result in increased no. of hot spot which can cause serious and disastrous consequences for heater tubes. Brine is associated with crude both as a fine suspension of droplets and more permanent emulsion. To break these light emulsions the aid of Demulsifier is taken. Application of a strong electric field hastens the process of coalescing and therefore settling of all unwanted materials. Water used for these purpose is stripped sour water from the atmospheric column reflux drum boot. As another alternative, DM water is used. Sour water/DM water is collected in desalter water drum. Desalter water drum is controlled by level indicator. Some of the parameters that are to be closely monitored to realize good desalter operation are: Water Injection Rate. Chemical Injection Rate. Oil Water Interface Level. Mixing Valve Performance. Desalter Pressure and temperature. Crude preheat train-II and III Desalted crude i.e. crude devoid of water and salts overflows to suction of crude booster pumps (Cap. =112.5 m3/h and differential head=342.1m). Caustic is injected in the suction line of these pumps to neutralize naphthenic acids that are formed at higher desalter temperatures. The crude oil after preheating in the respective exchangers in the path (Train II and Train III) is further heated up in atmospheric heater and fed to the Atmospheric Distillation Column for separation of various products. The crude oil at the outlet of crude booster pump bifurcates into two parallel streams, one of which is called crude preheat train II and other, crude preheat train II. Crude is on tube side and heating media is on shell sides of these preheat exchangers. Heating media in these exchangers are LGO, PA, PWD product, LGO product, Hy Kero product, HGO product, VR+ Quench, HGO PA, HWD PA and Slop quench respectively. The exchangers are provided with bypass facility on the shell side. All the exchangers inlet on crude stream is provided with local PG and TG to know their performance. The design temperature at the inlet of preheat train II is 128 C. the design outlet temperature of preheat train II is 269 C. Atmospheric heater

The combined crude oil stream is further heated to a temperature of desired vaporization. The heater is a cylindrical type furnace having two parallel passes on crude oil side. Flow in each pass can be controlled by individual pass controllers respectively. The flow shall be controlled in such a manner the weighted average temperature at the outlet of each pass is maintained almost same by the pass balancer. Hence the flow through each pass is adjusted by pass flow controller provided in each pass, with the total flow from crude booster pump. Feed enters the convection section and passes to the radiant section. The two passes of join together and then enter the atmospheric distillation column. Atmospheric column The crude oil after final heating in atmospheric heater is fed to the Atmospheric Column for separation of product. The atmospheric column contains 54 trays. The column has a stripping section at the bottom. Feed coming from fired heaters enters the flash zone at the column at tray no. 8 at 356 C. superheated MP steam is used as stripping steam. It enters the column below tray 1, at 3.5 Kg/cm2g and 350 C. stripping is done to remove lighter constituents from the reduced crude oil. Reduced crude oil product is pumped out from the bottom of the column by pumps to vacuum furnace. The liquid from 9th tray is withdrawn and put back into the column above 8th tray. The amount of this flow is a measure of over flash which is desirable for proper fractionation and recovery of distillates. In order to maximize heat recovery and balance the tower loading for maintaining temperature profile across the column four pumps around (PA) systems are provided viz. PA, Hy Kero PA, LGO PA and HGO PA. These pumps around (circulating refluxes) are down from their respective product draw off trays and are routed for heat recovery before entering again back to the column. Lt Kerosene. Hy Kero, LGO and HGO product flow by gravity from 43, 33, 23 and 15 trays of atmospheric column to their respective strippers under level control of level controller indicators. The overhead vapor of atmospheric column at 124.8 C passes through the atmospheric column overhead condensers. The overhead hydrocarbon vapors and water vapors in these condensers are fully condensed by cooling water. The water hydrocarbon mixture at 45 C is routed to atmospheric column Reflux drum.

The atmospheric column pressure is controlled by split control valves located on overhead vapor line to flare and fuel gas make up line. Fuel gas admits inside the vessel in case column pressure is less than set value. The crude column reflux drum is provided with pressure safety valve at 3.5 Kg/cm2 and the PSV discharge to flare header. Condensed naphtha reflux is pumped by Atmospheric Column Reflux Pumps to top tray of column. Part of condensed naphtha is fed to naphtha stabilizer by same Naphtha with Reflux through (stabilizer feed/bottom exchanger) under flow control cascaded with level controller. The sour water collected in the boot is sent to desalter. DM water connection is provided at inlet of condenser for flushing purpose. Reduced oil from the bottom at the atmospheric column is withdrawn by RCO pumps and pumped to vacuum furnace under bottom level controller adjusts pass flow through vacuum furnace. The column flash zone pressure and temperature are normally at 1.42 Kg/cm2g and 348 C respectively. Strippers Lt. Kerosene, Hy. Kerosene, LGO and HGO are the distillate streams that are drawn as side cuts from the atmospheric column. These are subsequently stripped by superheated MP steam in respective strippers to remove the lighter ends present in the distillate and control flash point of the product. The vapors from stripers are returned to the vapor space of tray 44/37/27 and 19 of atmospheric column. Each stripper has six valve type trays. The feed to each stripper is introduced at their respective top tray. The level at the base of stripper is controlled by respective level controller which regulates the amount of withdrawn from the atmospheric column through corresponding control valves. Atmospheric unit product cooling and rundown Lt Kerosene product from the bottom of its stripper is drawn by pumps and pumped at 145 C. the product is finally cooled at a temperature of 40 C. Hy Kero is drawn by Hy Kero product pump at 247 C from bottom. It is finally cooled to 40 C. LGO is at 240 C from bottom. LGO goes for cooling from 240 C to 205 C and then to 117 C. it is finally cooled at 40 C. It is rundown to storage/ slop under flow controller. HGO is drawn at 277 C from bottom. HGO is cooled in three exchangers. Outlet temperatures from above exchangers are 231 C, 119 C and 40 C respectively. HGO can be diverted to slop/HSD storage tank under flow control.

Naphtha stabilizer Naphtha obtained in overhead naphtha reflux drum also contains light ends, C3 and C4 which vaporize at normal atmospheric conditions. This naphtha is feed naphtha stabilizer where C3 and part of C4 hydrocarbons are removed from naphtha. The feed to the stabilizer is first heated up to 100 C in feed/stabilizer bottom exchanger by exchanging heat with stabilized naphtha product stream from stabilizer bottom. Stabilizer column has 36 nos. of valve type trays. The column is provided with a set of safety valves set at 14 Kg/cm2g. Their discharge is routed to flare header. Feed enters the column on the 18th tray. Overhead vapor at 53 C go to the overhead condenser. The condensed liquid at 45 C is collected in the Reflux drum. Stabilizer overhead reflux drum pressure is maintained at 7.0 kg/cm2 by a split range pressure controller. Stabilizer bottom temperature is maintained by the reboiler where LGO PA is used as a heating medium. The temperature of the column bottom at 2nd/5th tray is maintained around 160 C/ 140 C. The hot product naphtha after preheating the feed to stabilizer is cooled down in stabilized naphtha cooler and sent to storage or slope under flow control. Vacuum distillation unit (VDU) Vacuum distillation unit (VDU) separates RCO into vacuum diesel, PWD, HWD slop and vacuum residue. It essentially consists of a vacuum heater, vacuum column, product stripper and product rundown cooling arrangement. Vacuum furnace Reduced crude oil (RCO) from the bottom of the atmospheric distillation column at 337 C is mixed with vacuum slops recycle stream and the combined stream enter the vacuum furnace. The partially vaporized stock leaving the furnace is transfer through a line to the flash zone of the vacuum. The heat carried away by the fuel gas after the convection is utilized for preheating the air required for combustion. The combustion chamber houses the radiant section tubes. In this section heat is primarily transfer by radiation from the flame and hot combustion product. The convection section provided at the top of the radiation section serves to increase the thermal efficiency of the furnace by removing further heat from the flue gas.

The reduced crude enters at the top of the convection zone. From bottom of the convection zone the coils come out and enter the radiation zone. Vacuum distillation column, product cooling and rundown The partially vaporized stocked from vacuum furnace is fed to vacuum column. The vacuum column has two sections of different diameters. The column is provided with four side draw off cuts viz. HSD, Slop, PWD and HWD. Vacuum residue (VR) is drawn as bottom product. RCO feed coming from the vacuum heater enters the column in the flash zone below the slope drawn off chimney tray. The vaporized portion rises up the tower and is fractionated into four side stream products. The liquid portion of the feed drops into the bottom section of the tower and is withdraw as vacuum residue. It is cooled in crude preheat exchanger trains. VR is circulated back to the column bottom below flash zone as quench stream and also sent as run down. VR pump discharge exchanges heat in VR+ Quench exchangers. Downstream of quench exchangers, it splits in two parts first goes straight to VR/ tempered water cooler under flow control for getting run down to various destinations. This option is mainly used during start up hot circulation of VDU at low heat loads. Second part is cooled to 250 C for use as VR quench. This quench stream is required to maintain the vacuum column bottom temperature at around 340 C to reduce possible cracking of vacuum residue during hold up in the tower. Column bottom temperature is controlled by varying the quench stream flow to the column through flow control. This fraction is rundown under bottom level control. The vapors rising from the wash zone pass through a demister pad provided above the wash section to trap entrained droplets of heavy hydrocarbons which could otherwise adversely affect the PWD/HWD quality. The rising hydrocarbon vapors from wash section are condensed in HWD and PWD section by circulating refluxes to yield the side draw products. HWD product +PA is withdrawn as the second side stream. HWD PA is drawn by pump from tray no.9. HWD product is withdrawn by HWD product pump from bottom. The HWD PA at a temperature of 357C is used to preheat crude. It is cooled down to 307 C. it goes to vacuum column. The HWD product is drawn from 9th tray (common suction to HWD PA pumps) and 12 th tray of vacuum column. HWD product is stream stripped by MP steam to improve flash point and remove lighter ends. It is sent to HWD stripper under stripper level control.

PWD PA+ product is withdrawn as the third side stream from tray no.4. The liquid is drawn through PWD product pumps. The PWD PA drawn at a temperature of 247 C. PWD PA enters above 24th tray. PWD is cooled from 247 to 182 C and finally to 48 C. it is diverted to DWU feed tank or slop under flow control. The fourth side stream is HSD product +PA. it is withdrawn from 30th tray above the PWD section at 135 C. the steam is drawn through HSD product +pa pumps. Feed to dewaxing unit may be HSD from CDU or PWD from VDU also, routed through run down line. All pumps connected with vacuum column/strippers can be vented to vacuum column. Superheated MP steam provided at the column bottom to serve as partial pressure reduction. Utility system Utilities are very important far any industries. Without utilities the desired conditions cannot be fulfilled. The utility system consist of instrument air (AI), plant air (PA), cooling water (WC), service water ((WS), DM water, boiled feed water, LP steam. MP steam, fuel oil, fuel gas and flushing oil. Closed blow down, flare network and slop system are also provided within unit.

CATALYTIC REFORMING UNIT (CRU) Brief introduction The catalytic reformer unit is one of the most important units of any refinery. The catalytic reforming is a major conversion process that transforms low octane Naphtha feed stock to high reformate (RON:95) for used as a gasoline blending component to make lead free petrol(MS). The reformer can also be run for the production of reformate rich in benzene, toluene and xylenes (BTX). Digboi Refinery Catalytic Unit (CRU) had been installed to meet the demand of unleaded Motor Spirit in the North Eastern region. The design capacity of the CRU units is based on the total potential of 901690C TBP cut Naphtha available by processing 0.65 MMTPA of Assam Crude mix. The Digboi CRU consists of the following units: Naphtha Splitter Unit (NSU) Hydrotreater Unit (HDT) Catalytic Reformer Unit (CRU) The full range naphtha cut (IBP-160 C TBP) from crude distillation unit is split in the Naphtha Splitter Unit to produce the special cut Naphtha (90-160 C). This special cut naphtha (90-160 C) is then treated in the Hydrotreater Unit (HDT) in presence of H2 to remove impurities viz. sulphur, nitrogen and other metals to form the feed stock for the Reformer unit. In the reformer unit, the naphtha feed after adequate hydro treatment is passed over a bifunctional catalyst in three reactors in the presence of hydrogen. The reformate obtained is then stabilized and routed for blending into MS pool. The hydrogen rich gases produced in reformer are recycled partly to reformer and balance to the naphtha hydro treatment section. Products obtained from CRU: The various products from the Catalytic Reforming Unit are: Light Naphtha (IBP-90 C) Stabilized Reformate or Gasoline Hydrogen Rich Gas LPG rich off gas ex Stabilizer

Light Naphtha and Stabilized Reformate is blended into Motor Spirit. Hydrogen rich gas is sent to Wax Hydro finishing unit and Fuel gas system. LPG rich off gas is sent to LPG recovery Unit. The capacities of the three units are as follows: Naphtha Splitter Unit Hydrotreater Unit Reformer Unit 105,000 TPA 90,000 TPA 90,000 TPA

Other facilities associated with the CRU are; Out Board Steam Generation System Storage of feed Naphtha, Desulphurised Naphtha (DSN) and Reformate Storage of Hydrogen Naphtha Splitter Unit (NSU) The objective of this section is to prepare special cut naphtha (90-160 C) from wide boiling range naphtha of IBP-160 C. this special cut naphtha if further treated at hydrotreater Unit for elimination of poisonous or undesirable compounds( sulfur, nitrogen, metals moisture content etc.) before feeding to Reforming unit. The objective of preparing Special Cut Naphtha is to eliminate the lighter fraction that contains less Naphthenes and aromatics that are not suitable for Reformer. Feed specification of NSU Source: A blend of full range Naphtha obtained from the DR AVU and Reformate Naphtha from Guwahati refinery if available. Process description The raw naphtha (IBP-160 C) is drawn from the storage tanks on flow control and fed directly to the Splitter Column. Before feeding to the splitter column, the Raw Naphtha is preheated to about 102 C in splitter Feed Bottom Heat Exchanger by the hot Splitter bottom product which in turn is cooled to about 65 C. The splitter overhead vapor is condensed in the overhead condenser and is sent to Splitter drum. A part of the condensed liquid (IBP-100 C) is refluxed back to the splitter column on flow control thereby maintaining a tower top temperature at 86-87 C. the balance part is routed to storage on level control

of the reflux drum. The same pump is used for reflux and product transfer to storage. The splitter column top pressure is maintained at 1.1-1.2kg/cm2 either flooding the condenser or depressurizing to flare system when pressure builds up. Accordingly, a split range control is considered by providing a control valve at the outlet of the condenser and the second one on depressurizing line to flare. A provision for directing the tower top vapors directly to the reflux drum (by passing the condenser) is present. A nitrogen connection is also provided as contingency. The column bottom liquid is reboiled in a vertical thermo siphon Reboiler using MP steam. The steam is drawn from offsite on flow control. The steam flow is controlled by either of column tray temperature or reboiler return temperature via a selector switch, so as to maintain the column bottom temperature at 140-150 C. provision has been kept for steam supply cut off actuating in case of high pressure in the column. The bottom product is cooled partially against the incoming cold feed to about 65 C and is sent to hydrotreater unit. The HDT charge pumps located in NSU take suction from the Splitter bottom. During start up, the bottom product is mixed with the top product after being cooled in Splitter Bottom Cooler and the composite stream is routed back to the feed tank. A steam condensate pot has been provided for collecting the condensate from the reboiler. The condensate is routed on level to storm sewer or to NDCU for MP steam production. The rate of reboiling is controlled by flooding the reboiler tubes which is achieved by changing the condensate level in the condensate pot. Naphtha Hydrotreating Unit (HDTU) The objective of this section is elimination of poisonous or undesirable compounds (sulfur, nitrogen, metals, moisture content etc.) contained in the naphtha feed stock which contaminate the reformer catalyst and inhibit its selectively and stability. Feed specifications Source: special cut naphtha (90-160 C TBP) produced. Process description Reaction section: The HDT charge pump situated at NSU takes suction from the Splitter Bottom and deliver the Naphtha at HDT battery unit at a pressure of 24 kg/cm2 (abs). The naphtha is received on flow control.

The neat H2 rich gas available from the Reformer makes up the hydrogen consumption in HDT unit. The H2 rich gas is drawn from the Reformer Unit on flow control and mixed with the fresh Naphtha. The mixed feed is then heated on the shell side of the Reactor feed/Effluent Exchanger to 278 C in SOR case against the reactor effluent. The feed is further heated to 330 C in reactor heater. In EOR case, the feed is heated first to 316 C against effluent and further heated to 370 C in Reactor heater. The combined feed Naphtha and hydrogen rich gas vapor mixture is passed through the hydrotreater reactor where the free sulfur present in the feed is converted to H2S in the presence of hydrogen gas. The reaction takes place almost at constant temperature as the heat of reaction is quite negligible. The reactor effluent is cooled down to 119 C in SOR condition using the cold reactor feed in the Feed/Effluent exchanger. In EOR case , the reactor effluent is cooled down to 124 C. the partially condensed effluent is further cooled to a temperature of 45 C in an Effluent cooler using cooling water and is collected into the separator. The unreacted hydrogen is separated in the separator and purged out to fuel gas system on pressure control. Stripping section: The function of the stripper is to eliminate light ends, hydrogen sulphide and the water from the hydrotreated product before feeding it to the reformer. The liquid phase from the separator is pumped to the stripper at 15.5 kg/cm2 pressure by means of Separator Bottom pump. The stripper feed is preheated to 200 C in the Feed/Bottom Exchanger against the hot stripper bottom product. The stripper overhead vapors are partially condensed in the stripper condenser and are collected into the Reflux Drum at 55 C. the hydrocarbon liquid is refluxed totally to the stripper by means of the Reflux pump. The vapor consists of mainly light ends and H2S and is released to the fuel gas system on pressure control. The condensed water is collected into boot and routed to Central Static Sump on manual draining. The stripper is reboiled by direct fuel fired heater and Reboiled circulation is maintained by reboiled pump. A part of bottom liquid is drawn as product. The product will be free of sulfur and moisture. The bottom product is first cooled down to 114 C in Feed/Bottom Exchanger against the cold stripper feed naphtha. This naphtha is sent to the Reformer at 114 C. provision is also kept to route the treated naphtha on level control to storage. The storage naphtha is used for restart of reformer. The treated naphtha is cooled down to 40 C in stripper bottom cooler routing to storage.

Catalytic Reformer Unit In Reformer section hydrotreated naphtha is reformed to produce high octane gasoline. The objective of the Octanizing process is to produce a high octane number reformate which is a main component of the gasoline pool and a hydrogen rich gas. Octanizing feed is either straight run naphtha or cracked naphtha mixed with straight run naphtha. Due to the presence of contaminants, naphtha is first hydrotreated and then fed to catalytic reforming unit. Feed stock of catalytic reformer is hydrotreated naphtha received from the HDTU. Process description Reaction section: The hot hydrotreated Naphtha or Desulphurised Naphtha coming from the Hydrotreated stripper bottom is pumped to the required pressure by Reformer fuel pump under flow control and mixed with hydrogen rich recycle gas coming from the Recycle Gas compressor. The mixed fuel is preheated and vaporized in the feed/effluent Ziemann Exchanger followed by Reformer feed/effluent exchanger against the last reactor effluent. This mixed feed is finally heated to the required reaction temperature in the reactor heater and sent to the first reactor. As the reaction is endothermic in nature, there is a temperature drop across the first reactor. The reactor effluent is therefore reheated in the first inlet heater to the required reaction temperature and is allowed to go to the second reactor. Similarly, the second reactor effluent is once again heated in the second inter heater before sending to the third reactor. The three heaters are fuel oil/fuel gas fire and the desired temperature of the reactors at each heater outlet is controlled by temperature controlled cascaded with pressure control on fuel fired. The effluent from the last reactor is split into two streams, one is routed to the stabilizer reboiler for use as a heating medium and the other is routed to feed/effluent heat exchanger. The outlet of the two exchangers is combined and the combined steam is sent to the Ziemann Exchanger where it is cooled to 100 C. the steam is further cooled down to 45 C first in Reformer Effluent Fin Fan Cooler and then in the Reformer Trim Cooler. The cooled reactor effluent is then flushed in the reformer separator. Separator section: The Vapor-liquid mixture is separated in the separator into vapor and liquid products. The liquid phase is pumped to the HP Absorber by separator bottom pump under level control where it is consisted with a part of the compressor hydrogen rich gas. The hot flue gas is from the

reformer heating are combined and is sent to the steam generation system for waste heat recovery to produce steam. During the initial period after start up of the unit, the moisture in the recycle gas is brought down by passing it through Recycle Gas Dryer located between the separator and the Recycle Gas compressor. The dryer is later regenerated by passing a part of the separator gas that has been preheated in the Regeneration Gas Heater. After passing through the dryer, the regeneration gas heater is cooled in regeneration gas cooler and mixed back with separator gas. The unit has also been provided with facilities of continuous chloriding, water injection, DMNS/CC14 injection, caustic circulation and evacuation. C5+ Recovery section: The liquid phase from the separator is pumped to HP Absorber with separator bottom pump where it is recontacted with a part to the compressed hydrogen gas. The recontacted vapor and liquid is cooled in the HP Absorber feed cooler and is then fed to HP Absorber. The aim of this device is to allow a high recovery rate of C5+ contained in the gas phase of the separator and improve the quality (hydrogen concentration) of the produced gas. A part of the hydrogen rich gas goes to HDT unit as makeup hydrogen and balance goes to fuel gas system under pressure control, hydrogen rich gas is diverted to WHFU. Stabilization section: The liquid phase of the HP absorber is taken in the stabilizer in flow control cascaded with level control. The stabilizer feed is first preheated to 179 C in stabilizer feed/bottom heat exchanger against the stabilizer bottom product before feeding to the stabilizer. A part of the stabilizer bottom liquid is reboiled in the reboiler where it is partially vaporized and it re-enters the column below the bottom most tray. The stabilizer reformate drawn from the bottom is resent to the storage on level control via. Stabilizer feed/bottom heat exchanger finally via.Bottom Cooler. The overhead vapors are partially condensed in stabilizer condenser and the liquid condensate is collected in stabilizer reflux drum. The condensate liquid is refluxed back to column on flow control cascaded with level control on the reflux drum. The uncondensed vapor is directed to fuel gas header on pressure control. There are two different modes of the operation of stabilizer- the FG mode and the LPG mode. The selection of the two different modes can be done via the selector switch. In the LPG mode, HP Absorber liquid shall be taken to the stabilizer and stabilization shall be done at a higher pressure (16.9 kg/cm2) so as to allow

LPG recovery at the top. The off gas from the reflux drum goes to LRU in pressure control. The reflux in this case would only be on temperature (tower top) control and the liquid LPG is rundown to LRU would be on level control of the reflux drum.

NEW DELAYED COCKING UNIT (NDCU) Theory of delayed coking process Over the years the status of Delayed coking process has changed from a garbage disposal processes into an economically viable and competitive process to upgrade the heavy residuals from a refinery, producing more valuable distillate products and premium grade coke. In the delayed coking process the heavy residual fed stocks are heated to their coking temperatures and the resultant mixture is allowed to stand for long periods of time in large insulated vessels called coke drums. During this time, the feed stocks undergo pyrolytic polymerization and thermal decomposition of high molecular weight compounds. Coke is formed by two different mechanisms under these high temperature conditions. In one mechanism, the colloidal suspension of the asphaltenes and resin compounds get distorted resulting in the precipitation of the compounds to form a highly cross linked structure of amorphous coke. The compounds are also subjected to a cleavage of the aliphatic groups. Coke formed from this resin-alphaltene compound is undesirable for the manufacture of high grade coke. The second reaction mechanism involves the polymerization and condensation of aromatic portion in feed. The aromatic rings crosslink to suck to such a degree that coke is eventually formed. The coke produced from these aromatic compounds is the most desired for good quality premium grade needle coke. Process description From the operation point of view, the Coker plant can be classified into the following sections: Feed surge drum and preheat section Coker Furnace Coker chamber and quench column Coker fractionators LPG recovery section Hydraulic Decoking, Water reuse and coke cutting Coke Chamber blow down system Naphtha caustic/water wash system Blended feed from off-sites is received in feed surge drum in the unit. The feed from feed surge drum is preheated in a preheat exchanger train to temperature of 195 C by exchanging heat from LDO and Coker residue, and then to a temperature of 240 C in convection coil of the coke furnace. The

preheated feed is fed to the fractionators column. The feed entry to the fractionators is at two levels, one below tray no.1 and the other above the tray no. 8. The facility is providing for controlling the bottom temperature of the fractionators. The mixed stream of feed and recycle from fractionators bottom is pumped to the reaction coils of the Coker at a temperature of about 370 C and the material is heated to the coking temperature of about 498 C which causes partial vaporization and mild cracking of charge stock. The vapor liquid mixture then enters the coke chamber which is in coking service, where the vapor experience further cracking as it pass through the coke chamber and the liquid experiences successive cracking and polymerization until it is converted to vapor and coke. The unit has two coke chambers one in coking service while the other is being decoked with high pressure water jets. The coked chamber overhead vapors pass through quench column to facilitate condensation of heaviest fraction of vapors by LDO quench and thereby to produce Coker residue. The Coker residue after preheating the fresh feed is mixed with Coker fuel oil. A part of cooled residue is recycled back to quench column to maintain its bottom temperature. Quench column overhead vapors enter main fractionators at a temperature of about 425 C above shield trays (1st two trays). In the fractionators column, coker off gas and coker naphtha is obtained as overhead products and kerosene, LDO and CFO as side draw off products. Kerosene, LDO and CFO are steam stripped in the stripper columns, and cooled prior to being routed to their destinations. A part of cooled CFO is sent to fractionators as a forced FO reflux to enable condensation of recycles material. A LDO circulating reflux steam is drawn and after giving its heat to reboil vapors in debutanizer reboiler and to generate steam in a thermosyphon steam generator, cooled LDO is circulated to the fractionators above tray no.19. The filled coke chamber is depressurized first to primary fractionators for an hour to recover the hydrocarbons trapped inside the old coke chamber and then to blow down scrubber and then gradually cooled with MP steam, then by a mixture of steam and low range water and finally with deluge water to avoid thermal shock and lengthen the drum life. The coker chamber is depressurized to chamber blow down system consisting blown down scrubber, blow down scrubber overhead condenser and blow down condensate drum for recovery of heavy oil and wax tailing which comes along with steam vapors from coke chamber during chamber cooling cycle. The condensed heavy oil and wax tailing from blow down scrubber bottom can be routed to either main fractionator for reprocessing or to slop. The

condensate and sour water collected in blow down condensate drum are sent to slop and sour water stripper respectively. Coke from cooled coke drum is cut and removed by high pressure water jet operating at pressure of about 120 kg/cm2 g. the cut coke falls through bottom chute to coke yard for dewatering. Coke fines and water are sent to coke fine thicker where coke fines are separated as slurry and sent back to coke drop out area. The clean water is sent to decoking water tank for reuse. After coke cutting operation, empty coke drum is heated slowly by steam followed by hydrocarbon vapors from coke chamber which is online before bringing empty coke chamber back in line. During vapors heating stage of empty chamber, condensed hydrocarbons and non condensable vapors are collected in chamber condensate drum. Initially vapors from chamber condensate drum is routed to blow down scrubber and then to fractionator. Liquid condensate is first routed to slop upto a temperature of 200 C and then to fractionator through forced FO reflux or fresh feed line. Vapors from main fractionator reflux drum and stabilized naphtha from fractionator reflux pumps are sent to LPG recovery section. In LPG recovery unit fuel gas ex. CDU stabilizer reflux drum, liquid and vapor distillate from CRU stabilizer are also processed for recovery of LPG. The coker off gases is compressed in a two stage reciprocating coker off compressor. The Unstablized coker naphtha, fuel gas ex. CDU stabilizer reflux drum of DRMP CDU, absorber bottoms and stripper overhead vapors are mixed with hot gases from compressor 1st stage discharge. The 1st stage condensate from compressor 1st stage discharge KOD, liquid and vapor distillate ex.CRU stabilizer are mixed with hot gases from compressor 2nd stage discharge. The compressor gases from compressor 2nd stage KOD are fed to absorber where LPG and naphtha components are absorbed by stabilized recycle naphtha from absorber reflux drum. Vapors from the absorber reflux drum are routed to fuel gas system. Absorber bottom liquid is sent to compressor after cooler by gravity. Liquid from compressor 2nd stage discharge KOD is sent to stripper to strip off C2s and lighter components. Heat required for stripping is supplied from MP steam and debutanizer bottom liquid through stripper reboiler. The stripped vapor is routed to compressor after cooler to maximize the recovery of LPG component in liquid phase. Stripper bottom is fed to debutanizer column where it is split into LPG and debutanized naphtha. Debutanizer reboiler heat duty is met by LDO circulating reflux from fractionator. Stabilized naphtha is partly recycled to absorber reflux condenser and partly sent to storage as product coker naphtha after caustic wash. Debutanizer overhead vapors are condensed in debutanizer overhead

condenser. A part of overhead liquid is drawn as LPG product and part is return to debutanizer as a reflux. LPG product is routed to storage after caustic and water wash to remove H2S and mercaptan present in LPG. The LPG recovery unit can operate in fuel gas mode to handle coker off gases and unstablized naphtha from fractionator reflux drum. In FG mode, gases from compressor 2nd stage discharge KOD are routed to fuel gas system directly instead of going to absorber and condensate from compressor 2 nd stage discharge KOD is sent to debutanizer where naphtha is stabilized by removing lighter components. Fuel gas from debutanizer reflux drum is routed to FG system and stabilized naphtha from debutanizer bottom is sent to caustic and water wash after being cooled in stabilized naphtha cooler. Sour water from fractionator overhead reflux drum and condensate from blow down condensate drum are collected in foul condensate drum and fed to sour water stripper. Sour water is stripped by LP steam and stripper water is sent to decoking water storage tank for reuse after being cooled to air cooler. Uncondensed vapors from foul condensate surge drum are routed to fire box of coker furnace through flame arrestor. LPG Recovery LPG is recovered from Debutanizer Section. Debutanizer Section Debutanizer is equipped with 44 valve type trays. The stripper bottom is split into LPG and debutanized naphtha in debutanizer. The heat required in the debutanizer column is supplied in the debutanizer reboiler, by a LDO circulating reflux. Temperature indicator controller controls the LDO CR flow to reboiler. Debutanizer overhead vapors are condensed in debutanizer condenser. Pressure indicator controller controls the debutanizer pressure by controlling overhead vapors flow through condenser. A part of condensed liquid is withdrawn as LPG product and sent to LPG caustic wash system on level control of debutanizer reflux drum. Another part of condensed liquid is returned to the debutanizer as reflux through debutanizer reflux pumps. The reflux flow is controlled by flow indicator controller. A minimum flow with control valve is provided to protect debutanizer reflux pump against minimum flow.

HYDROTREATER UNIT Importance of hydrotreater unit Petroleum fractions contain various amounts of naturally occurring contaminants including organic sulphur, nitrogen and metallic compounds. These contaminants may contribute to increase level of air pollution, equipment corrosion and cause difficulties in the further processing the materials. The Unionfining process is a proprietary fixed bed, catalytic process develop by UOP for Hydrotreating a wide range of feedstock. The process uses a catalytic hydrogenation method to upgrade the quality of petroleum distillates fraction by decomposing the contaminants with a negligible effect on the boiling range of the feed. Unionfining is primary designed to remove sulphur and nitrogen. In addition the process does a excellent job of saturating olefin and aromatic compounds while reducing Conradson carbon and removing other contaminants such as oxygenates and organomettalic compounds. Design basis Basis of design: the unit has have a capacity of 0.33 MPTA licensed by UOP,USA and has have designed to process kerosene and diesel on a blocked operation with an allocated operating time of 2000 hours per year for kerosene mode of operation and 6000 hours of diesel mode of operation. The unit shall be able to achieve a product kerosene with 21mm smoke point at the end of run conditions during kerosene mode of operation and diesel product having 48.5 cetane number and sulphur content of 500 wt ppm maximum during diesel mode of operation. The unit will also have the flexibility to produce straight run light kerosene stream alone to produce aviation turbine fuel (ATP) if it is required. The unit also includes the required amine treating facilities for the recycle gas and sour off gas from the union fining (DHDT) and sour gas from the delayed coking unit where hydrogen sulphide will be absorbed in lean amine solution. The remaining gas after hydrogen sulphide removal will be fed to the refinery fuel gas system. The rich amine (containing hydrogen sulphide) will be regenerated to produce lean amine whereas acid gas sent to the SRU to produce elemental sulphur. The amine absorption/regeneration unit has had a capacity of 7.0 m3/hr (on lean amine basis). Hydrogen required for the hydro treatment process is made available from the HGU. Sour water from DHDT is routed to SWS to strip off hydrogen sulphide from sour water.

Feed specification: feed for kerosene mode of operation is a blend of straight run kerosene; light kerosene and straight run heavy kerosene streams. Feed for aviation turbine fuel mode of operation will be straight run light kerosene. Feed for diesel mode of operation primarily is a blend of straight run heavy kerosene, Coker gas oil side stream II from the low wax crude distillation unit. The unit has also been designed to operate in the diesel mode during the crude distillation unit. Shut down with only the Coker kerosene at 40%turndown capacity. Product specification: The unit products shall be routed to storage and the properties of the ATP, kerosene and diesel will meet the following properties. Properties ATP Kerosene Diesel 1. Smoke pt-mm min 21mm 21mm -2. Flash point, C min 38 35 40 3. Cetane no.min --48.5 4. Sulphur wt ppm max --500 5. Stability UOP 413, --<1.6 Mg/100ml 6. Silver strip corrosion nil ---16 hrs @ 45 C 7. Doctor test negative --8. T-95 max, C --370 The Unstablized naphtha from the union fining unit shall be sent to a refinery light ends recovery units. The product fractionators overhead gases will be routed to amine treating unit. The unit is designed for addition of future reactor to achieve a cetane number of 51 and sulphur content of 0.05 wt %. Principles of operation including reaction kinetics Union fining is carried out at elevated temperature and pressure in a hydrogen atmosphere. Pressure and temperatures may range up to 850 F (454 C) and 1300 psi (92 kg/cm2). The union fining catalysts are formulated by composting varying amounts of nickel or cobalt with molybdenum oxides on an alumina base. The specific catalyst system and unit design parameters will be evaluated on an economic basis of each unit. Each design will be based on feed quality desired product properties, ease of operation, desired cycle length, operating flexibility, construction schedule and operating costs.

Process description Hydrotreater unit consists of a high-pressure reactor section and a lower pressure product fractionation section. (A) Reactor section Fresh feed system: Feed obtained from the storage tank is sent to the feed surge drum using feed transfer pumps.. 25microns backwash feed filters are specified since the feed may contain an appreciable amount of solid material. As the feed surge drum temperature is considered to be high which may result in poor separation of water carried over from storage tanks, separate feed coalescer is specified for cold feed coming from storage. The charge pumps tank suction from the feed surge drum and pumps the feed to the cold combined feed exchanger. The charge pumps are high head machine capable of pumping large volumes of feed at a pressure of 130 kg/cm2. Proper lubrication and cooling must be assured to all times both for the pump and its driver if serious damage is to be avoided. A spill back to the feed surge drum is added to maintain minimum flow at reduced throughout. Feed heat exchange: The reactor charge is preheated by the reactor effluent in a series of feed effluent exchangers before entering the combined feed heater. This attempts to recover as much as heat possible from the heat of reaction. The combined feed stream enters a mixed phase heater to reach the desired reactor inlet temperature. A fresh feed by pass around feed effluent exchangers is used to provide control heater outlet temperature. Austenitic stainless steel materials are normally used in the hottest heat exchanger and associated piping (piping to the charge heater, charge heater tubes, heat transfer lines, reactor lines, reactor lining, reactor output piping). These materials provide the best resistance to the corrosive atmosphere and severe operating conditions. However, they are subjected to stress corrosion when exposed to air and moisture. This type of corrosion can be avoided by neutralizing the sulphide on the tube walls and by avoiding the condensation of moisture in the tubes. Make up hydrogen system: Make up hydrogen is obtained a from hydrogen manufacturing plant at a pressure of 19.5 kg/cm2. Since the union fining reactor pressure is 103 kg/cm2, the makeup gas must be compressed before it can join the system. Reciprocating compressors are used to raise the pressure of the gas, with the number of compression stages maintained at two in accordance with the difference between the supply and the reaction suction pressure. From the discharge of the second stage of compression, the

makeup gas joins the recycle gas just before the recycle gas compressor. Compression can be saved by entering the circuit at low pressure location. On multistage compressors the gas from the first stage is cooled to 41 C in first stage discharge cooler before it enters the second stage. The spillback gases, used to control the first stage suction drum and second stage drum pressure are also cooled before being entered to the suction drums. Both the reciprocating compressors (make up and recycle gas service) are driven by electric motors. Close attention must be paid to the compression ratio across each cylinder as well as the suction and discharge temperatures. Excessive compression must be avoided since they will lead to high cylinder discharge temperatures, rapid wear, low compression efficiency and a possible overloading of the drive. The cylinder discharge temperature gives a good very indication of the performance of the machine and should be recorded on regular basis. Higher than the normal operating temperature show that the cylinder or interstage cooling may be inadequate or those compressor valves are faulty. Recycle hydrogen system: After separation of the gas and liquid phases in the high pressure separator, the gas left leaves from the top of the high pressure separator and flows to the suction of the recycle gas compressor. The recycle gas compressor may be a separate centrifugal machine or could be a part of the makeup gas compressor as additional cylinders. The recycle gas compressor is an independently designed compressor system to pump a large volume of gas at a relatively low compression ratio. A centrifugal compressor installation requires the use of a seal oil system that prevents the gas from escaping the compressor shaft. The seal oil system usually consists of the following parts: Seal oil tank: the tank is usually gas blanketed and vented at a safe location. Seal oil pump: These are positive displacement or centrifugal with one pump driven by an electric motor and other by a stream turbine. Seal oil filters: Normally provided with spare filter and cooled so one can service without shutting down the unit. Seal oil pressure: A reference gas line from the compressor to the top of the pressure control valve assures that the pressure of the seal oil from the pump is 80-100psi (5.6-7 kg/cm2) above the pressure of the gas in the compressor. Seal oil reservoir: The amount of seal oil going to the reservoir is determined by the level in the reservoir. The compressor will shut down automatically on the level in the reservoir.

Oil system protection: Several alarms and switches are normally specified to prevent mechanical damage of the compressor. Most systems do require a 2 out of 3 voting logic to shut down but each alarm should be investigated. Lube oil circulation should also be maintained when the compressor is down, and only shut off when required for maintenance. For the safe and efficient operation of the unit familiarity with the allowable operating range of the compressor and the driver, including temperature, pressure, operating and critical speed, lubrication etc. as the compressor is motor driven, the maximum allowable motor amps should be marked clearly on the local compressor board. After the recycle gas compressor discharge, some recycle gas will be split off the main stream for use as a quench gas between catalyst beds in the reactor. Separate quench gas streams are used to reduce reactor interbed temperature before each catalyst bed. Quench flow is regulated by a flow controller cascading from a temperature controller cascaded from a temperature controller at the top of the catalyst bed below the quench zone. The makeup gas normally joins the bulk of the recycle gas. In this plant the makeup gas joins the recycle gas compressors, which results in saving of a makeup stage of compression. The combined makeup and recycle gas is divided into passes which are flow controlled feed into the combined feed passes going to the combined feed exchangers. The object is to maintain equal gas flow to each reactor charge heater pass at a sufficiently high rate to avoid overheating the tubes. From this point it returns to the high pressure separator, the gas flows along with the liquid through the reactor circuit. Reactor: Once the feed and recycle gases have been heated to the desired temperature, the reactants enter the top of the reactor. As the reactants flow downward through the catalyst bed, various exothermic chemical reactions occur and the temperature increases. Each bed will contain a 3-element radial thermocouple assembly at the top and at periodic levels down through the bed dependent upon bed length. Multiple catalysts bed are required depending upon the heat of reaction and unit capacity. Reactor skin thermocouples are provided at the bottom of each bed and at the bottom reactor head, for monitoring the reactor wall temperature. Specific reactor designs will depend upon several variables. Reactors diameters is typically set by the cross sectional liquid flux. As the unit capacity increases, the reactor diameter increases to the point where two parallel trains would be considered. Reactor height is a function of the amount of catalyst and number of beds required. Other local factors may

also influence the reactor design including seismic activity and weight limitations. Crane, bridges and roads capacities are also factors. The reactors are typically divided into individual catalyst beds supported on abeam and grid support system. The support system is separated from the next bed catalyst by a quench gas distributor, reactant mixing internals and a vapor/liquid redistributors tray. Vapor/liquid separation: The exact method of separating vapor and liquid is decided on the optimum heat integration flow scheme and various design consideration. The flow scheme is using one separator to disengage and individually remove vapor, water and hydrocarbon liquid. A flash drum is also specified as unit operating pressure is above 500psig. The water is collected in a boot attached to a separator and is removed an level control and sent to a waste water stripping unit. This water contains a large concentration of highly toxic H2S and NH3 and should not be drained to the sewer for any length of time. The hydrogen rich separator off gas is combined with the makeup hydrogen recompressed and returned to the reactor section. A compressor suction knockout drum is also provided. Since multiples catalyst beds have been specified, some recycle gas is used for interbed quench. Hydrogen purification: Increasing the recycle gas hydrogen purity will decrease catalyst deactivation. Depending upon the feedstock and unit design, additional measures may be taken to increase hydrogen purity. These measures may also include hydrogen enrichment and membrane separation. In this unit the hydrogen from OSBL is specified as 99.5% pure. (B) Fractionation section The function of the fractionation section is to separate sour gas and naphtha from the diesel product. This can be accomplished with a I-column fractionation scheme. The hydrocarbon liquid collected in the vapor/liquid system is sent to a stripper column on level control. The feed is typically preheated by the stripper bottoms product, reactor effluent and fired heater. In this unit, the feed is preheated by the stripper bottoms product stripping steam is used to reboil the stripper. Steam added to the bottom of the tower helps strip ends from the bottoms. The vapor leaving the stripper is cooled and flow into the stripper reflux drum. Condensate hydrocarbon is returned to the stripper as reflux. The water phase is separated in the stripper reflux drum and sent to the sour water stripping unit.

The non condensable gases leave the stripper reflux drum on pressure control and are routed to the refinery gas recovery facilities. Unstablized naphtha may also be drawn overhead and sent to additional refinery recovery facilities. The diesel product is typically dried with a salt drier prior to going to storage. In kerosene mode of operation the product gases through caustic wash tower followed by sand filter to going to storage. Caustic wash tower and salt filter are used to remove the traces of sulphur from the product, if any. The net off gases from the unit (stripper column of gas and flash drum of gas) will be amine treated to reduce the H2S level of these streams. The amine absorber column utilizes a 25 wt % DEA solution. The scrubbed off gases are routed to the fuel gas KO drum located within the unit and is preferentially utilized to fire the combined feed charge heater. AMINE TREATING UNIT The amine treating unit designed to treat the sour off gas streams from the hydrotreater unit and a sour gas stream from the refinery Coker unit. The streams to the amine section from the hydrotreater unit are flash drum off gas, stripper receiver off gas and recycle gas vent stream. The recycle gas vent stream is normally a no flow stream. The combined feed streams are routed to sour gas cooler and then to the LP Amine Absorber KO Drum. The vapors from the KO Drum are sent to the LP amine Absorber column. Lean Amine is feed at the top of the column. The Scrubbed off gas is routed to the stripper gas amine KO Drum, to minimize the potential for amine carry over into the fuel gas system with the treated off gas. The treated off gas is then routed to the fuel gas header. The net off gas stream is regulated by the pressure control on the stripper column overhead. Amine is supplied to the amine treating unit in bulk quantity as pure (99 wt % min) DEA at the amine makeup tank. The amine is diluted to a 25%D EA solution in the amine storage tank using DM water as the water source. Jet mixers are used in both the tanks to ensure proper mixing. While filling the tanks, it is ensured that float assembly is having free movement. Rich amine from the absorber is routed to the amine flash drum. The vapors from the flash drum are contacted with a slipstream of lean amine and then routed to the acid gas relief header. The pressure on the flash drum is controlled by a pressure control that regulates the net gas from the flash drum. Any condensed hydrocarbon material separated from the rich amine is routed to the slop tank. The rich amine stream from the flash drum is then pumped and routed to amine regenerator.

Rich amine is stripped with steam in the amine regenerator. LP steam from header and BFW from header is mixed in desuperheater to make the stripping stream for the amine regulator. Lean amine from amine regenerator bottom is passed through lean amine feed bottom exchanger and finally fed to lean amine cooler. The lean amine from lean amine cooler is then passed through lean amine prefilters, lean amine carbon filter and lean amine post filters before going to LP amine absorber. The gas from the amine regulators is cooled in amine regenerator condenser and then passed through amine regenerator reflux drum. Reflux from reflux drum is again fed to the amine regenerator. The gases from the amine regenerator reflux drum are splitted in two parts, one part goes to acid gas flare header and the remaining acid gas is routed to the sulphur plant.

SOLVENT DEWAXING/DEOILING UNIT (SDU) Solvent Dewaxing/Deoiling Unit (SDU) with a capacity of 210000 TPA has been installed at Digboi Refinery to replace the age old wax extraction unit and wax sweating stoves unit and value addition. After installation of SDU, paraffin wax (0.2 wt % oil) production will increase to about 49000TPA against 33000 TPA from the old extraction unit. Further there will be addition production of about 11000 TPA microcrystalline waxes (0.5 wt % oil) which was not possible in the old unit. The feed stocks to the unit are press able waxy distillate (PWD, 370-480 C) and heavy waxy distillates (HWD, 480-530 C) from vacuum distillation unit. The unit will have a blocked operation for PWD and HWD. Provision has been kept to process VRSD distillates through this unit. The unit is designed for 8000 hours of operations per year out of which 80 %( 168000 TPA) is for PWD and 20% (42000 TPA) for HWD. In between, processing of VRSD distillates shall be squeezed in. The Deoiled wax from SDU will go to WHFU for production of finished wax. The dewaxed oil goes to LDO/HSD pool or as feedstock for NDCU. Methyl Isobutyl Ketone (MIBK) is used as a solvent to extraction oil from the waxy feedstock. The unit has two tanks farm: one for feed (04 tanks) and one for product (08 tanks) totally having 12 tanks of various capacities. Process Description The process comprises the following steps: (A).Solvent dilution and feed chilling: In this system, the waxy distillate is diluted with MIBK solvent and cooled at specific rate to filtration temperature. The waxy feed (PWD/HWD) is pumped from the tank at around 70/80 C and mixed with about 20 % of solvent for initial dilution. The diluted feed is then cooled in a feed pre-cooler. From the feed precooler, the feed is divided into two identical trains of two chillers and filters. The crystallization of wax from pre-cooler feed is carried out in series of double of pipe-scrapped exchangers (08-EE-101/102/103 or 201/202/203). The chilling rate in the scrapped exchanger must not exceed a certain rate per min for paraffin waxes. The rate thus includes any cooling due to incremental solvent dilution. The feed mix flows through the inner tube and the cooling media i.e. refrigerated ethylene glycol flows through the annulus in counter current direction. (B).Deoiling filtration: This system consists of filters that are primarily rotary drum type working in series called primary filters and secondary

filters which are required to achieve the specific oil contents in the product. Creating a pressure differential across the filter cloth affects filtration. The chilled fed mix from the SFCs enters the primary filters. The filtrate is collected in the primary filtrate reservoir. The primary filtrate is partly used as dilutions make up and the remainders go to the solvent/ foots oil recovery section. The wax cake is washed with secondary filtrate and after mixing with more solvent and more secondary filtrate in the primary filter scroll pumped to the secondary filter. The filtrate from the secondary filter is collected in a secondary filtrate receiver. The secondary filtrate and the chilled solvent are used for wash in the primary filter. The wax from the secondary filter is further mixed with warm solvent adequate to maintain fluidity in the filter boot and is therefore pump to the waxy recovery section. Inert gas is used as the blanket medium to maintain a positive pressure in the hood of the filters, thus preventing any air entry. Inert gas used for purging and blow back, internally comes from the cold inert gas system circulate d by a vacuum/blow gas system. With every rotation of the drum, one cycle of operation is completed. The cycle consists of four operations: pick up, wash, purge and blow back. (C). Wax recovery section: The wax mix from the secondary filter boot is pumped by secondary slurry transfer pumps to the wax recovery section. In this section, the wax is preheated in wax slurry solvent vapor exchanger and wax slurry high pressure solvent exchanger and finally heated to 165/166 C in wax slurry heater by the use of MP steam. The hot wax flows then to the heater wax flash tower where most of the solvent is vaporized. The over head solvent vapor is first cooled in the wax slurry solvent vapor exchanger and then condenses in atmospheric solvent cooler and collected in the solvent decanter for water separation. The wax from the wax flash tower by gravity flows to the wax stripper to remove traces of solvent in the wax. The stripper overhead vapor is condensed in foots oil stripper condenser and get collected in the decanter. The Deoiled wax is pumped to storage through tempered water wax cooler. (D). Foots oil recovery section: The filtrate received from the primary filter contains about 70-75% solvent. The primary filtrate from the FSCs is first heated in filtrate atmospheric flash vapor exchanger and then in filtrate pressure flash vapid exchanger and then feed to filtrate atmospheric flash tower. The stripped oil is again heated first in flash filtrate foots oil exchanger, first in flash filtrate foots oil exchanger followed by the filtrate heater and charged to filtrate pressurized flash tower. The foot oil from the

bottom of the flash tower is sent to foot oil stripper where steam stripping is done to remove any traces of solvent. The stripped foots oil is cooled in flash filtrate foots oil exchanger and foots oil cooler and sent to storage after removing water in the foot oil coalescer. (E).Solvent recovery section: Solvent recovery unit section is divided into three parts: 1. Dry solvent recovery: Main source of dry solvent is from the filtrate pressurized flash tower. The solvent vapor passes through the filtrate pressure flash vapor exchanger and wax slurry high pressure solvent exchanger to heat the incoming filtrate and wax mix and is then cooled and condensed in high pressure solvent cooler. This solvent is collected in solvent surge drum. 2. Wet solvent recovery: The source of wet solvent is from the overload of wax flash tower, filtrate atmospheric flash tower, wax stripper, foots oil stripper and waste water stripper. The flash tower overhead vapor after exchanging heat to the respective tower feeds combine together and flow through a water cooled condenser for water separation. The solvent is collected in the solvent decanter for water separation. The overhead vapor from the stripper of foots oil, wax and waste water combined together pass through the waste cooled condenser called foots oil stripper condenser. The condensate is received in the decanter for water separation. 3. Water separation: The solvent decanter provides time for separation of solvent and water into two layers. The solvent floats above the water layers. The solvent floats above the water layer overflows the baffles and drains down to the solvent surge drum located below the decanter. The water from the decanter is pumped to the waste water stripper. The vapors from the stripper are sent to the wet solvent recovery section and the water from the stripper is drained after exchanging heat with the incoming waste water. The solvent is collected in the surge drum and recycled to the unit. WAX HYDRO FINISHING UNIT (WHFU) General information The wax hydro finishing unit has been installed in 1998 to carry out the refining of wax to improve the color, color stability and sulphur content. The unit has been installed to do away with the age old bauxitization and sulphuric acid treatment of wax. The unit has a capacity design of processing 60000MTPA of wax feed stock of various grades. Wax feedstock capacity (TPA) Macro wax type 1 10000

Macro wax type 2 35000 Macro wax type 3 5000 Macro stream 2 5000 Macro stream 2 5000 --- A first cut ( 325 to 480 C ) is processed at different condition of deoiling in a sweating unit after being dewaxed in filter presses( or by solvent dewaxing/deoiling) so as to obtain macro wax type 1, type 2 and type 3with varying oil content. --- A second cut (480 to 530 C) after treatment in solvent dewaxing/deoiling forms the macro wax stream 1. --- A third cut (530+ C) is processed successively in a short path distillation unit and then solvent dewaxing/deoiling unit resulting in macro stream 2. This stream may not actually be available. --- The wax feed stock is treated with hydrogen gas produced in CRU in presence of Ni-Mo catalyst at a temperature of 310 C and a presence of 124 kg/cm2g. Hydrogen reacts with impurities present in the wax feed stock viz. aromatics, sulphur, nitrogen; olefins etc. and in the process remove them from the feedstock. Process description General information: The objective of WHFU is to improve the properties of wax processed by deoiling in sweating after being dewaxed in wax extraction unit (now in SDU). The improvement in quality is affected by removal of sulphur, nitrogen, aromatics and other impurities with the help of hydrogen and in the presence of catalyst (Ni-Mo). The process comprises the following sections: Reaction section: Deoiled wax from sweating stoves now on SDU is first taken to the settlers. After necessary settling and water draining, it is pumped to the storage tanks, liquid wax feedstock is pumped from storage tanks by the booster pump at a temperature of about 65 C to the filters and after preheating in the heat exchanger by the bottom product of the vacuum dryer and then inject into the reaction section by the pump. The hydrogen make up is introduced into the unit through the knock out drum and through make up compressor. It is then mixed with recycle gas compressor and the total gas is added to the liquid feed stock. The resultant stream is preheated in exchanger by the reactor effluent to about 250 C the stream is again heated to 310 C in the electrical heater before entering the reactor. In the reactor, reaction takes place. The effluent of the reactor is cooled down in the exchanger and is flashed in the hot separator drum. A bypass of the feed to control its temperature is provided.

Separation section: The vapor phase of the hot separator is cooled down in tempered water exchanger and its flashed in the HP cold separator. A part of the vapor phase is sent to the fuel gas network under pressure control and other part is recycled to the recycled gas compressor. The liquid of HP separator are mixed and flashed in the low-pressure separator. The vapor phase is added to the HP purge, cooled in the purge gas cooler and sent to fuel gas through the purge gas drum. Distillation section: The liquid phase of the LP separator drum constitute the stripper feed and is sent to the stripper column where the lighter compounds are taken out by the MP steam under vacuum. An LP stream exchanger may be used to compensate the heat losses. The product of the stripper feeds the dryer by gravity. The bottom product of the dryer is the finished wax and is withdrawn by the pump through the filter after cooling in the exchanger. The stripper is operated under vacuum by means of stream ejectors and additional vacuum is maintained in the dryer by the ejectors.The stripper overhead is cooled down to 80 C in tempered water exchanger to condense the major part of the hydrocarbon. The hydrocarbons are collected into the undergrounds sump drum. This drum is also used as a receiver for all the wax drains of the unit. These drains are sent by batch to the slope by the immersed pump. The condensate stripping water, cooled down to 40C by exchangers is collected into barometric well and then pumped to the sour water treatment/disposal by the pump. The non condensable gases are vented to a safe location through the seal pot. Tempered water system: In order to prevent the solidification of waxes in cooling equipment on wax containing streams, tempered water is used as cooling medium. The exchangers connected to tempered water systems areVapor effluent cooler First stage condenser Product cooler The tempered water is adjusted to 55 C depending on wax feed stock. Miscellaneous: The wax-melting tank is used to melt all solid wax, which might be spilled on the ground. Melted wax will be drained to the sump tank. Two conical settlers of capacity of about 40 KI each will be used for separating free water from the wax pumped from sweating stoves.

PUMPS A pump is a device used to move fluids, such as liquids or slurries, or gases. A pump displaces a volume by physical or mechanical action. Pumps fall into five major groups: direct lift, displacement, velocity, buoyancy and gravity pumps. Their names describe the method for moving a fluid.

Types of pumps o Positive Displacement pumps Gear pump Progressing cavity pump Roots-type pumps Peristaltic pump Reciprocating-type pumps o Buoyancy pump Compressed-air-powered double-diaphragm pumps o Impulse pumps Hydraulic ram pumps o Velocity pumps Centrifugal pump Radial flow pumps Axial flow pumps Mixed flow pumps Eductor-jet pump o Gravity pumps

Centrifugal Pumps This category of pumps constitutes almost 80-90% of all the installed pumps in the refinery. Such qualities as design simplicity, high efficiency and smooth flow- rate facilitate their easy operation and maintenance resulting in their large scale use. Working Mechanism of a Centrifugal Pump A centrifugal pump is one of the simplest pieces of equipment in any process Plant. Its purpose is to convert energy of a prime mover (an electric motor or turbine) first into velocity or kinetic energy and then into pressure energy of a fluid that is being pumped. The energy changes occur by virtue of two main parts of the pump, the impeller and the volute or diffuser. The impeller is the rotating part that converts driver energy into the kinetic

energy. The volute or diffuser is the stationary part that converts the kinetic energy into pressure energy. Generation of Centrifugal Force The process liquid enters the suction nozzle and then into eye (center) of a revolving device known as an impeller. When the impeller rotates, it spins the liquid sitting in the cavities between the vanes outward and provides centrifugal acceleration. As liquid leaves the eye of the impeller a lowpressure area is created; causing more liquid to flow toward the inlet. Because the impeller blades are curved, the fluid is pushed in a tangential and radial direction by the centrifugal force. This force acting inside the pump is the same one that keeps water inside a bucket that is rotating at the end of a string.

Liquid flow path inside a centrifugal pump

Conversion of Kinetic Energy to Pressure Energy The key idea is that the energy created by the centrifugal force is kinetic energy. The amount of energy given to the liquid is proportional to the velocity at the edge or vane tip of the impeller. The faster the impeller revolves or the bigger the impeller is, then the higher will be the velocity of the liquid at the vane tip and the greater the energy imparted to the liquid.

This kinetic energy of a liquid coming out of an impeller is harnessed by creating a resistance to the flow. The first resistance is created by the pump volute (casing) that catches the liquid and slows it down. In the discharge nozzle, the liquid further decelerates and its velocity is converted to pressure according to Bernoullis principle. Therefore, the head (pressure in terms of height of liquid) developed is approximately equal to the velocity energy at the periphery of the impeller expressed. General Components of Centrifugal Pumps A centrifugal pump has two main components: I. A rotating component comprised of an impeller and a shaft II. A stationary component comprised of a casing, casing cover, and bearings.

General components of Centrifugal Pump Stationary Components Casing Casings are generally of two types: volute and circular. The impellers are fitted inside the casings.

1. Volute casings build a higher head; circular casings are used for low head a high capacity. A volute is a curved funnel increasing in area to the discharge port .As the area of the cross-section increases; the volute reduces the speed of the liquid and increases the pressure of liquid.

General components of a Centrifugal Pump

One of the main purposes of a volute casing is to help balance the hydraulic pressure on the shaft of the pump. Running volute-style pumps at a lower capacity than the manufacturer recommends can put lateral stress on the shaft of the pump increasing wear-and-tear on the seals and bearings, and on the shaft itself. Doublevolute casings are used when the radial thrusts become significant at reduced capacities.
Cut-away of a pump showing volute casing

2. Circular casing have stationary diffusion vanes surrounding the impeller periphery that convert velocity energy to pressure energy. Conventionally, the Diffusers are applied to multi-stage pumps. The casings can be designed either as solid casings or split casing.

Solid casing implies a design in which the entire casing including the

discharge nozzle is all contained in one casting or fabricated piece. A split casing implies two or more parts are fastened together. When the casing parts are divided by horizontal plane, the casing is described as Horizontally split or axially split casing. When the split is in a vertical plane perpendicular to the rotation axis, the casing is described as vertically split or radially split casing. Casing Wear rings act as the seal between the casing and the impeller. Suction and Discharge Nozzle The suction and discharge nozzles are part of the casings itself. They commonly have the following configurations. 1. End suction/Top discharge - The suction nozzle is located at the end of, and concentric to, the shaft while the discharge nozzle is located at the top of the case perpendicular to the shaft. This pump is always of an overhung type and typically has lower NPSHr because the liquid feeds directly into the impeller eye. 2. Top suction Top discharge nozzle -The suction and discharge nozzles are located at the top of the case perpendicular to the shaft. This pump can either be an overhung type or between-bearing type but is always a radially split case pump. 3. Side suction / Side discharge nozzles - The suction and discharge nozzles are located at the sides of the case perpendicular to the shaft. This pump can have either an axially or radially split case type.

Seal Chamber and Stuffing Box Seal chamber and Stuffing box both refer to a chamber, either integral with or separate from the pump case housing that forms the region between the shaft and casing where sealing media are installed. When the sealing is achieved by means of a mechanical seal, the chamber is commonly referred to as a Seal Chamber. When the sealing is achieved by means of packing, the chamber is referred to as a Stuffing Box. Both the seal chamber and the stuffing box have the primary function of protecting the pump against leakage at the point where the shaft passes out through the pump pressure casing. When the pressure at the bottom of the chamber is below atmospheric, it prevents air leakage into the pump. When the pressure is above atmospheric; the chambers prevent liquid leakage out of the pump. The seal chambers and stuffing boxes are also provided with cooling or heating arrangement for proper temperature control. Gland: The gland is a very important part of the seal chamber or the stuffing box. It gives the packings or the mechanical seal the desired fit on the shaft sleeve. It can be easily adjusted in axial direction. The gland comprises of the seal flush, quench, cooling, drain, and vent connection ports. Throat Bushing: The bottom or inside end of the chamber is provided with a stationary device called throat bushing that forms a restrictive close clearance around the sleeve (or shaft) between the seal and the impeller.

Throttle bushing refers to a device that forms a restrictive close clearance around the sleeve (or shaft) at the outboard end of a mechanical seal gland. Internal circulating device refers to device located in the seal chamber to circulate seal chamber fluid through a cooler or barrier/buffer fluid reservoir. Usually it is referred to as a pumping ring. Mechanical Seal:

Bearing housing The bearing housing encloses the bearings mounted on the shaft. The bearings keep the shaft or rotor in correct alignment with the stationary parts under the action of radial and transverse loads. The bearing house also includes an oil reservoir for lubrication, constant level oiler, jacket for cooling by circulating cooling water. Rotating Components 1. Impeller The impeller is the main rotating part that provides the centrifugal acceleration to the fluid. They are often classified in many ways. Based on major direction of flow in reference to the axis of rotation Radial flow Axial flow

 Mixed flow Based on suction type Single-suction: Liquid inlet on one side. Double-suction: Liquid inlet to the impeller symmetrically from both sides. Based on mechanical construction Closed: Shrouds or sidewall enclosing the vanes. Open: No shrouds or wall to enclose the vanes. Semi-open or vortex type.

Closed impellers require wear rings and these wear rings present another maintenance problem. Open and semi-open impellers are less likely to clog, but need manual adjustment to the volute or back-plate to get the proper impeller setting and prevent internal re-circulation. Vortex pump impellers are great for solids and "stringy" materials but they are up to 50% less efficient than conventional designs. The number of impellers determines the number of stages of the pump. A single stage pump has one impeller only and is best for low head service. A two-stage pump has two impellers in series for medium head service. A multi-stage pump has three or more impellers in series for high head service. Wear rings: Wear ring provides an easily and economically renewable leakage joint between the impeller and the casing. Clearance becomes too

large the pump efficiency will be lowered causing heat and vibration problems. Most manufacturers require that you disassemble the pump to check the wear ring clearance and replace the rings when this clearance doubles. 2. Shaft The basic purpose of a centrifugal pump shaft is to transmit the torques encountered when starting and during operation while supporting the impeller and other rotating parts. It must do this job with a deflection less than the minimum clearance between the rotating and stationary parts. Shaft Sleeve: Pump shafts are usually protected from erosion, corrosion, and wear at the seal chambers, leakage joints, internal bearings, and in the waterways by renewable sleeves. Unless otherwise specified, a shaft sleeve of wear, corrosion, and erosion resistant material shall be provided to protect the shaft. The sleeve shall be sealed at one end. The shaft sleeve assembly shall extend beyond the outer face of the seal gland plate.

Coupling: Couplings can compensate for axial growth of the shaft and transmit torque to the impeller. Shaft couplings can be broadly classified into two groups: rigid and flexible. Rigid couplings are used in applications where there is absolutely no possibility or room for any misalignment. Flexible shaft couplings are more prone to selection, installation and maintenance errors. Flexible shaft couplings can be divided into two basic groups: elastomeric and non-elastomeric

 Elastomeric couplings use either rubber or polymer elements to achieve flexibility. These elements can either be in shear or in compression. Tire and rubber sleeve designs are elastomeric in shear couplings; jaw and pin and bushing designs are elastomer in compression couplings. Non-elastomeric couplings use metallic elements to obtain flexibility. These can be one of two types: lubricated or non lubricated. Lubricated designs accommodate misalignment by the sliding action of their components, hence the need for lubrication. The nonlubricated designs accommodate misalignment through flexing. Gear, grid and chain couplings are examples of non-elastomeric, lubricated couplings. Disc and diaphragm couplings are non-elastomeric and non lubricated. Auxiliary Components Auxiliary components generally include the following piping systems for the following services: Seal flushing , cooling , quenching systems Seal drains and vents Bearing lubrication , cooling systems Seal chamber or stuffing box cooling, heating systems Pump pedestal cooling systems Auxiliary piping systems include tubing, piping, isolating valves, control valves, relief valves, temperature gauges and thermocouples, pressure gauges, sight flow indicators, orifices, seal flush coolers, dual seal barrier/buffer fluid reservoirs, and all related vents and drains. Centrifugal pump may be single stage or multistage type

Single Stage Radial Flow Centrifugal Pump Multistage centrifugal pump type

Reciprocating-type pumps Reciprocating pumps are those which cause the fluid to move using one or more oscillating pistons, plungers or membranes (diaphragms).

Reciprocating-type pumps require a system of suction and discharge valves to ensure that the fluid moves in a positive direction. Pumps in this category range from having "simplex" one cylinder; to in some cases "quad" four cylinders or more. Most reciprocating-type pumps are "duplex" (two) or "triplex" (three) cylinder. Furthermore, they can be either "single acting" independent suction and discharge strokes or "double acting" suction and discharge in both directions. The pumps can be powered by air, steam or through a belt drive from an engine or motor. Reciprocating pumps are typically used for pumping highly viscous fluids including concrete and heavy oils and special applications demanding low flow rates against high resistance. Reciprocating pumps are generally very efficient and are suitable for very high heads at low flows. This type of pump is self priming as it can draw liquid from a level below the suction flange even if the suction pipe is not evacuated. The pump delivers reliable discharge flows and is often used for metering duties delivering accurate quantities of fluid. The reciprocating pump is not tolerant to solid particles and delivers a highly pulsed flow. If a smooth flow is required then the discharge flow system has to include additional features such as accumulators to provide

even flows. Reciprocating pumps designed for delivering high pressures must include methods for releasing excessive fluid pressures. The pumps should include for built in relief valves or relief valves should be included in the fluid circuit which cannot be isolated from the pump. This feature is not required for safety for the air operated diaphragm valve. There are two general types of reciprocating pumps; the piston pump and the diaphragm pump. Piston Pumps /Plunger pumps A piston pump can be based on a single piston or, more likely, multiple parallel pistons. The pistons are reciprocated using cams or crankshafts. The stroke is generally adjustable. This type of pump can deliver heads of up to 1000 bar. The largest sizes of piston pumps can deliver flows of 40m3 /hr. In practice these pumps are more likely to be used for metering low flow rate fluids at more modest pressures in laboratories and chemical process plants. Piston pumps are not generally suitable for transferring toxic or explosive media.

Diaphragm Pumps There are two types of diaphragm pumps. The hydraulically operated diaphragm metering pumps and the air actuated type. Hydraulically operated diaphragm pump The hydraulically operated diaphragm metering pump is used for similar duties as the piston pump. It has some significant advantages compared to

the piston pump in that the design does not require glands or piston seals. The diaphragm in the hydraulically operated diaphragm pump shown below is actuated using a plunger pump arrangement. This provides full support of the diaphragm allowing high pressure operation. The pump can include for duplex diaphragms with the interface being monitored for failure of the diaphragm in contact with the fluid. This type of pump can be used for pumping toxic and explosive fluids. The pump can deliver heads of up to 700 bar and transfer flows of up 20 m 3/hr. These pumps require continuous monitoring as the diaphragm is under high fatigue loading and the inlet and outlet valves are subject to erosion and blocking. Under a high quality maintenance regime these pumps are very reliable. Air Operated Pump The air operated pump is generally a low cost work horse pump used for transferring any type of liquid including sludge. The inlet and outlet valves are often low cost easily replaced flap or ball valves. The pump is comprises two circular chambers each split by a large elastomeric diaphragm. The two diaphragm centre is mechanically coupled together with a shaft. An interlocked valve admits air pressure to one side of one of the chambers and exhausts the air from the opposite side of the other chamber. This causes both diaphragms to move. One diaphragm pushes fluid out through a non return valve. The other diaphragm draws fluid in through a non return valve. On completion of a full stroke the valve reverses the air supply and exhaust directions causing the diaphragms to move back. The diaphragm which was pushing fluid out of the pump now sucks fluid and the diaphragm admitting fluid now pushes fluid out. The system is therefore double acting. The pump capacity is limited by the air pressure available (generally 7 bar) and the design of the diaphragm. An elastomeric diaphragm has a limited life and will only operate for a few million cycles. A flow rate of about 40 m3 /hr is a reasonable maximum achievable flow with a larger pump. For any air operated diaphragm pump the higher the flow the lower the discharge head possible.

Screw Type Positive Displacement Pumps The screw type positive displacement pumps consist of the number of intermeshing screws involved, the pitch of the screws, and the general direction of fluid flow. Two common designs are the two-screw, low-pitch, double-flow pump and the three-screw, high-pitch, double-flow pump. Two-Screw, Low-Pitch, Screw Pump The two-screw, low-pitch, and screw pump consists of two screws that mesh with close clearances, mounted on two parallel shafts. One screw has a right-handed thread, and the other screw has a left-handed thread. One shaft is the driving shaft and drives the other shaft through a set of herringbone timing gears. The gears serve to maintain clearances between the screws as they turn and to promote quiet operation. The screws rotate in closely fitting duplex cylinders that have overlapping bores. All clearances are small, but there is no actual contact between the two screws or between the screws and the cylinder walls. The complete assembly and the usual flow path are shown in Figure 17. Liquid is trapped at the outer end of each pair of screws. As the first space between the screw threads rotates away from the opposite screw, a one-turn, spiral-shaped quantity of liquid is enclosed when the end of the screw again meshes with the opposite screw. As the screw continues to rotate, the entrapped spiral turns of liquid slide along the cylinder toward the center discharge space while the next slug is being entrapped. Each screw functions similarly, and each pair of screws discharges an equal quantity of liquid in opposed streams toward the center, thus eliminating hydraulic thrust. The

removal of liquid from the suction end by the screws produces a reduction in pressure, which draws liquid through the suction line.

Three-Screw, High-Pitch, Screw Pump The three-screw, high-pitch, screw pump, shown in Figure 18, has many of the same elements as the two-screw, low-pitch, screw pump, and their operations are similar. Three screws, oppositely threaded on each end, are employed. They rotate in a triple cylinder, the two outer bores of which overlap the center bore. The pitch of the screws is much higher than in the low pitch screw pump; therefore, the center screw, or power rotor, is used to drive the two outer idler rotors directly without external timing gears. Pedestal bearings at the base support the weight of the rotors and maintain their axial position. The liquid being pumped enters the suction opening, flows through passages around the rotor housing, and through the screws from each end, in opposed streams, toward the center discharge. This eliminates unbalanced hydraulic thrust. The screw pump is used for pumping viscous fluids, usually lubricating, hydraulic, or fuel oil. Submersible pump A submersible pump (or electric submersible pump (ESP)) is a device which has a hermetically sealed motor close-coupled to the pump body. The whole assembly is submerged in the fluid to be pumped. The main advantage of this type of pump is that it prevents pump cavitations, a problem associated with a high elevation difference between pump and the fluid surface.

Working principle ESP systems are effective for pumping produced fluids to surface. A system of mechanical seals is used to prevent the fluid being pumped from entering the motor and causing a short circuit. The pump can either be connected to a pipe, flexible hose or lowered down guide rails or wires so that the pump sits on a "ducks foot" coupling, thereby connecting it to the delivery pipe work. Applications Single stage pumps are used for drainage, sewage pumping, general industrial pumping and slurry pumping. They are also popular with aquarium filters. Multiple stage submersible pumps are typically lowered down a borehole and used for water abstraction or in water wells. Special attention to the type of ESP is required when using certain types of liquids. The pumped liquid is circulated around the motor for cooling purposes. There is a possibility that the gasoline will leak into the pump causing a fire or destroying the pump, so hot water and flammable liquids should be avoided. ESP usage in oil wells Submersible pumps are used in oil production to provide a relatively efficient form of "artificial lift", able to operate across a broad range of flow rates and depths. By decreasing the pressure at the bottom of the well (by lowering bottom hole flowing pressure, or increasing drawdown), significantly more oil can be produced from the well when compared with natural production. The pumps are typically electrically powered and referred to as Electrical Submersible Pumps (ESP). ESP systems consist of both surface components (housed in the production facility, for example an oil platform) and sub-surface components (found in the well hole). Surface components include the motor controller (often a variable speed controller), surface cables and transformers. Subsurface components typically include the pump, motor, seal and cables. A gas separator is sometimes installed.

The pump itself is a multi-stage unit with the number of stages being determined by the operating requirements. Each stage consists of a driven impeller and a diffuser which directs flow to the next stage of the pump. Pumps come in diameters from 90mm (3.5 inches) to 254mm (10 inches) and vary between 1 metre (3 ft) and 8.7 metres (29 ft) in length. The motor used to drive the pump is typically a three phase, squirrel cage induction motor, with a nameplate power rating in the range 7.5 kW to 560 kW (at 60 Hz). The ESP system consists of a number of components that turn a staged series of centrifugal pumps to increase the pressure of the well fluid and push it to the surface. The energy to turn the pump comes from a highvoltage (3 to 5 kV) alternating-current source to drive a special motor that can work at high temperatures of up to 300 F (149 C) and high pressures of up to 5,000 psi (34 MPa), from deep wells of up to 12,000 feet (3.7 km) deep with high energy requirements of up to about 1000 horsepower (750 kW). ESPs have dramatically lower efficiencies with significant fractions of gas, greater than about 10% volume at the pump intake. Given their high rotational speed of up to 4000 rpm (67 Hz) and tight clearances, they are not very tolerant of solids such as sand. COMPRESSOR: A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible, so the main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids.

Types of compressors o Centrifugal compressors o Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors o Axial-flow compressors o Reciprocating compressors o Rotary screw compressors o Rotary vane compressors o Scroll compressors o Diaphragm compressors

Centrifugal compressor Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy. They are primarily used for continuous, stationary service in industries such as oil refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants and natural gas processing plants. Their application can be from 100 horsepower (75 kW) to thousands of horsepower. With multiple staging, they can achieve extremely high output pressures greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa). Axial-flow compressor Axial-flow compressors are dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays of fan-like airfoils to progressively compress the working fluid. They are used where there is a requirement for a high flow rate or a compact design. Axial compressors consist of rotating and stationary components. A shaft drives a central drum, retained by bearings, which has a number of annular airfoil rows attached. These rotate between a similar numbers of stationary airfoil rows attached to a stationary tubular casing. The rows alternate between the rotating airfoils (rotors) and stationary airfoils (stators), with the rotors imparting energy into the fluid, and the stators converting the increased rotational kinetic energy into static pressure through diffusion. A pair of rotating and stationary airfoils is called a stage. The cross-sectional area between rotor drum and casing is reduced in the flow direction to maintain axial velocity as the fluid is compressed. Axial compressors are almost always multi-staged, with the crosssectional area of the gas passage diminishing along the compressor to maintain an optimum axial Mach number. Beyond about 5 stages or a 4:1 design pressure ratio, variable geometry is normally used to improve operation. Axial compressors can have high efficiencies; around 90% polytrophic at their design conditions. However, they are relatively expensive, requiring a large number of components, tight tolerances and high quality materials.

Axial-flow compressors can be found in medium to large gas turbine engines, in natural gas pumping stations, and within certain chemical plants. Reciprocating compressor Main components: 1. Fly wheel 2. Crank shaft

3. Connecting rod 4. Piston rod &piston 5. Cylinder (lubricated/non-lubricated) 6. Cylinder liner 7. Load valve (suction & discharge)

A particular design may have from one to six or more compression cylinders (Figure 1), also known as stages, which provide confinement for the process gas during compression. A piston is driven in a reciprocating action to compress the gas. Arrangements may be of single- or dual-acting design. (In the dual-acting design, compression occurs on both sides of the piston during both the advancing and retreating strokes.) Some dual-acting cylinders in high-pressure applications will have a piston rod on both sides of the piston to provide equal surface area and balance loads. Tandem cylinders arrangements help minimize dynamic loads by locating cylinders in pairs, connected to a common crankshaft, so that the movements of the pistons oppose each other. Gas pressure is sealed and wear of expensive components is minimized with disposable piston rings and rider bands respectively. These are formed from comparatively soft metals relative to piston and cylinder/liner metallurgy or materials such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). Most equipment designs incorporate block-type, force-feed lubrication systems; however, when there is zero process tolerance for oil carryover, non lubricated designs are employed. Cylinders for larger applications (typical cutoff is 300-hp) are equipped with coolant passages for thermosyphon or circulating liquid coolant-type systems, whereas some

smaller home and shop compressors are typically air-cooled. Large application cylinders are generally fitted with replaceable liners that are press-fitted into the bore, and may include an antirotation pin. Process gas is drawn into the cylinder, squeezed, contained and then released by mechanical valves that typically operate automatically by differential pressures. Depending on system design, cylinders may have one or multiple suction and discharge valves. Unloaders and clearance pockets are special valves that control the percent of full load carried by the compressor at a given rotational speed of its driver. Unloaders manipulate the suction valves' action to allow the gas to recycle. Clearance pocket valves alter the cylinder head space (clearance volume). They may be fixed or variable volume. These devices are beyond the scope of this article. The distance piece (sometimes called doghouse) is a structural member connecting the compressor frame to the cylinder. Intermixing of fluids between the cylinder and the distance piece must be avoided. Packing rings contain gas pressure within the cylinder, and they keep oil from entering the cylinder by wiping oil from the piston rod along its travel. The distance piece is typically vented according to the most hazardous material in the system, which is often the gas compressed in the cylinder. The packing rings are designed to contain the gas within the cylinder, but with the high pressure it is possible that some of the compressed gas will leak past the packing rings.

The running gear, housed within the compressor frame (Figure 2), consists of the crosshead and connecting rod, which connect the piston rod to the crankshaft, converting its rotary motion into a reciprocating linear motion. The crankshaft is fitted with counterweights to balance dynamic forces created by the movement of the heavy pistons. It is supported within the frame of the compressor by plain bearings at several journals. A flywheel is also provided to store rotational inertia and provide mechanical advantage for manual rotation of the assembly. Some compressors will lubricate their frame running gear with an integral, shaft-driven oil pump, while others are provided with more extensive, skidmounted lubrication systems. All properly designed systems will provide not only for oil circulation to the critical tribo-surfaces of the equipment, but also for lubricant temperature control, filtration and some measure of instrumentation and redundancy. Suction gases are generally passed through suction strainers and separators to remove entrained particulates, moisture and liquid phase process fluid that could cause severe damage to the compressor valves and other critical components, and even threatens cylinder integrity with disastrous consequences. Gas may also be preheated to coax liquid process gas into the vapor phase. Intercoolers provide an opportunity for heat removal from the process gas between compression stages (see the next section). These heat exchangers may be part of the compressor's oil and/or cylinder cooling system(s), or they may be connected to the plant's cooling water system. On the discharge side, pressure vessels serve as pulsation dampeners, providing system capacitance to equalize the flow and pressure pulsations corresponding to the piston's compression strokes. Typically, reciprocating compressors are relatively low-speed devices, and are direct- or belt-driven by an electric motor, either with or without a variable speed drive controller. Often the motor is manufactured to be integral to the compressor, and the motor shaft and compressor crankshaft are one-piece, eliminating the need for a coupling. Gearbox-type speed reducers are used in various installations. Sometimes, though less commonly, they are driven by steam turbines or other sources of power such as natural gas or diesel engines. The overall design of the system and the type of driver selected will influence lubrication of these peripheral systems.

HEAT EXCHANGERS Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids that are at different temperatures while keeping them from mixing with each other. They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power plants, chemical plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, natural gas processing, and sewage treatment. Heat exchangers differ from mixing chambers in that they do not allow the two fluids involved to mix. Heat transfer in a heat exchanger usually involves convection in each fluid and conduction through the wall separating the two fluids. The rate of heat transfer between the two fluids at a location in a heat exchanger depends on the magnitude of the temperature difference at that location, which varies along the heat exchanger. Types of heat exchangers
o o o o o o o

Shell and tube heat exchanger Plate heat exchanger Adiabatic wheel heat exchanger Plate fin heat exchanger Regenerative heat exchanger Dynamic scraped surface heat exchanger Phase-change heat exchangers

Flow arrangement There are two primary classifications of heat exchangers according to their flow arrangement. In parallel-flow heat exchangers, the two fluids enter the exchanger at the same end, and travel in parallel to one another to the other side. In counter-flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the exchanger from opposite ends. The counter current design is most efficient, in that it can transfer the most heat from the heat (transfer) medium. In a cross-flow heat exchanger, the fluids travel roughly perpendicular to one another through the exchanger. The cross-flow is further classified as unmixed and mixed flow, depending on the flow configuration. the cross-flow is said to be unmixed when the plate fins force the fluid to flow through a particular inter fin spacing and prevent it from moving in the transverse direction (i.e., parallel to the tubes). The cross-flow is said to be mixed when the fluid now is free to move in the transverse direction

Parallel flow

counter flow

Cross flow type

For efficiency, heat exchangers are designed to maximize the surface area of the wall between the two fluids, while minimizing resistance to fluid flow through the exchanger. The exchanger's performance can also be affected by the addition of fins or corrugations in one or both directions, which increase surface area and may channel fluid flow or induce turbulence. Shell-and-tube heat exchanger A shell and tube heat exchanger is the most common type of heat exchanger in oil refineries and other large chemical processes, and is suited for higher-pressure applications. As its name implies, this type of heat exchanger consists of a shell (a large pressure vessel) with a bundle of tubes inside it. One fluid runs through the tubes, and another fluid flows over the tubes (through the shell) to transfer heat between the two fluids. The set of tubes is called a tube bundle, and may be composed by several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc. Shell and Tube heat exchangers are typically used for high pressure applications (with pressures greater than 30 bar and temperatures greater than 260C). This is because the shell and tube heat exchangers are robust due to their shape.

There are several thermal design features that are to be taken into account when designing the tubes in the shell and tube heat exchangers. These include: Tube diameter: Using a small tube diameter makes the heat exchanger both economical and compact. However, it is more likely for the heat exchanger to foul up faster and the small size makes mechanical cleaning of the fouling difficult. To prevail over the fouling and cleaning problems, larger tube diameters can be used. Thus to determine the tube diameter, the available space, cost and the fouling nature of the fluids must be considered. Tube thickness: The thickness of the wall of the tubes is usually determined to ensure:
o o o o o o

There is enough room for corrosion That flow-induced vibration has resistance Axial strength Availability of spare parts Hoop strength (to withstand internal tube pressure) Buckling strength (to withstand overpressure in the shell)

Tube length: heat exchangers are usually cheaper when they have a smaller shell diameter and a long tube length. Thus, typically there is an aim to make the heat exchanger as long as physically possible whilst not exceeding production capabilities. However, there are many limitations for this, including the space available at the site where it is going to be used and the need to ensure that there are tubes available in lengths that are twice the required length (so that the tubes can be withdrawn and replaced). Also, it has to be remembered that long, thin tubes are difficult to take out and replace. Tube pitch: when designing the tubes, it is practical to ensure that the tube pitch (i.e., the centre-centre distance of adjoining tubes) is not less than 1.25 times the tubes' outside diameter. A larger tube pitch leads to a larger overall shell diameter which leads to a more expensive heat exchanger. Tube corrugation: this type of tubes, mainly used for the inner tubes, increases the turbulence of the fluids and the effect is very important in the heat transfer giving a better performance. Tube Layout: refers to how tubes are positioned within the shell. There are four main types of tube layout, which are, triangular (30), rotated triangular

(60), square (90) and rotated square (45). The triangular patterns are employed to give greater heat transfer as they force the fluid to flow in a more turbulent fashion around the piping. Square patterns are employed where high fouling is experienced and cleaning is more regular. Baffle Design: Baffles are used in shell and tube heat exchangers to direct fluid across the tube bundle. They run perpendicularly to the shell and hold the bundle, preventing the tubes from sagging over a long length. They can also prevent the tubes from vibrating. The most common type of baffle is the segmental baffle. The semicircular segmental baffles are oriented at 180 degrees to the adjacent baffles forcing the fluid to flow upward and downwards between the tube bundles. Baffle spacing is of large thermodynamic concern when designing shell and tube heat exchangers. Baffles must be spaced with consideration for the conversion of pressure drop and heat transfer. For thermo economic optimization it is suggested that the baffles be spaced no closer than 20% of the shells inner diameter. Having baffles spaced too closely causes a greater pressure drop because of flow redirection. Consequently having the baffles spaced too far apart means that there may be cooler spots in the corners between baffles. It is also important to ensure the baffles are spaced close enough that the tubes do not sag. The other main type of baffle is the disc and donut baffle which consists of two concentric baffles, the outer wider baffle looks like a donut, whilst the inner baffle is shaped as a disk. This type of baffle forces the fluid to pass around each side of the disk then through the donut baffle generating a different type of fluid flow. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are further classified according to the number of shell and tube passes involved. Heat exchangers in which all the tubes make one U-turn in the shell are called one-shell-pass and two tube-passes heat exchangers. Likewise, a heat exchanger that involves two passes in the shell and four passes in the tubes is called a two-shell-passes and four-tubepasses heat exchanger.

Plate heat exchanger An innovative type of heat exchanger that has found widespread use is the plate and frame (or just plate) heat exchanger, which consists of a series of plates with corrugated flat flow pass.

A plate-and-frame liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger

The hot and cold fluids flow in alternate passages and thus each cold fluid stream is surrounded by two hot fluid streams, resulting in very effective heat transfer. Also, plate heat exchangers can grow with increasing demand for heat transfer by simply mounting more plates. They are well suited for liquid-to-liquid heat exchanges applications, provided that the hot and cold fluid streams are at about the same pressure.

Regenerative heat exchanger The regenerative heat exchanger involves the alternate passage of the hot and cold fluid streams through the same flow area. The static-type regenerative heat exchanger is basically a porous mass that has a large heat storage capacity, such as a ceramic wire mesh. Hot and cold fluids flow through this porous mass alternatively. Heat is transferred from the hot fluid to the matrix of the regenerator during the flow of the hot fluid, and from the matrix to the cold fluid during the flow of the cold fluid. Thus, the matrix serves as a temporary heat storage medium. The dynamic-type regenerator involves a rotating drum and continuous flow of the hot and cold fluid through different portions of the drum so that any portion of the drum passes periodically through the hot stream, storing heart, and then through the cold stream, rejecting this stored heat. Again the drum serves as the medium to transport the heat from the hot to the cold fluid stream. Phase-change heat exchangers In addition to heating up or cooling down fluids in just a single phase, heat exchangers can be used either to heat a liquid to evaporate (or boil) it or used as condensers to cool a vapor and condense it to a liquid. In chemical plants and refineries, reboiler used to heat incoming feed for distillation towers are often heat exchangers. Distillation set-ups typically use condensers to condense distillate vapors back into liquid.

A condenser is a heat exchanger in which one of the fluids is cooled and condenses as it flows through the heat exchanger. A boiler is another heat exchanger in which one of the fluids absorbs heat and vaporizes. A space radiator is a heat exchanger that transfers heat from the hot fluid to the surrounding space by radiation

VALVES
A valve is a device that regulates the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids, fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passage ways. Valves are technically pipe fittings. In an open valve, fluid flows in a direction from higher pressure to lower pressure. Valves are widely used in process plants, chemical plants, water pumping station, and domestic utility, for fluid and gas services. Valves may be operated manually, either by a hand wheel, lever or pedal. Valves may also be automatic, driven by changes in pressure, temperature, or flow. These changes may act upon a diaphragm or a piston which in turn activates the valve, examples of this type of valve found commonly are safety valves fitted to hot water systems or boilers. More complex control systems using valves requiring automatic control based on an external input (i.e., regulating flow through a pipe to a changing set point) require an actuator. An actuator will stroke the valve depending on its input and set-up, allowing the valve to be positioned accurately, and allowing control over a variety of requirements. Valve flows are of two types: 1. Un-Control flow 2. Control flow

Components Gaskets The seals or packings used to prevent the escape of a gas or fluids from valves

Gaskets for valves

Cutaway of a simple manual ball valve. 1) Body 2) Seat 3) Disc 4) Lever 5) Stem

Body and bonnet The main parts of a valve are the body and the bonnet. These two parts form the casing that holds the fluid going through the valve. The bonnet is the casing through which the stem passes and that forms a guide and seal for the stem. Valve bodies are usually metallic. Brass, bronze, gunmetal, cast iron, steel, alloy steels and stainless steels are very common. Plastic bodies are used for relatively low pressures and temperatures. PVC, PP, PVDF and glass-reinforced nylon are common plastics used for valve bodies. Bonnet A bonnet acts as a cover on the valve body. It is commonly semipermanently screwed into the valve body. During manufacture of the valve, the internal parts are put into the body and then the bonnet is attached to hold everything together inside. To access internal parts of a valve, a user would take off the bonnet, usually for maintenance. Many valves do not have bonnets; for example, plug valves usually do not have bonnets. Ports Ports are passages that allow fluid to pass through the valve. Ports are obstructed by the valve member or disc to control flow. Valves most commonly have 2 ports, but may have as many as 20. The valve is almost always connected at it's ports to pipes or other components. Connection methods include threading, compression fittings, glue, cement, flanges, or welding. Valve ports are of screwed type, Flanged Type or Welded Type Disc

A disc or valve member is a movable obstruction inside the stationary body that adjustably restricts flow through the valve. Although traditionally discshaped, discs come in various shapes. A ball is a round valve member with one or more paths between ports passing through it. By rotating the ball flow can be directed between different ports. Ball valves use spherical rotors with a cylindrical hole drilled as a fluid passage. Plug valves use cylindrical or conically tapered rotors called plugs. Other round shapes for rotors are possible as well in rotor valves, as long as the rotor can be turned inside the valve body. However not all round or spherical discs are rotors; for example, a ball check valve uses the ball to block reverse flow, but is not a rotor because operating the valve does not involve rotation of the ball. Seat The seat is the interior surface of the body which contacts the disc to form a leak-tight seal. In discs that move linearly or swing on a hinge the disc comes into contact with the seat only when the valve is shut. In disks that rotate, the seat is always in contact with the disk, but the area of contact changes as the disc is turned. The seat always remains stationary relative to the body. Seats are classified by whether they are cut directly into the body, or if they are made of a different material: Hard seats are integral to the valve body. Nearly all hard seated metal valves have a small amount of leakage. Soft seats are fitted to the valve body and made of softer materials such as PTFE or various elastomer such as NBR, EPDM, or FKM depending on the maximum operating temperature. A closed soft seated valve is much less liable to leak when shut while hard seated valves are more durable. Gate, globe, and check valves are usually hard seated while butterfly, ball, plug, and diaphragm valves are usually soft seated. Stem The stem transmits motion from controlling device to the disc. The stem typically passes through the bonnet when present. In some cases, the stem and the disc can be combined in one piece, or the stem and the handle are combined in one piece. The motion transmitted by the stem may be a linear force, a rotational torque, or some combination of these. The valve and stem can be threaded such that the stem can be screwed into or out of the valve by turning it in one direction or the other, thus moving the disc back or forth inside the body.

Packing is often used between the stem and the bonnet to maintain a seal. Some valves have no external control and do not need a stem as in most check valves. Valves whose disc is between the seat and the stem and where the stem moves in a direction into the valve to shut it are normally-seated or front seated. Valves whose seat is between the disc and the stem and where the stem moves in a direction out of the valve to shut it are reverse-seated or back seated. These terms don't apply to valves with no stem or valves using rotors. Valve balls A valve ball is also used for severe duty, high-pressure, high-tolerance applications. They are typically made of stainless steel, titanium, Stellite, Hastelloy, brass, or nickel. They can also be made of different types of plastic, such as ABS, PVC, PP or PVDF. Spring

Many valves have a spring for spring-loading, to normally shift the disc into some position by default but allow control to reposition the disc. Relief valves commonly use a spring to keep the valve shut, but allow excessive pressure to force the valve open against the springloading. Coil springs are normally used. Typical spring materials include zinc plated steel, stainless steel, and for high temperature applications Inconel X750. Basic types Valves can be categorized into the following basic types:

Flow control Ball Valve

Ball valve, for on/off control without pressure drop, and ideal for quick shutoff since a 90 turn offers complete shut-off angle, compared to multiple turns required on most manual valves.

Gate valve, mainly for on/off control, with low pressure drop

Globe Valve (Disc type wedge)

Arc / Semi Redial type

Diaphragm valve

Diaphragm valve, some are sanitary predominantly used in the pharmaceutical and foodstuff industry.

Pneumatic control valve

Check valve or non return valve

Check valve or non-return valve, allows the fluid to pass in one direction only.

Pressure reducing valve

Pressure reducing valve (PRV): reduces pressure to a preset level downstream of the valve

ROTARY DRUM FILTER

Rotary drum filter

Filter consists of the following components: 1. Drum 2. Filter Tank 3. Hood 4. Automatic Filter valve 5. Drum Drive 6. Washing Device 7. Scraper 8. Discharge scroll 9. Hydraulic Hood Lifting Device 10.Central Lubrication 11.Stuffing Box General description and method of operation There are four rotary drum filters in the wax sector of Digboi refinery. Each filter is designed for deoiling wax by continuous filtration, separation

the wax from chilled moisture of wax, oil and solvent. The chilled slurry will be introduced into the bottom of the filter tank on automatic control to maintain a constant liquid level in the tank. The filtrate flow through the filter med is induced by application of a vacuum to the drum surface through the filtrate piping. The filter cloth will retain the wax during the pickup line of the filter cycle. In the following wash zone, cold solvent to reduce the oil content in the wax cake will wash the filter cake. The filters are provided for a drum submergence of 15-50%. The direction of rotation is clockwise seen from the drive end. The filters are design for capable of continuous operation, filtering wax from the chilled oil and solvent solution. The filter operation is divided into five cycles: a. Pick up cycle: filtrate flow is introduced by differential pressure over the filter cloth. Filtrate is transported through the filtrate piping through the automatic valve in the receivers. b. Wash cycle: after emerging from the slurry, the wax cake formed on the filter cloth during the pickup cycle i.e. washed continuously and uniformly by the solvent, which has been chilled to approximately the filtering temperature wash. Solvent is introduced to provide a continuous film over the wax in the washing zone. This solvent washes oil from the wax cake. c. Drying cycle: after washing, the wax cake is dried by pulling chilled inert gas through the wax cake. d. Intra-compartmental purge cycle: following the drying operation, is an intra-compartment purge. This is an operation where the inert gas is blown through the compartment trailing pipes simultaneous with vacuum on the leading pipes. This speeds up the removal of any remaining liquid in the compartment and filtrate piping prior to wax cake discharge. e. Discharge cycle: a blow of chilled inert gas to the compartment trailing filtrate pipes will discharge the wax from the drum just above the scraper. A steep (35 degree deviation from the vertical) smooth blade is provided to assist in the removal and direct the wax into the scroll. The scroll, a screw conveyor will transport the wax to the discharge opening in the middle of the scroll. Above the scroll spray pipes are provided to reslurry the washed wax. Depending on the blending of the filter cloth due to wax crystals, ice or impurities, the filter cloth will periodically washed with hot solvent. After warm washing the filter cloth is cooled down with the cooled solvent.

POWER AND UTILITIES

The P & U Department of Digboi Refinery is mainly responsible for the generation, distribution and maintenance of electric power and steam, supply of process/service/drinking water, plant and instrument air, maintenance of compressors, pumps, engines, etc. fire and safety of the units and maintenance of al instruments. The department is mainly composed of the following sections:1. Captive power plant & utilities - responsible for generation of power steam & supply of process/service water, plant & instrument air. 2. mechanical maintenance - responsible for maintenance of Gas Turbines, HSRG Units, gas and air compressors, diesel engines, pumps, pipelines for steam/water/air etc. 3. Refinery electric responsible for entire electric system, fire detection & alarm systems within the refinery. 4. Instrumentation responsible for maintenance & calibration for all types of available instruments. 5. Water engineering responsible for supply & maintenance of drinking water system within & outside the refinery. Captive power plant Captive Power Plant (CPP) is basically a power generating plant which caters the need for the required power responsible for the operation of the various different units inside the refinery. The generation scheme of the plant is of the co-generation type. The plant has a total installed power generating capacity of 45.5 MW provided by the three Gas Turbines each having a capacity of 8.5 MW and a fourth one having a capacity of 20 MW. The four turbines run with help of natural gas as well as can be run with help of High Speed Diesel. The exhaust of the Gas Turbines is used to run three Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HSRG) of 37.5 TPH capacities and another one of 100 TPH capacity. Three gas turbines are of the Frame-III type (8.5 MW) and one is of the Frame-IV type (20 MW). Principal equipments 1. Gas Turbine: The Gas turbine basically works on the Brayton Cycle principle of thermodynamics. It is a single shaft machine, which consists of

three sections namely compressor 7 accessory drive compartments, combustion section, and turbine 7 exhaust section. The gas Turbine is initially started by a diesel engine, which is coupled to a main shaft through a torque converter housed in the accessory gear system. Accessory gear drives the lube pumps, main hydraulic oil pumps, cooling water pump, atomizing air compressor and main field pump. The Gas Turbine is having duel fuel system and is capable to run either or both on Natural Gas and High Speed Diesel. Natural Gas received from Oil India Ltd. Is compressed to a pressure of 12 kg/cm2 through 910 KW capacity Gas Booster Compressor. The compressor is controlled by Distributed Control System (DCS). A Gas Turbine assembly generally contains 5 major components:1. Air Inlet 2. Compressor 3. Combustion System 4. Turbine 5. Exhaust exhaust combustion chamber fuel

COMPRESSOR shaft

TURBINE

LOAD

Inlet air System description Lubrication system: The lubrication system, completes with reservoir at the turbine base (2250 gallon capacity), coolers, filters, valves, various control and protection devices furnishes normal lubrication & absorbs heat.

Trip oil system: The trip oil system is the primary protection interface between the control panel & the components on the turbine, which shut off fuel to the turbine. It is also provided for the actuation of 2nd stage nozzle partitioned through the controlled actuator ACNL. Cooling and sealing air system: Ambient air & extraction air from the turbines are used to cool certain turbine parts & to pressurize the breaking seals. 2. Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HSRG): The HSRG is a horizontal, natural circulation, single drum, single pressure, supplementary fuel, water tube boiler. It is basically a heat exchanger which recovers heat from the turbine exhaust fuel gas having temp. of 360oC to produce super heated steam, heating feed water. The HSRG consists of the following main components: 1. Super Heater I & components 2. Screen & components 3. Super Heater II & components 4. Evaporator & components 5. Make up water Heater & components 6. Supplementary firing system 7. Steel chimney Super heater I & components: This is the first heat transfer surface arranged in the direction of heat flow. Super Heater I is constructed of modules consisting of spiral finned tubes welded to top & bottom headers, two rows per module. It is designed to single pass flow on the as side as well as on the tube side. Screen components: It is the second heat transfer surface arranged n the direction of heat flow. Two numbers of the screen module are located immediately after the duct burner. Super Heater II is located after the screen modules. The high temperature gases leaving the duct burner enter screen module & then super heater II. Super heater II & components: It is the third heat transfer surface arranged in the direction of heat flow. Super Heater II is designed to single pass flow on the gas side as well as on the flow side.

Evaporator & components: It is the 4th transfer heat transfer heat surface arranged in the direction of heat flow. The boiler water from the stream drum flows to the common feed headers through two large down corners & is distributed to the bottom headers of the evaporator through the individual feeders. Economizer & components: It is the 5th heat transfer surface arranged in the direction of heat flow. It is designed for single pass flow on the gas side as well as on the flow side. Supplementary firing system: It is capable of firing natural as fuel heats ups the GT exhaust to a required temp. The duct burners are located at the inlet of the HSRG between super heater I & screen evaporator. Chimney: The GT exhaust gases after passing through all the heat transfer surfaces are discharged into the atmosphere at a safe height through a

AL

PUMP TYPE SLM GV

SEALLESS WITH

BEARINGS
A bearing is a device to allow constrained relative motion between two or more parts, typically rotation or linear movement. Bearings may be classified broadly according to the motions they allow and according to their principle of operation as well as by the directions of applied loads they can handle

A cutaway example of a four-point contact ball bearing

Overview There are many types of bearings, with varying shape, material, lubrication, principal of operation, and so on. For example, rolling-element bearings use spheres or drums rolling between the parts to reduce friction; reduced friction allows tighter tolerances and thus higher precision than a plain bearing and reduced wear extends the time over which the machine stays accurate. Plain bearings are commonly made of varying types of metal or plastic depending on the load, how corrosive or dirty is the environment, and so on. In addition, bearing friction and life may be altered dramatically by the type and application of lubricants. For example, a lubricant may improve bearing friction and life, but for food processing a bearing may be lubricated by an inferior food-safe lubricant to avoid food contamination; in other situations a bearing may be run without lubricant because continuous lubrication is not feasible, and lubricants attract dirt that damages the bearings. Principles of operation There are at least six common principles of operation: plain bearing, also known by the specific styles: bushings, journal bearings, sleeve bearings, rifle bearings rolling-element bearings such as ball bearings and roller bearings

jewel bearings, in which the load is carried by rolling the axle slightly off-center fluid bearings, in which the load is carried by a gas or liquid magnetic bearings, in which the load is carried by a magnetic field Flexure bearings, in which the motion is supported by a load element which bends. Motions Common motions permitted by bearings are: Axial rotation e.g. shaft rotation Linear motion e.g. drawer spherical rotation e.g. ball and socket joint hinge motion e.g. door, elbow, knee Friction Reducing friction in bearings is often important for efficiency, to reduce wear and to facilitate extended use at high speeds and to avoid overheating and premature failure of the bearing. Essentially, a bearing can reduce friction by virtue of its shape, by its material, or by introducing and containing a fluid between surfaces or by separating the surfaces with an electromagnetic field. By shape, gains advantage usually by using spheres or rollers, or by forming flexure bearings. By material, exploits the nature of the bearing material used. (An example would be using plastics that have low surface friction.) By fluid, exploits the low viscosity of a layer of fluid, such as a lubricant or as a pressurized medium to keep the two solid parts from touching, or by reducing the normal force between them. By fields, exploits electromagnetic fields, such as magnetic fields, to keep solid parts from touching. Combinations of these can even be employed within the same bearing. An example of this is where the cage is made of plastic, and it separates the rollers/balls, which reduce friction by their shape and finish. Loads Bearings vary greatly over the size and directions of forces that they can support. Forces can be predominately radial, axial (thrust bearings) or Bending moments perpendicular to the main axis. Speeds Different bearing types have different operating speed limits. Speed is typically specified as maximum relative surface speeds, often specified ft/s

or m/s. Rotational bearings typically describe performance in terms of the product DN where D is the diameter (often in mm) of the bearing and N is the rotation rate in revolutions per minute. Generally there is considerable speed range overlap between bearing types. Plain bearings typically handle only lower speeds, rolling element bearings are faster, followed by fluid bearings and finally magnetic bearings which are limited ultimately by centripetal force overcoming material strength. Life Rolling element bearing life is determined by load, temperature, maintenance, lubrication, material defects, contamination, handling, installation and other factors. These factors can all have a significant effect on bearing life. For example, the service life of bearings in one application was extended dramatically by changing how the bearings were stored before installation and use, as vibrations during storage caused lubricant failure even when the only load on the bearing was its own weight. Bearing life is statistical: several samples of a given bearing will often exhibit a bell curve of service life, with a few samples showing significantly better or worse life. Bearing life varies because microscopic structure and contamination vary greatly even where macroscopically they seem identical. For plain bearings some materials give much longer life than others. Flexure bearings bend a piece of material repeatedly. Some materials fail after repeated bending, even at low loads, but careful material selection and bearing design can make flexure bearing life indefinite. Maintenance Many bearings require periodic maintenance to prevent premature failure, although some such as fluid or magnetic bearings may require little maintenance. Most bearings in high cycle operations need periodic lubrication and cleaning, and may require adjustment to minimize the effects of wear. Bearing life is often much better when the bearing is kept clean and well-lubricated. However, many applications make good maintenance difficult. For example bearings in the conveyor of a rock crusher are exposed continually to hard abrasive particles. Cleaning is of little use because cleaning is expensive, yet the bearing is contaminated again as soon as the conveyor resumes operation. Thus, a good maintenance program might lubricate the bearings frequently but clean them never.

Ball bearing A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing which uses balls to maintain the separation between the moving parts of the bearing. The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support radial and axial loads. It achieves this by using at least two races to contain the balls and transmit the loads through the balls. Usually one of the races is held fixed. As one of the bearing races rotates it causes the balls to rotate as well. Because the balls are rolling they have a much lower coefficient of friction than if two flat surfaces were rotating on each other.

.
A ball bearing with a semi transparent cage. Wingquist's and SKF's self-aligning ball bearing.

Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other kinds of rolling-element bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and races. However, they can tolerate some misalignment of the inner and outer races. Compared to other rolling-element bearings, the ball bearing is the least expensive, primarily because of the low cost of producing the balls used in the bearing. They can be made from many different materials, including: stainless steel, chrome steel, and ceramic (silicon nitride (Si3N4)). A hybrid ball bearing is a bearing with ceramic balls and races of metal. Roller bearings Common roller bearings use cylinders of slightly greater length than diameter. Roller bearings typically have higher radial load capacity than ball

bearings, but a low axial capacity and higher friction under

axial loads. If the inner and outer races are misaligned, the bearing capacity often drops quickly compared to either a ball bearing or a spherical roller bearing Flexure bearing A flexure bearing is a bearing which allows motion by bending a load element. A typical flexure bearing is just one part, joining two other parts. For example, a hinge may be made by attaching a long strip of a flexible element to a door and to the door frame. Another example is a rope swing, where the rope is tied to a tree branch. Flexure bearings have the advantage over most other bearings that they are simple and thus inexpensive. They are also often compact, light weight, have very low friction, and are easier to repair without specialized equipment. Flexure bearings have the disadvantages that the range of motion is limited, and often very limited for bearings that support high loads. A flexure bearing relies on the bearing element being made of a material which can be repeatedly flexed without disintegrating. However, most materials fall apart if flexed a lot. For example, most metals will fatigue with repeated flexing, and will eventually snap. Thus, one part of flexure bearing design is avoiding fatigue. For example, the rollers and races in a rollingelement bearing fatigue as they flatten against each other. Flexure bearings can give very low friction and also give very predictable friction. Many other bearings rely on sliding or rolling motions, which are necessarily uneven because the bearing surfaces are never perfectly flat. A flexure bearing operates by bending of materials, which causes motion at microscopic level, so friction is very uniform. For this reason, flexure bearings are often used in sensitive precision measuring equipment. Many flexure bearings are combined with other elements. For example, many motor vehicles use leaf springs. The spring both holds the position of the axle as the axle moves (flexure bearing) and provides force to support the vehicle (springing). In many cases it is not clear where flexure bearing leaves off and something else takes up. For example, turbines are often supported on flexible shafts so an imperfectly-balanced turbine can find its own center and run with reduced vibration.

MECHANICAL SEALS Operating principles & fundamentals behind rotary mechanical seals Centrifugal and rotary positive displacement pumps require controlling of the pumped fluids desire to exit through the stuffing box, the area where the pump shaft enters the pump fluid end. When operating the pumped fluid within the stuffing box sees a pressure higher than the surrounding atmospheric pressure, and on static lift applications; during the priming cycle, the stuffing box will see a pressure below atmospheric pressure i.e., a vacuum. In either operating condition a mechanical seal will virtually eliminate the release of the pumpage to atmosphere and the entrance of air into a stuffing box when under vacuum. A basic mechanical seal is not a complex device. It consists primarily of a rotary seal face with a driving mechanism which rotates at the same speed as the pump shaft, a stationary seal face which mates with the rotary and is retained using a gland or in some pump models an integral stuffing box cover, a tension assembly which keeps the rotary face firmly positioned against the stationary face to avoid leakage when the pump is not in operation, and static sealing gasket(s) and elastomer strategically located to complete the seal assembly. The rotating and stationary sealing faces commonly referred to as primary seal members, are materials selected for their low coefficient of heat and are compatible with the fluid being pumped. Their extremely flat; lapped mating surfaces, make it extremely difficult for the fluid to escape between them. The fluid does however, forms a thin layer or film between the faces and migrates toward the low pressure side of the faces. It is this boundary layer of fluid which is used and required to cool and lubricate the seal faces. To prohibit leakage along the pump shaft through the inside diameter of the rotary and stationary seal faces the mechanical seal assembly uses o-rings, v-rings, wedges and packing. Commonly referred to as secondary sealing members these components of the seal are selected based on fluid compatibility, temperature, elastomeric qualities, and depending on the type and design of the seal they may perform in either a dynamic or static state

Why use a mechanical seal? The Economic case and the Environmental case are described below. It takes a lot of skill to pack a pump properly with soft packing. There are two basic cases to be made out for the use of rotary, fluid sealing technologies. The Environmental Case We all have a responsibility to conserve and protect, conserve scarce commodities and to protect the environment from pollution. A major spill is news because it is dramatic but every day, millions of glands leak chemicals into the environment. We can stop those leaks and avoid cleanup cost. In order to prevent the leakage of the chemicals which have the potential to pollute the environment, seal is required. The Economic Case Oil is a non renewable resource. Once lost, its gone forever. So we have to save every drop of it from wastage. Leak Chart One drip/second 5,256 Litres / year 3 mm stream 315,360 Litres / year 6 mm stream 630,720 Litres / year Each leaking gland is contributing to hard cash overhead expense. Packing is cheap, to buy, to, fit, but its running cost is hidden and can be very expensive. A mechanical seal appears expensive to buy when compared with a packing ring, but properly installed a seal will run for many years. The optimum life of a seal is the period between major overhauls of the pump unit. Classification of Mechanical Seals Mechanical seals are classified by arrangement and configuration

Mechanical seal classification by arrangement, i.e. design

Mechanical Seal Terminology

Single seals

Inside mounted = pressure on outside diameter of parts

inside

Outside mounted= pressure on diameter of parts

Rotary

Stationary

A typical single seal

The inside mounted mechanical seal is most popular type of single mechanical seal. Most seals are designed to leak so that the liquid or gas will lubricate the seal faces. Applications that do not utilize substances that must be contained, such as hazardous gases, dangerous chemicals or flammable liquids, will generally use single seals. Dual seals Dual seals can be either pressurized or non-pressurized. This is in reference to the artificial environment that is provided to exist between the seals.

A non-pressurized dual seal, also known as a Tandem arrangement, means that the inner or primary seal is functioning as would a single seal. It is subject to stuffing box conditions, i.e. stuffing box pressure, process liquid to lubricate the faces and usually immersion of seal components in the process liquid. The secondary or outside seal runs in a non-pressurized Buffer liquid that is supplied from an outside source, typically a nearby supply tank.

back to back seal

tandem seal

In a non-pressurized dual arrangement, the outside seal is primarily there as a containment device in the event that the inside or primary seal is lost. A Back up or safety mechanism if we will Since the outside or secondary seal runs in a non-pressurized clean lubricating liquid, it will generally last for an extended period of time. When the inside or primary seal fails, the leakage through the faces will be contained by the secondary seal until the pump can be shut down for seal replacement. Failure indication and shutdown devices can be attached to the buffer supply so that the pump operators know when the primary seal has failed. When pumping volatile liquids, hazardous, corrosive, and abrasive, etc. it is sometimes necessary to insure that the process liquid does not enter the atmosphere or the artificial environment created for the seal or even the seal faces. Balanced vs. non-balanced Balance in reference to mechanical seals, are not about Mechanical or Rotational Balance. Instead, it refers to Hydraulic Balance.

Since mechanical seals are subject to stuffing box pressure, this pressure is utilized to achieve and maintain seal face closure in a non-balanced seal. If stuffing box pressure is very high, typically over 100psi, then the closing force may be too great to allow the Boundary Layer Liquid that lubricates the faces to be sufficient and the faces will wear prematurely. A balanced seal compensates for higher pressures by locating the seal faces such that stuffing box pressure has less effect on face closure. A non-balanced seal has faces located outside the Balance Diameter of the seal. Stuffing box pressure is applied to the faces virtually evenly. The faces of a balanced seal are located so that a portion of the face contact occurs inside the balance diameter resulting in reduced closing force due to stuffing box pressure. Most metal bellows seals are balanced. Forces Acting on Unbalanced Seal Faces Balanced Seal Faces Fspring + Fclosing - Fopening = Fnet = Fnet Forces Acting on Fspring + Fclosing - Fopening

Pusher vs. non-pusher There are seal types that have no dynamic O-rings. All O-rings are static and the seal components compensate for face wear without pushing any sealing points. One of these types is called a Bellows Seal. The bellows can be constructed of metal, rubber or PTFE. Basic pusher seal Basic pusher seal Gasket hang-up occurs when solids build-up sufficiently to impede gasket movement. The springs closing force is disrupted and heavy leakage soon develops

Non pusher seal

The secondary seal does not have to move along the shaft or sleeve to maintain face contact. Metal bellows Metal bellows are constructed by welding leaflets into a series of convolutions. This series of convolutions is referred to as the Bellows Core.

The bellows core expands to compensate for face wear. Debris can build up without causing hang up. This feature is probably the most notable sealing point when comparing a bellows seal to a pusher type seal.

Preventative Maintenance Piping loop must self-vent to vapor recovery/flare system near atmospheric pressure. Process vapor pressure is generally greater than reservoir pressure. Buffer fluid must be compatible with process leakage. Primary seal leakage is indicated by increased vent pressure. Reservoir level gage indicates outboard seal leakage. Possible seal leakage point Any single mechanical seal system has normally five leakage paths: I. Between gland plate face and stuffing box. II. Between shaft and shaft protection sleeve. III. Between mating ring and gland plate. IV. Between seal ring of seal head and shaft protection sleeve. V. Between stationary and rotary face.

Leakage of seal or seal failure is mainly affected by the non-parallelism of the sealing planes , angular misalignment, thermal distortion, shaft run out, fluctuation of pressure & poor environmental condition of stuffingbox.

Seal failures Failure of the mechanical shaft seal is the most common cause of pump downtime. The shaft seal is exposed to widely varying operating conditions. Sometimes operating conditions change to become quite different from the specific conditions for which the seal was intended. Mechanical seals are often viewed as only a consumable or wear component that frequently needs to be repaired or replaced. Why Seals Fail

Rotating Equipment Repair Reason

Other 7% Coupling 2% Hydrauli c 3% Static Joints 9% Bearing 10%

Root Cause of Seal Failure

Sealing Device 69%

Other 8% Seal Parts 9% System Design 19%

Operating Environment 40%

Equipment 24%

Reliable Seal Performance is influenced by many factors collectively including: Mechanical Influences Equipment (24 %) Fluid Characteristics Operation Environment (40 %) System Design (19 %) Seal Design --Seal Parts (9 %) On-Site failure Conduct Physical Seal Inspection Loading members Springs Bellows Metal Components O-rings and gaskets Rotating and Stationary Faces analysis

Different failure modes 1.Metal Components Corrosion or Erosion: Description: Corrosion, leaching & pitting: Surfaces appear matted, dull, honeycombed, flaky, loss of hardness. Erosion: Surfaces appear matted, dull. Symptoms: Excessive seal static / dynamic leakage Causes: Improper material of construction Fluid contamination Excessive temperature increase

Fretting corrosion: Description: Damage to dynamic o-ring and seal sleeve, dynamic balance shoulder. Area appears pitted / dull or bright / shiny Symptoms: Excessive static / dynamic seal leakage

Causes: Results from constant back & fourth motion of secondary seal(s) in contact with part in motion. Can occur with packing, lip seal, dynamic balance shoulder, secondary seal ( o-ring )

 Removes passive oxide metal surface coating that normally protects sleeve Vibration:

2.O-rings and Gaskets Chemical Attack Swelling Shrinkage Degradation Compression set Extrusion Excessive heat. Brittle Soft Chemical attack of O-rings: Description: Swollen o-rings, o-rings that have taken a permanent set or melted / eaten away appearance. Other appearances include: bubbled broken hardened blistered Can cause axial lock-up of stationary face assembly of pusher seals Symptoms: Excessive static / dynamic seal leakage Causes: Incorrect material selection loss or contamination of seal barrier / buffer fluid Improper lubricant used on installation

Chemical Swelling

attack

of

O-ring: Shrinkage...

O-ring compression set: Description: Elastomer exhibits permanent, cross-section deformation, usually forms to the shape of the groove / cavity, usually caused by temperature, excessive squeeze, etc Symptom: Excessive dynamic / static pump & seal leakage Causes: Excessive temperature Excessive % of elastomer squeeze Chemical attack Improper material selection

O-ring compression set

O-ring Extrusion: Description: Elastomer Exhibits a cut, peeled or nibbled appearance Symptoms: Can exhibit static and/or dynamic seal leakage Causes: Excessive pressure / water hammer effect

Excessive elastomer clearances ( too large or too small ) Incorrect elastomer application / shore hardness Excessive temperature Chemical attack

O-ring: Extrusion

O-ring: Thermal damage: Description: Elastomer exhibits radial cracks, increase in hardness, brittle, charred or flaky appearance. Teflon exhibits hardness and discolored black / blue Symptoms: Static / dynamic seal leakage

Causes: Localized overheating of the elastomer Misapplication above elastomer temperature limit System upsets / temperature Cooling water upsets / temperature Suction / discharge valve operation / sequence O-ring cuts, tears, nicks & explosive decompression: Description: Elastomer exhibits any physical damage marks or physical manufacturing defects, i.e. twisted, cuts, nicks, tears, splits,

caused by handling, manufacturing, damage from misapplication or explosive decompression Symptom: Static / dynamic seal leakage

Causes: Manufacturing defects Handling General carelessness Cleanliness, identification, inspection Installation / equipment damage Explosive decompression 3. Rotating and Stationary Faces Correct Materials Face Distortion and Flatness Erosion or Radial Grooving Carbon Blistering Heat Checking and Dry Running Product Vaporization Face Distortion: Description: Rotating / stationary face distortion can appear as: Non-uniform but concentric wear patterns Light lapping of the mating face will produce clearer high spots, located at two or more places Symptoms: static / dynamic mating face leakage Causes: Improper seal design / assembly, clamped face & gland fasteners Improper cooling may induce thermal stresses and distortions Improper finishing of the seal faces Debris / deposits underneath seal faces Poor surface supporting surface finish ( corrosion / mechanical ) can produce face distortion

Face Distortion

Face Erosion: Description: Seal face or part exhibits a washed-out or Jetting appearance, usually in one radial area. Softer materials and bellows most susceptible. Symptoms: Increased static / dynamic seal leakage. Possible severe wear to the pump / seal Causes: Excessive flush flow rate, plan 11 Orifice location distance from seal gland Orifice size Seal flush contains abrasive particles Gland flush port impinges directly on the mating seal faces

Face Erosion

Carbon blistering: Description: Characterized by small circular sections that appears raised and highly polished, located on the mating seal face. The raised areas promote mating seal face leakage by separation. Primary

stage: small raised areas appear on the mating faces. Intermittent stage: cracks appear in the raised areas, and advanced stage: pieces of the carbon face break and create three body erosion, type wear and leave voids / pits. Symptoms: May be leak free during static conditions Dynamic leakage can increase with time, until excessive leakage begins Causes: Occurs mainly in vaporizing products More common with equipment that has high number of starts & stops Running surface I.D. / O.D. chipping...

Heat checking: Description: A pattern of parallel, fine to large, surface cracks that appear to have a common center of the seal face origin. Symptoms: The cracks are the result of excessive heat build-up, due to loss of fluid film. Cracks have a grinding effect on hard/soft, carbon most susceptible. Static / dynamic seal leakage High in / out cooling temperatures Causes: Rapid heating / cooling of local mating seal face surface(s) produce stresses that exceed the yield strength of the material Lack of adequate cooling Lack of adequate mating seal face lubrication Vaporization / flashing at the mating seal faces Excessive pressure excursions or excessive speed excursions

Silicon carbide.

Tungsten carbide...

Vaporization: Description: Seal exhibits dynamic puffing, popping or blowing of product vapors at the seal faces. Occurs when generated heat is not adequately removed resulting in the product boiling / flashing. Symptoms: Shortens seal life, but may not cause instant catastrophic seal failure Creates possible safety related problem (steam burns) Causes: Operating seal near or at vapor pressure of pumpage Excessive pressure acting on mating seal faces Excessive mating seal face deflection Inadequate cooling and lubrication of mating seal faces Check chart for mechanical seal troubles A. chemical Observation Reason for failures Remedies 1.corroded/pitted carbon Chemical attack by Use compatible carbon liquid 2.sticky or swollen Chemical attack on Use compatible elastomer elastomer elastomer 3.TC hard face dull with TC used is with co 1.use TC with Ni binder porous structure binding which leaches 2. use ceramics 99.5% or SC out because of chemical attack of liquid

B. Mechanical Observation Reason for failures 1.wear track on wider 1. excessive run out seat face wider than 2. bent shaft narrow face width 3. excessive vibration 4. misalignment 5. pump running at low flow 2.wear track on wider 1. over compression face narrow than 2. improper design narrow face wide causing bowing of the face 3. excessive system pressure 3.no wear track 1.clearance between rubber bellow and sleeve/shaft as against required interference 2.rotary head grub screw loose 4.shinning spot on 1. mating ring wrapped seal face 2.improper clamping of mating ring 3.seal faces not flat at the time of installation

Remedies Eliminate the pump problems

1.install the seal properly 2.consult seal manufacture for change of seal

1.use proper size bellow/ sleeve 2.install the seal correctly with knurled grub screws

1. A. relap the seal face B. remove distortion 2.tighten the gland nut uniformly 3.check the flatness before installation 5.worn spot in carbon Impingement of flushing 1.make the flushing connection liquid on stationary tangential carbon mating ring 2.make carbon rotating by changing seal type 6.clogged springs Caused by 1.change to single seal or metal collection/accumulation bellow seal due to dirty fluid 2.provide clean flushing 3.provide strainer

7.worn lugs/slots

drive 1.hangover 2. slip-slick due to poor lubrication or over compression of seal. Poor lubrication because of cavitations 3.in vertical pump/air trapping in the stuffing box 4.mating shaft is not square with shaft centre line 5.vibration in equipment

1.remove hangover by cleaning the seal 2.provide proper lubrication 3.provide pipe flushing to avoid air trap 4.install the seal at correct operating length 5.check of stuffing box face squareness and correct it 6.reduce the vibration

8.seal hang up

1.excessuve fretting on sleeve/shaft 2.foreign particle struck between cup and carbon 3.clogged springs 4.wrong seal selection 9.sleeve/shaft Fretting due to sliding damage under elastomer because of elastomer excessive axial float bent shaft cavitations vibration misalignment unbalanced rotor shaft run out shaft whip pipe strain pulsating flow 10.cut elastomer Damage during installation

1.provide clean flushing

2.change to single coil spring seal or bellow type seal 1.elimination the cause of fretting 2. Avoid PTFE secondary seal. Use rubber O ring 3. Eliminate the dynamic elastomer. Use non pusher seal type 4.provide hard coatings bellow secondary seal(stilliting/chromium oxide coating)

1.provide chamfer on shaft edges/round of the shaft edges 2.provide good lubrication on sleeve/shaft and lubrication the elastomer 3.use correct size O ring

C.Thermal Observation Reason for failures 1.elastomer Excessive heat hardened/charred 2.radial cracks on hard Excessive heat because surface of insufficient flushing flow over compression poor dissipation 3.pin hole on carbon 1.vaporisation/liquid face-Blistering absorbed by porous carbon 2.binding agent of carbon is soluble in process fluid 4.carbon(coke) deposits 1.high temperature on atmospheric side of vapors of media react seal face with O2 of atmospheric air and get into carbon/coke formation 5.discoloured metal 1.excessive heat of process fluid 2.excessive heat generated by rubbing

Remedies Reduce heat Eliminate/reduce heat adequate flushing correct installation provide cooled flushing

1.improve cooling of face 2.use better grade carbon(low porosity) 3.eliminate carbon 4.use SIC/TC as face

of

1.provide efficient jet cooling 2.check throat blush clearance 3.vent stuffing box 4.provide sufficient quenching flow Eliminate/reduce heat

D.General Observation 1.broken springs

2.chipped face

Reason for failures 1.stess corrosion cracking 2.excessive compression 1,face separation due to flushing 2.severge cavitations with hung up seal

Remedies Use compatible seal material

1.reduce face heat 2.install seal properly 3. change bearing. Examine bearing housing/shaft in the

3.excessive face wear

3.excessive axial/radial float 1.excessive heat 2.crystallizing fluid 3.face separation 4.abrassive fluid reacted to seal face

4.wear on hard face

area of baring and take corrective 1.provide proper flushing and quenching 2.avoid vapor formation in stuffing box by providing cool flush 3.use strainer 4.provide clean flush 1.abrassive 1.a clean face particle/crystals 2.change seal faces embedded into the soft 3.provide adequate flushing face fluid 2.vaporisation 3.use compatible hard face 3.chemical attack on materials hard face like TC

CONCLUSION
It was indeed a gratifying experience for me to be a part of the INDIAN OIL CORPORATION FAMILY (ASSAM OIL DIVISION) during the period of my summer training. It was the real time to correlate the theory with practical. Being a part of the refinery during that period I had the opportunity to visit various units. The main objective of the refinery is to do distillation of the raw crude that is supplied from Oil India Duliajan and other sources. The refinery comprises of the following units: Fuel Sector: (AVU, CRU, DCU) Wax Sector: (SDU, WHFU, WRDS) Subsidiary Units: (HDT, HGU, SWSU, SRU, NPU) One interesting unit in this plant is the wax sector. It is the only refinery in India which have wax production unit. And it was quite a memorable and interesting to see all the parts of pumps, compressor, heat exchanger and other various mechanical equipments. And the more interesting one is the mechanical failures, its causes and remedies a case study allotted to me during my training period. It gave me the good understanding of that topic from the case study which is help by my beloved various unit guide engineer. Briefly I visited the whole refinery and grasped a little knowledge about the refinery equipment but this short span of time is not enough to have an in depth knowledge of the whole plant. But this tenure of stay at the refinery was of immense beneficial and knowledgeable enough to have a better linkage between theory and practical.

REFERENCES
1. Centrifugal pumps operation at off-design conditions, Chemical Processing April, May, June 1987, Igor J. Karassik. 2. Centrifugal Pumps for General Refinery Services, Refining Department, API Standard 610, 6th Edition, January 1981. 3. The Fundamentals of Heat Exchangers, By Dean A. Bartlett 4. Heat transfer, 2nd edition, By Yunus A Cengel 5. Forsthoffers Rotating Equipment Handbooks Vol 3: Compressors 6. Reciprocating Compressor Basics Adam Davis, Noria Corporation, Machinery Lubrication, July 2005 7. Perry, R.H. and Green, D.W. (Editors) (2007). Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook (8th ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-142294-3. 8. Seal Basics, Flowserve Corporation 9. MECHANICAL SEALS ON PROCESS PLANT by A Tyldesley 10.Petroleum Refining: Separation Processes, Volume 2 By Jean-Pierre Wauquier, Pierre Trambouze, Jean-Pierre Favennec 11.American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1906), Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 27, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, p. 441. 12.Harris, Tedric A. (2000, 4th edition). Rolling Bearing Analysis. WileyInterscience. ISBN 0-471-35457-0. 13.Harris, Tedric A. (2000, 4th edition). Rolling Bearing Analysis. WileyInterscience. ISBN 0-471-35457-0. 14.McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGrawHill Companies (April 25, 2007). "Globe Valve 15.EN ISO 4126-1 Safety devices for protection against excessive pressure Part 1: Safety valves (ISO 4126-1:2004), 16. Reciprocating Compressor Basics Written by Noria Corporation, Introduction by Robert X. Perez 17. Plant manual of various unit provided by IOCL, Assam Oil Division