INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

COMPUTER NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED MACHINES

undertaken at

BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LTD. (GOINDWAL,TARN TARAN)

Submitted by SARAVPREET SINGH DHILLON UE 95083

Under the Guidance of Mr.Sanjeev Kumar Mr.Tejinder Singh HOD

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY PANJAB UNIVERSITY, CHANDIGARH JUNE -2013 1

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project work entitled COMPUTER NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED MACHINES is an authentic record of my own work carried out at BHEL (GO+NDWAL) as requirements of six months Industrial Training for the award of the degree of B.E. at University Institute of Engineering & Technology, Panjab University, Chandigarh under the guidance of Mr.Tejinder Singh and Mr.Sanjeev, during January 4,2013 to July 3, 2013

SARAVPREET SINGH DHILLON UE 95083

Date : June 12, 2013

Certified that the above statement made by the student is correct to the best of our knowledge and belief.

Mr.Sanjeev Kumar

Mr.Tejinder Singh HOD

+
2

INDEX
OVERVIEW OF THE ORGANISATION
INTRODUCTION POWER TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION (T & D) INDUSTRIES TRANSPORTATION RENEWABLE ENERGY MISSION INTERNATIONAL OPERATIONS TECHNOLOGY UPGRADATION AND R&D 1 3 4 4 5 5 6 6

PROJECT REPORT
Introduction Configuration of CNC Systems 12
Input Device Machine Control Unit Machine Tool Driving System Feedback Systems Display Unit 13 15 15 16 17 21

CNC PART PROGRAMMING PROGRAMMING SYSTEMS CNC POSITIONING SYSTEM INTERPOLATION PROGRAMMING FORMAT STEPS FOR CNC PROGRAMMING ELECTRONICS OF A CNC MACHINE CNC CONTROLLER COMPONENTS SETUP PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

23 24 27 29 31 37 41 42 44

ANALYSIS AND PROGRAMMING OF A VERTICAL MACHINING CENTER 48

MACHINE SPECIFICATIONS PROGRAMM USED IN MANUFACTURING OF TURBINE COUPLINGS STEPS IN USING THE MACHINE ADVANTAGES OF CNC MACHINES REFERENCE

51 53 55 56 57

BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LTD.

BHEL was established more than 50 years ago when its first plant was setup in Bhopal ushering in the indigenous Heavy Electrical Equipment Industry in India. A dream which has been more than realized with a well recognized track record of performance it has been earning profits continuously since 1971-72 and achieved a turnover of Rs 2,658 crore for the year 2007-08, showing a growth of 17 per cent over the previous year. Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited is countrys Navratna company and has earned its place among very prestigious national and international companies. It finds place among the top class companies of the world for manufacture of electrical equipments.

BHEL caters to core sectors of the Indian Economy viz., Power Generation's & Transmission, Industry, Transportation, Telecommunication, Renewable Energy, Defense, etc. BHEL has already attained ISO 9000 certification for quality management, and ISO 14001 certification for environment management and OHSAS 18001 certification for Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems. The Company today enjoys national and international presence featuring in the Fortune International -500 and is ranked among the top 10 companies in the world, manufacturing power generation equipment. BHEL is the only PSU among the 12 Indian companies to figure in Forbes Asia Fabulous 50 list.

BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LTD.

An Overview:

BHEL today is the largest Engineering Enterprise of its kind in India with excellent track record of performance, making profits continuously since 1971-72.

BHEL's vision is to become a world-class engineering enterprise, committed to enhancing stakeholder value. The company is striving to give shape to its aspirations and fulfill the expectations of the country to become a global player.

BHEL business operations cater to core sectors of Indian Economy like. Power Industry Transportation Transmission Defenses etc.

The greatest strength of BHEL is its highly skilled and committed employees. Every participative style of management all these have engendered development of a committed and motivated workforce setting new benchmarks in terms of productivity, quality and responsiveness. employee is given an equal opportunity to develop himself and grow in his career. Continuous training and retraining, career planning, a positive work culture.

POWER TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION (T & D)

BHEL offer wide ranging products and systems for T & D applications. Products manufactured include power transformers, instrument transformers, dry type transformers, series and stunt reactor, capacitor tanks, vacuum and SF circuit breakers gas insulated switch gears and insulators. A strong engineering base enables the Company to undertake turnkey delivery of electric substances up to 400 kV level series compensation systems (for increasing power transfer capacity of transmission lines and improving system stability and voltage regulation), shunt compensation systems (for power factor and voltage improvement) and HVDC systems (for economic transfer of bulk power). BHEL has indigenously developed the state-of-the-art 7

controlled shunt reactor (for reactive power management on long transmission lines). Presently a 400 kV Facts (Flexible AC Transmission System) project under execution.

INDUSTRIES

BHEL is a major contributor of equipment and systems to industries, cement, sugar, fertilizer, refinances, petrochemicals, paper, oil and gas, metallurgical and other process industries. The range of system & equipment supplied includes: captive power plants, co-generation plants DG power plants, industrial steam turbines, industrial boilers and auxiliaries. Water heat recovery boilers, gas turbines, heat exchangers and pressure vessels, centrifugal compressors, electrical machines, pumps, valves, seamless steel tubes, electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, reactors, fluidized bed combustion boilers, chemical recovery boilers and process controls.

TRANSPORTATION

BHEL is involved in the development design, engineering, marketing, production, installation, and maintenance and after-sales service of Rolling Stock and traction propulsion systems. In the area of rolling stock, BHEL manufactures electric locomotives up to 5000 HP, diesel-electric locomotives from 350 HP to 3100 HP, both for mainline and shunting duly applications. BHEL is also producing rolling stock for special applications viz., overhead equipment cars, Special well wagons, Rail-cum-road vehicle etc., Besides traction propulsion systems for in-house use, BHEL manufactures traction propulsion systems for other rolling stock producers of electric locomotives, diesel-electric locomotives, electrical multiple units and metro cars. The electric and diesel traction equipment on India Railways are largely powered by electrical propulsion systems produced by BHEL. The company also undertakes retooling and overhauling of rolling stock in the area of urban transportation systems. BHEL is geared up to turnkey execution of electric trolley bus systems, light rail systems etc. BHEL is also diversifying in the area of port handing equipment and pipelines transportation system.

RENEWABLE ENERGY

Technologies that can be offered by BHEL for exploiting non-conventional and renewable sources of energy include: wind electric generators, solar photovoltaic systems, solar lanterns and battery-powered road vehicles. The Company has taken up R&D efforts for development of multi-junction amorphous silicon solar cells and fuel based systems.

MISSION

The leading Indian engineering enterprise providing quality products systems and services in the fields of energy, transportation, infrastructure and other potential areas.

The design and construction of Computer Numerically Controlled(CNC) machines differs greatly from that of conventional machine tools.This difference arises from the requirements of higher performance levels.The CNC machines often employ the various mechatronics elements thathave been developed over the years. However, the quality and reliability of these machines depends on the various machine elements and subsystems of the machines. There are some of the important constituents parts and aspectsof CNC machines to be considered in their designing, for example Machinestructure, Guideways, Feed drives, Spindle and Spindle bearings, Measuringsystems, Controls, Software and Operator interface, Gauging, Toolmonitoring.The control of a machine tool by means of stored information throughthe computer is known as Computer Numerically Controlled. Theinformation stored in the computer can be read by automatic means andconverted into electrical signals, which operate the electrically controlledservo systems. Electrically controlled servo systems permits the slides of amachine tool to be driven simultaneously and at the apporopriate feeds anddirection so that complex shapes can be cut, often with a single operationand without the need to reorient the workpiece.Computer Numerically Control can be applied to milling machines,Lathe machines, Grinding machines, Boring machines, Flame cutters,Drilling machines etc. 9

International Operations
BHEL has, over the years, established its references in around 60 countries of the world, ranging for the United States in the West to New Zealand in the Far East. These references encompass almost the entire product range of BHEL, covering turnkey power projects of thermal, hydro and gas-based types, substation projects, rehabilitation projects, besides a wide variety of products, like transformers, insulators, switchgears, heat exchangers, castings and forgings, valves, well-head equipment, centrifugal compressors, photo-voltaic equipment etc. Apart from over 1110MW of boiler capacity contributed in Malaysia, and execution of four prestigious power projects in Oman, Some of the other major successes achieved by the Company have been in Australia, Saudi Arabia, Libya, Greece, Cyprus, Malta, Egypt, Bangladesh, Azerbaijan, Sri Lanka, Iraq etc. The Company has been successful in meeting demanding customer's requirements in terms of complexity of the works as well as technological, quality and other requirements viz extended warrantees, associated O&M, financing packages etc. BHEL has proved its capability to undertake projects on fast-track basis. The company has been successful in meeting varying needs of the industry, be it captive power plants, utility power generation or for the oil sector requirements. Executing of Overseas projects has also provided BHEL the experience of working with world renowned Consulting Organisations and inspection Agencies. In addition to demonstrated capability to undertake turnkey projects on its own, BHEL possesses the requisite flexibility to interface and complement with International companies for large projects by supplying complementary equipment and meeting their production needs for intermediate as well as finished products.

Technology Upgradation and Research & Development

To remain competitive and meet customers' expectations, BHEL lays great emphasis on the continuous upgradation of products and related technologies, and development of new products. The Company has upgraded its products to contemporary levels through continuous in 10

house efforts as well as through acquisition of new technologies from leading engineering organizations of the world. The Corporate R&D Division at Hyderabad, spread over a 140 acre complex, leads BHEL's research efforts in a number of areas of importance to BHEL's product range. Research and product development centers at each of the manufacturing divisions play a complementary role. BHEL's Investment in R&D is amongst the largest in the corporate sector in India. Products developed in-house during the last five years contributed about 8.6% to the revenues in 2000-2001. BHEL has introduced, in the recent past, several state-of-the-art products developed inhouse: low-NQx oil / gas burners, circulating fluidized bed combustion boilers, high-efficiency Pelton hydro turbines, petroleum depot automation systems, 36 kV gas-insulated sub-stations, etc. The Company has also transferred a few technologies developed in-house to other Indian companies for commercialization.

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PROJECT REPORT

CNC SYSTEMS

The definition of CNC given by Electronic Industry Association (EIA) is as follows:

A system in which actions are controlled by the direct insertion of numerical data at some point. The system must automatically interpret at least some portion of this data.
In a simple word, a CNC system receieves numerical data, interpret the data and then control the action accordingly.

A Vertical Machining Center

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INTRODUCTION

Numerical control (NC) is a method employed for controlling the motions of a machine tool slide and its auxiliary functions with input in the form of numerical data. A computer numerical control (CNC) is a microprocessor-based system to store and process the data for the control of slide motions and auxiliary functions of the machine tools. The CNC system is the heart and brain of a CNC machine which enables the operation of various machine members such as slides, spindles, etc. as per the sequence programmed into it, depending on the machining operations. The main advantage of a CNC system lies in the fact that the skills of the operator hitherto required in the operation of a conventional machine is removed and the part production is made automatic. The CNC systems are constructed with a NC unit integrated with a programmable logic controller (PLC) and some times with an additional external PLC (non-integrated). The NC controls the spindle movement and the speeds and feeds in machining. It calculates the traversing path of the axes as defined by the inputs. The PLC controls the peripheral actuating elements of the machine such as solenoids, relay coils, etc. Working together, the NC and PLC enable the machine tool to operate automatically. Positioning and part accuracy depend on the CNC system's computer control algorithms, the system resolution and the basic mechanical machine accuracy. Control algorithm may cause errors while computing, which will reflect during contouring, but they are very negligible. Though this does not cause point to point positioning error, but when mechanical machine inaccuracy is present, it will result in poorer part accuracy. Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is a specialized and versatile form of Soft Automation and its applications cover many kinds, although it was initially developed to control the motion and operation of machine tools. Computer Numerical Control may be considered to be a means of operating a machine through the use of discrete numerical values fed into the machine, where the required 'input' technical information is stored on a kind of input media such as floppy disk, hard disk, CD ROM, DVD, USB flash drive, or RAM card etc. The machine follows a predetermined sequence of machining operations at the predetermined speeds necessary to produce a work piece of the right shape and size and thus according to completely predictable results. A different product can 13

be produced through reprogramming and a low-quantity production run of different products is justified.

Hitachi Seiki VA35 CNC Machining Center

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Hitachi Seiki VA35 CNC Machining Center

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CONFIGURATION OF THE CNC SYSTEM

Fig. shows a schematic diagram of the working principle of a NC axis of a CNC machine and the interface of a CNC control.
CNC system P L C Command value Servo Drive Servo Motor Spindle Head
Encoder

N C

Velocity Feedbac k
Tape Reader Tape Punch Other Devices

Tacho Generator

Lead Screw

Work piece Table

Position Feedback

Inputs
Output

Machine Elements

s
Fig.1 Schematic diagram of a CNC machine tool

Proximity switches Limit switches Relay coils Pressure switches Float switches

A CNC system consists of the following 6 major elements:

a. b. c. d. e. f.

Input Device Machine Control Unit Machine Tool Driving System Feedback Devices Display Unit
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Input Devices
a. Floppy Disk Drive Floppy disk is a small magnetic storage device for CNC data input. It has been the most common storage media up to the 1970s, in terms of data transfer speed, reliability, storage size, data handling and the ability to read and write. Furthermore, the data within a floppy could be easily edited at any point as long as you have the proper program to read it. However,this method has proven to be quite problematic in the long run as floppies have a tendency to degrade alarmingly fast and are sensitive to large magnetic fields and as well as the dust and scratches that usually existed on the shop floor.

b. USB Flash Drive A USB flash drive is a removable and rewritable portable hard drive with compact size and bigger storage size than a floppy disk. Data stored inside the flash drive are impervious to dust and scratches that enable flash drives to transfer data from place to place. In recent years, all computers support USB flash drives to read and write data that make it become more and more popular in CNC machine control unit.

USB Flash Drive c. Serial communication The data transfer between a computer and a CNC machine tool is often accomplished through a serial communication port. International standards for serial communications are

established so that information can be exchanged in an orderly way. The most common interface between computers and CNC machine tools is referred to the EIA Standard RS-232. Most of the personal computers and CNC machine tools have built in RS232 port and a standard RS-232 cable is used to connect a CNC machine to a computer which enables the data transfer in reliable way. Part programs can be downloaded into the memory of a machine tool or 17

uploaded to the computer for temporary storage by running a communication program on the computer and setting up the machine control to interact with the communication software.

SerialCommunication in a Distributed Numerical Control System

Direct Numerical Control is referred to a system connecting a set of numerically

controlled machines to a common memory for part program or machine program storage with provision for on-demand distribution of data to the machines. (ISO 2806:1980) The NC part program is downloaded a block or a section at a time into the controller. Once the downloaded section is executed, the section will be discarded to

leave room for other sections. This method is commonly used for machine tools that do not have enough memory or storage buffer for large NC part programs. Distributed Numerical Control is a hierarchical system for distributing data between a production management computer and NC systems. (ISO 2806:1994) The host computer is linked with a number of CNC machines or computers connecting to the CNC machines for downloading part programs. The communication program in the host computer can utilize two-way data transfer features for production data communication including: production schedule, parts produced and machine utilization etc.

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Machine Control Unit (MCU)

The machine control unit is the heart of the CNC system. There are two sub-units in the machine control unit: the Data Processing Unit (DPU) and the Control Loop Unit (CLU).

a. Data Processing Unit On receiving a part programme, the DPU firstly interprets and encodes the part programme into internal machine codes. The interpolator of the DPU then calculate the intermediate positions of the motion in terms of BLU (basic length unit) which is the smallest unit length that can be handled by the controller. The calculated data are passed to CLU for further action.

b. Control Loop Unit The data from the DPU are converted into electrical signals in the CLU to control the driving system to perform the required motions. Other functions such as machine spindle ON/OFF, coolant ON/OFF, tool clamp ON/OFF are also controlled by this unit according to the internal machine codes.

Machine Tool
This can be any type of machine tool or equipment. In order to obtain high accuracy and repeatability, the design and make of the machine slide and the driving lead screw of a CNC machine is of vital importance. The slides are usually machined to high accuracy and coated with anti-friction material such as PTFE and Turcite in order to reduce the stick and slip phenomenon. Large diameter recirculating ball screws are employed to eliminate the backlash and lost motion. Other design features such as rigid and heavy machine structure; short machine table overhang, 19

quick change tooling system, etc also contribute to the high accuracy and high repeatability of CNC machines.

Different Machine Tools

Driving System
The driving system is an important component of a CNC machine as the accuracy and repeatability depend very much on the characteristics and performance of the driving system. The requirement is that the driving system has to response accurately according to the programmed instructions. This system usually uses electric motors although hydraulic motors are sometimes used for large machine tools. The motor is coupled either directly or through a gear box to the machine lead screw to moves the machine slide or the spindle. Three types of electrical motors are commonly used.

Stepping Motor A stepping motor is a device that converts the electrical pulses into discrete mechanical rotational motions of the motor shaft. This is the simplest device that can be applied to CNC 20

machines since it can convert digital data into actual mechanical displacement. It is not necessary to have any analog-to-digital converter nor feedback device for the control system. They are ideally suited to open loop systems.

However, stepping motors are not commonly used in machine tools due to the following drawbacks: slow speed, low torque, low resolution and easy to slip in case of overload. Examples of stepping motor application are the magnetic head of floppy-disc drive and hard disc drive of computer, daisy-wheel type printer, X-Y tape control, and CNC EDM Wire-cut machine.

Stepping Motor

FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
Following are the two types of control systems used in the CNCmachines 1. Open loop control system. 2. Closed loop control system.

1. Open loop control system:21

In an open loop system the machine slides are displacedaccording to the information loaded from the part program into thecontrol system. Hence there is no measurement of slide position and nofeedback signals for comparison with the input signal. The correctmovement of slide entirely d epends upon the ability of the drivesystems to move the slide through the required exact distance.The most common method of driving the lead screw is by a stepper motor. The stepper motors are the simplest way for converting detailelectrical signals into proportional movement. As there is no check onthe slide position, the system accuracy depends upon the motors abilityto step through the exact number of steps provided at the input asshown in fig.

2. Closed loop control system:A closed loop system is as shown in fig. sends back a signal to thecontrol unit from a measuring device called as transducer. Thetransducer is attached to the slide ways. The signal indicates the actualmovement and position of the slides.The control unit continues to adjust the position of the slide untilit arrives its destination, this system has feedback. Although morecostly and complex than open loop system, these system gives moreaccurate positioning. For this type of system, servomotors are used

22

23

Feedback Device
In order to have a CNC machine operating accurately, the positional values and speed of the axes need to be constantly updated. Two types of feed back devices are normally used, positional feed back device and velocity feed back device. a. Positional Feed Back Devices There are two types of positional feed back devices: linear transducer for direct positional measurement and rotary encoder for angular or indirect linear measurement.

Linear Transducers - A linear transducer is a device mounted on the machine table to measure the actual displacement of the slide in such a way that backlash of screws; motors, etc would not cause any error in the feed back data. This device is considered to be of the highest accuracy and also more expensive in comparison with other measuring devices mounted on screws or motors.

Linear Transducer (Courtesy of Heidenhain)

Rotary Encoders - A rotary encoder is a device mounted at the end of the motor shaft or screw to measure the angular displacement. This device cannot measure linear displacement directly so that error may occur due to the backlash of screw and motor etc. Generally, this error can be compensated for by the machine builder in the machine calibration process. 24

b. Velocity Feedback Device

The actual speed of the motor can be measured in terms of voltage generated from a tachometer mounted at the end of the motor shaft. DC tachometer is essentially a small generator that produces an output voltage proportional to the speed. The voltage generated is compared with the command voltage corresponding to the desired speed. The difference of the voltages can is then used to actuate the motor to eliminate the error.

Tachogenerator (Courtesy of Callan)

Display Unit
The Display Unit serves as an interactive device between the machine and the operator. When the machine is running, the Display Unit displays the present status such as the position of the machine slide, the spindle RPM, the feed rate, the part programmes, etc. In an advanced CNC machine, the Display Unit can show the graphics simulation of the tool path so that part programmes can be verified before the actually machining. Much other important information about the CNC system can also displayed for

25

maintenance and installation work such as machine parameters, logic diagram of the programmer controller, error massages and diagnostic data.

A Display Unit

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CNC PART PROGRAMMING

Objectives:
To understand the Dimension Systems in CNC Part Programming. To understand the structure of a CNC Part Programme. To understand the G-codes and other functions of a CNC Part Programme.

Axis of motion
In generally, all motions have 6 degrees of freedom. In other words, motion can be resolved into 6 axes, namely, 3 linear axes (X, Y and Z axis) and 3 rotational axes (A, B, and C axis).

Axis of Motion

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Programming Systems
Two types of programming modes, the incremental system and the absolute system, are used for CNC. Both systems have applications in CNC programming, and no system is either right or wrong all the time.

Positioning reference point Systems: 1- Incremental 2- Absolute

Most controls on machine tools today are capable of handling either incremental or absolute programming.

Incremental program locations are always given as the distance and direction from the immediately preceding point . Command codes which tell the machine to move the table, spindle, and knee are explained here using a vertical milling machine as an example:

A workpiece dimensioned in the incremental system mode

28

 A X plus (X+) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to the right of the last point. A X minus (X-) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to the left of the last point. A Y plus (Y+) command will cause the cutting tool to be located toward the column. A Y minus (Y-) will cause the cutting tool to be located away from the column. A Z plus (Z+) command will cause the cutting tool or spindle to move up or away from the workpiece. A Z minus (Z-) moves the cutting tool down or into the workpiece. In incremental programming, the G91 command indicates to the computer and MCU (Machine Control Unit) that programming is in the incremental mode.

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Absolute program locations are always given from a single fixed zero or origin point (Fig. 7). The zero or origin point may be a position on the machine table, such as the corner of the worktable or at any specific point on the workpiece. In absolute dimensioning and programming, each point or location on the workpiece is given as a certain distance from the zero or reference point.

A workpiece dimensioned in the absolute system mode. Note: All dimensions are given from a known point of referenc

A X plus (X+) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to the right of the zero or origin point. A X minus (X-) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to the left of the zero or origin point. A Y plus (Y+) command will cause the cutting tool to be located toward the column.

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 A Y minus (Y-) command will cause the cutting tool to be located away from the column. In absolute programming, the G90 command indicates to the computer and MCU that the programming is in the absolute mode.

Point-to-Point or Continuous Path

CNC programming falls into two distinct categories . The difference between the two categories was once very distinct. Now, however, most control units are able to handle both point-topoint and continuous path machining. A knowledge of both programming methods is necessary to understand what applications each has in CNC.

CNC POSITIONING SYSTEM

Point-To-Point OR Positioning

Continuous Path OR Contouring

Point-to-Point Positioning
Point-to-point positioning is used when it is necessary to accurately locate the spindle, or the workpiece mounted on the machine table, at one or more specific Iocations to perform such operations as drilling, reaming, boring, tapping, and punching (Fig. 9). Point-to-point positioning is the process of positioning from one coordinate (XY) position or location to another, performing the machining operation, and continuing this pattern until all the operations have been completed at all programmed locations. 31

The path followed by point-to-point positioning to reach various programmed points (machining locations) on the XY axis.

In Fig. above, point 1 to point 2 is a straight line, and the machine moves only along the X axis; but points 2 and 3 require that motion along both the X and Y axes takes place. As the distance in the X direction is greater than in the Y direction, Y will reach its
15 position first, leaving X to travel in a straight line for the remaining

distance. A similar motion takes place between points 3 and 4.

Continuous Path (Contouring)

Contouring, or continuous path machining, involves work such as that produced on a lathe or milling machine, where the cutting tool is in contact with the workpiece as it travels from one programmed point to the next. Continuous path positioning is the ability to control motions on two or more machine axes simultaneously to keep a constant cutter-workpiece relationship. The programmed information in the CNC program must accurately position the cutting tool from one point to the next and follow a predefined accurate path at a programmed feed rate in order to produce the form or contour required.(Fig. on next page)

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Fig. 10 Types of contour machining (A) Simple contour; (B) complex contour

Interpolation
The method by which contouring machine tools move from one programmed point to the next is called interpolation. This ability to merge individual axis points into a predefined tool path is built into most of todays MCUs. There are five methods of interpolation: linear, circular, helical, parabolic, and cubic. All contouring controls provide linear interpolation, and most controls are capable of both linear and circular interpolation. Helical, parabolic, and cubic 33

interpolation are used by industries that manufacture parts which have complex shapes, such as aerospace parts and dies for car bodies. Linear Interpolation Linear Interpolation consists of any programmed points linked together by straight lines, whether the points are close together or far apart . Curves can be produced with linear interpolation by breaking them into short, straight-line segments. This method has limitations, because a very large number of points would have to be programmed to describe the curve in order toproduce a contour shape. A contour programmed in linear interpolation requires the coordinate positions (XY positions in two-axis work) for the start and finish of each line segment. Therefore, the end point of one line or segment becomes the start point for the next segment, and so on, throughout the entire program.

An example of two-axis linear interpolation.

Circular Interpolation The development of MCUs capable of circular interpolation has greatly simplified the process of programming arcs and circles. To program an arc (Fig. 12), the MCU requires only the coordinate 34

positions (the XY axes) of the circle center, the radius of the circle, the start point and end point of the arc being cut, and the direction in which the arc is to be cut (clockwise or counterclockwise) See Fig. . The information required may vary with different MCUs.

For two-dimensional circular interpolation the MCU must be supplied with the XY axis, radius, start point, end point, and direction of cut.

Programming Format
Word address is the most common programming format used for CNC programming systems. This format contains a large number of different codes (preparatory and miscellaneous) that transfers program information from the part print to machine servos, relays, micro-switches, etc., to manufacture a part. These codes, which conform to EIA (Electronic Industries Association) standards, are in a logical sequence called a block of information. Each block should contain enough information to perform one machining operation.

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Word Address Format

Every program for any part to be machined, must be put in a format that the machine control unit can understand. The format used on any CNC machine is built in by the machine tool builder and is based on the type of control unit on the machine. A variableblock format which uses words (letters) is most commonly used. Each instruction word consists of an address character, such as X, Y, Z, G, M, or S. Numerical data follows this address character to identify a specific function such as the distance, feed rate, or speed value. The address code G90 in a program, tells the control that all measurements are in the absolute mode. The code G91, tells the control that measurements are in the incremental mode.

Codes
The most common codes used when programming CNC machines tools are G-codes (preparatory functions), and M codes (miscellaneous functions). Other codes such as F, S, D, and T are used for machine functions such as feed, speed, cutter diameter offset, tool number, etc. G-codes are sometimes called cycle codes because they refer to some action occurring on the X, Y, and/or Z axis of a machine tool, Fig. 13. The G-codes are grouped into categories such as Group 01, containing codes G00, G01, G02, G03. which cause some movement 36

of the machine table or head. Group 03 includes either absolute or incremental programming, while Group 09 deals with canned cycles. A G00 code rapidly positions the cutting tool while it is above the workpiece from one point to another point on a job. During the rapid traverse movement, either the X or Y axis can be moved individually or both axes can be moved at the same time. Although the rate of rapid travel varies from machine to machine, it ranges between 200 and 800 in./min (5 and 20 m/min). The G01, G02, and G03 codes move the axes at a controlled feedrate. G01 is used for straight-line movement (linear interpolation). G02 (clockwise) and G03 (counterclockwise) are used for arcs and circles (circular interpolation)

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G- Codes
Group Code Function

01 01 01 01

G00 G01 G02 G03

Rapid positioning Linear interpolation Circular interpolation clockwise (CW) Circular interpolation

counterclockwise (CCW) 06 06 G20* G21* G24 00 00 G28 G29 G32 07 07 07 08 (+) direction 08 direction G44 Tool length compensation minus (-) G40 G41 G42 G43 Inch input (in.) Metric input (mm) Radius programming (**) Return to reference point Return from reference point Thread cutting (**) Cutter compensation cancel Cutter compensation left Cutter compensation right Tool length compensation positive

08

G49

Tool length compensation cancel

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G84 03 03 G90 G91

Canned turning cycle (**) Absolute programming Incremental programming

(*) - on some machines and controls, these may be G70 (inch) and G71 (metric) (**) - refers only to CNC lathes and turning centers

M CodesCode M00 M01 M02 M03 M04 M05 M06 M08 M09 M10 Function Program stop Optional program stop Program end Spindle on clockwise Spindle on counterclockwise Spindle stop Tool change Coolant on Coolant off Clamps on

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M11 M30

Clamps off Program stop, reset to start

Block of Information
CNC information is generally programmed in blocks of five words. Each word conforms to the EIA standards and they are written on a horizontal line. If five complete words are not included in each block, the machine control unit (MCU) will not recognize the information, therefore the control unit will not be activated. Using the example shown in Fig. 17 , the five words are as follows: N001 represents the sequence number of the operation. G01 represents linear interpolation X12345 will move the table 1.2345 in. in a positive direction along the X axis. Y06789 will move the table 0.6789 in. along the Y axis. M03 Spindle on CW.

A complete block of information consists of five words.

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Steps for CNC Programming and Machining

The following is the procedures to be followed in CNC programming and machining. The most important point is to verify the programme by test run it on the machine before the actual machining in order to ensure that the programme is free of mistakes. a. Study the part drawing carefully. b. Unless the drawing dimensions are CNC adapted, select a suitable programme zero point on the work piece. The tool will be adjusted to this zero point during the machine set up. c. Determine the machining operations and their sequence. d. Determine the method of work clamping (vice, rotary table, fixtures etc). e. Select cutting tools and determine spindle speeds and feeds. f. Write programme (translate machining steps into programme blocks). If many solutions are possible, try the simplest solution first. It is usually longer, but better to proceed in this way. g. Prepare tool chart or diagram, measure tool geometry (lengths, radii) and note. h. Clamp work piece and set up machine. i. Enter compensation value if necessary. j. Check and test programme. It is a good practice to dry run the programme (i) without the workpiece, (ii) without the cutting tools, or (iii) by raising the tool to a safe height. If necessary, correct and edit programme and check again. k. Start machining.

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Programming for Positioning

Before starting to program a job, it is important to become familiar with the part to be produced. From the engineering drawings, the programmer should be capable of planning the machining sequences required to produce the part. Visual concepts must be put into a written manuscript as the first step in developing a part program, Fig. 18. It is the part program that will be sent to the machine control unit by the computer, tape, diskette, or other input media. The programmer must first establish a reference point for aligning the workpiece and the machine tool for programming purposes. The manuscript must include this along with the types of cutting tools and work-holding devices required, and where they are to be located.

Dimensioning Guidelines
The system of rectangular coordinates is very important to the successful operation of CNC machines. Certain guidelines should be observed when dimensioning parts for CNC machining. The following guidelines will insure that the dimensioning language means exactly the same thing to the design engineer, the technician, the programmer, and the machine operator. 1. Define part surfaces from three perpendicular reference planes. 2. Establish reference planes along part surfaces which are parallel to the machine axes. 3. Dimension from a specific point on the part surface. 42

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4. Dimension the part clearly so that its shape can be understood without making mathematical calculations or guesses. 5. Define the part so that a computer numerical control cutter path can be easily programmed.

Machine Zero Point

The machine zero point can be set by three methodsby the operator, manually by a programmed absolute zero shift, or by work coordinates, to suit the holding fixture or the part to be machined. MANUAL SETTING - The operator can use the MCU controls to locate the spindle over the desired part zero and then set the X and Y coordinate registers on the console to zero.

Stored zero shifts (G54...G59) Programmed zero shift (G92)

The relationship between the part zero and the machine system of coordinate

R = Reference point (maximum travel of machine) M = Machine zero point (X0,Y0,Z0) of machine coordinate system. W = Part zero point workpiece coordinate system.

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Under G54 ... G59 the actual machine coordinates of part zero are stored in the stored zero offsets memory and activated in the part program. Under G92 the actual machine coordinates are inserted and used on the G92 line of the part program.

ABSOLUTE ZERO SHIFT - The absolute zero shift can change

the position of the coordinate system by a command in the CNC program. The programmer first sends the machine spindle to home zero position by a G28 command in the program. Then another command (G92 for absolute zero shift) tells the MCU how far from the home zero location, the coordinate system origin is to be positioned, Fig. 19. The sample commands may be as follows: N1 G28 X0 Y0 Z0 (sends spindle to home zero position) N2 G92 X4.000 Y5.000 Z6.000 (the position the machine will reference as part zero)

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ELECTRONICS OF A CNC MACHINE

The CNC controller components work together to interpret positioning signals created by a computer and NC software into precise motor control. This page will explain the function of each of the controller components and how they work together to make a controller system.

The Components There are three primary CNC controller components that make up a CNC controller, the power supply unit, the circuitry protection system, and the motor driver.

The Power Supply Unit When you plug a small flash drive up to your USB port, the computer powers the device through the port. When you plug a larger device, say a printer for example, you have to use an external power source because the computer is not capable of supplying sufficient power. This condition means that you have to plug that device into the computer as usual, but you also have to plug a second line to an auxiliary power source, such as the 110V outlet on your wall. The same conditions are true for CNC devices. They require a low-voltage

communication line, through which the computer tells the machine what to do, and a power source that provides the power for moving, cutting, and other such operations. A power converter, usually referred to as the power supply unit (PSU), is often used to change the form of the supplied power from alternating current (AC) from the power grid, to direct current (DC) that is more easily used by the machines drive motors. The power supply handles large voltages and currents that could be harmful to the NC circuitry. Therefore, the power source, motor drivers, and motors are often separated from the computer with a circuitry protection system that isolates surges in electrical power.

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The Circuitry Protection System The circuitry protection system contains a breakout board to isolate signals from the computer, distribute the signals to the desired drivers, and also allows easy hook up of peripherals such as limit switches that feed information back to the computer. Fuses are also part of the circuitry protection system. Fuses could save the equipment in case of electrical spikes, shorts, or faulty wiring. A low-voltage communication signal passes from the computer through the breakout

board unchanged to the motor drivers. This isolated your computer from the CNC controller circuit but allows the signals to carry through to your motor drivers. The motor drivers The motor drivers receives the communication signal and and then coordinates pulses of the desired current and voltage to elicit the movement in the drive motors. The motor drivers may communicate position information one way to the motor (open loop system), or send and receive position information(closed loop system), depending on the users choice of drive system. More on these systems may be found in the drivers sections.

CNC Controller Components Setup

The figure below shows the typical setup of the CNC controller components, such as that for a 3 axis CNC router. The system is composed of a computer with NC control software, the controller box, and the drive motors. The controller box includes a breakout board, power source (not shown), and motor drivers. The breakout board provides the circuitry protection and signal distribution inside the controller box.

In the figure above, you

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can see the computer is connected to the breakout board, usually through the printer port (DB25). There are many types of breakout boards; some of very high quality and great protection, and lower budget options that do not offer much protection. The best models employ opto-isolators, which use a light signals to transmit data across an air gap. These devices provide complete conductive isolation between the controller circuit and your computer. As a note, the computer is fully capable of connecting directly to the drivers and driving the motors, but this setup puts your computer at risk. The first figure is an idealized block diagram of your CNC electrical system. A little more detail has been added in the figure below to show the conceptual layout of signal wires (light black) and power wires (heavy black).

Although your computer will run on 110VAC, the CNC machine may run on 110VAC, or 220VAC, or 480VAC, and may be single phase, three phase, etc This power enters the controller box and will be distributed by the power supply. For most machines, the power supply will convert the incoming power from alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). This DC supply will be of a lower voltage, such as 12V, 24V, 36V, or higher. The power supplied depends on you CNC controller components, specifically the motor drivers.

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PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programmable memory for the internal storage of instructions by implementing specific functions such as logic sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic to control, through digital or analog input/output modules, various types of machines or processes

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

A PLC matches the NC to the machine. PLCs were basically introduced as replacement for hard wired relay control panels. They were developed to be reprogrammed without hardware changes when requirements were altered and thus are reusable. PLCs are now available with increased functions, more memory and large input/output capabilities. Fig.7 gives the generalized PLC block diagram. In the CPU, all the decisions are made relative to controlling a machine or a process. The CPU receives input data, performs logical decisions based upon stored programs and drives the outputs. Connections to a computer for hierarchical control are done via the CPU. The I/O structure of the PLCs is one of their major strengths. The inputs can be push buttons, limit switches, relay contacts, analog sensor, selector switches, proximity switches, float switches, etc. The outputs can be motor starters, solenoid valves, position valves, relay coils, indicator lights, LED displays, etc. The field devices are typically selected, supplied and installed by the machine tool builder or the end user. The voltage level of the field devices thus normally determines the type of I/O. So, power to actuate these devices must also be supplied external to the PLC. The PLC power supply is designated and rated only to operate the internal portions of the I/O structures, and not the field devices. A wide variety of voltages, current capacities and types of I/O modules are available.

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The principle of operation of a PLC is determined essentially by the PLC program memory, processor, inputs and outputs. The program that determines PLC operation is stored in the internal PLC program memory. The PLC operates cyclically, i.e. when a complete program has been scanned, it starts again at the beginning of the program. At the beginning of each cycle, the processor examines the signal status at all inputs as well as the external timers and counters and are stored in a process image input (PII). During subsequent program scanning, the processor the accesses this process image. To execute the program, the processor fetches one statement after another from the programming memory and executes it. The results are constantly stored in the process image output (PIO) during the cycle. At the end of a scanning cycle, i.e. program completion, the processor transfers the contents of the process image output to the output modules and to the external timers and counters. The processor then begins a new program scan.

Inputs
Processor Programmer Logic memory Storage memory Output Field Devices

s
Power Supply

Power Supply

Fig.7 Generalized PLC block diagram

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The "Signals"
The signal lines coming from the computer operate on 5V DC supplied by the computer communication port, and is a square wave form called a Transistor-to-Transistor Logic (TTL) signal. This signal is essentially a series of small pulses from 0V to +5V that represent 0s and 1s in a binary computer language. This signal is a form of a Pulse-Width Modulated (PWM) signal where the length of the pulse is varied to indicate information. The width of the pulse determines the binary code sent; either a 0 or a 1 as communicated by the computer and interpreted by the motor driver. More on the signals may be found in the signals page.

The signal from the computer to the breakout board is the same as that from the breakout board to the motor driver. Remember, the breakout board provides circuit protection and signal distribution. Therefore, the signal coming out of the breakout board is also a 5V TTL signal of the same form. However, as discussed previously, the signal after the driver has been conditioned as needed to provide the large move voltage and current needed to drive the machine.

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Breakout Boards
Breakout boards are a common electrical components that take a bundled cable and breaks out each conductor to a terminal that can easily accept a hook-up wire for distribution to another device. They are a common item in electronic projects and enable easy, clean installation of electronic devices. The image at right shows a simple DB25 breakout circuit board from Winford Engineering. The breakout board is positioned between your computer or indexer and the motor drivers and serves two purposes in the CNC control system: circuit protection and signal distribution. Here we will describe the boards function in the CNC control system and what you need to know about how to select one to suit your need 51

Analysis And Programming Of A Vertical Machining System

CNC MACHINING CENTER

HITACHI SEIKI VA35 CNC MACHINING CENTER
The Hitachi Seiki VA35 CNC (Computer Numeric Controlled) machining center that belongs to the Department of Production Engineering is frequently used for accurate and automated machining of metals as well as for wood, plastic and other materials. The machining accuracy of the machine is 0.001mm. Figure 4-2 shows various parts of the machine tool

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Hitachi Seiki VA35 CNC Machining Center

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Numerical Control Of The Machine S Y

Z
EEPROM OR TAPE INPUT

Control

Microprocessor

ROM

Spindle Position

X,Y,Z Positions

Motor Driver

Spindle Motor 54 X,Y,Z Spindle Motors

MACHINE SPECIFICATIONS
GENERAL INFORMATION
Manufacturer Model Control unit Weight Hitachi Seiki Co. Ltd., Japan VA 35II Fanuc System 6MB 4000 kg

TABLE
Working area Maximum carrying capacity 1000*355 mm2 500 Kg

STROKES
x-axis stroke in the crosswise

direction of the table y-axis stroke in the longitudinal direction of the table z-axis stroke in the vertical direction of the spindle head Distance between the spindle nose and top of the table

560 mm

350 mm

400 mm

150-550 mm

SPINDLE HEAD
Spindle nose contour

NT 40 60-600 rpm Stepless (s 4 digit) AC 5.5 kW (30 min)

Spindle speed Spindle speed change Spindle motor

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FEED
Least increment

0.001 mm 3600 mm/min 13000 mm/min

Cutting feed rate Rapid traverse

AUTOMATIC TOOL CHANGE (ATC)

No. of tools Shank type Maximum tool diameter Maximum tool length Maximum tool weight Tool selection method Pull stud type 30 BT 40, CAT 40 95 mm 250 mm 10 kg Random shortest course MAS - 1

G CODE AND M CODE

The entire functioning of the machine is based on G Code and M Code specifications. G Codes define the preparatory functions of the machine. In simple terms, they control the movement and machining related functions of the machine tool. For example, the code "G76" followed by some related arguments is used for fine boring. "G00" with X,Y,Z arguments rapidly moves the bed and the spindle head to the position specified by the arguments. M Codes are known as auxiliary functions. They control specific behaviors of the machine. For example "M08" turns on the coolant, M05 stops the spindle.

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A Program Used In manufacturing Of Turbine Couplings

The listing given below is a program which was used to bore holes in couplings of two turbines which were manufactured in the Engineering Workshops. It is written in G and M Codes. Unless otherwise stated, all the dimensions are in mm. 1 G28 G91 Z0; 2 G28 X0 Y0; 3 G40 G49; 4 G90; 5 G92 X253.087 Y177.818 Z343.05; 21 6 G00 x131.25; 7 G00 Z5.0 F10; 8 M03 S150; 9 M98 P151; 10 M05; 11 M09; 12 G28 G91 Z0; 13 G28 X0 Y0; 14 M30; 15 %

The meaning of each line is given below. 1 Return to reference point, Incremental programming, Z=0 is the reference point (Z movement only) 2 Return to reference point, X=0 and Y=0 (X and Y movements only) 3 Tool diameter compensation cancel, Tool length offset cancel 57

4 Absolute programming 5 Programming of absolute zero point, X=253.087, Y=177.818, Z=343.05 6 Positioning (rapid), X=131.25, Y=0 7 Positioning (rapid), Z=5.0, Feed rate set to 10 mm/min 8 Spindle rotation CW, speed=150 rpm 9 Sub program (o0151) call-out 10 Spindle stop 11 Mist/coolant off 12 Return to reference point, Z=0, Incremental programming (Z movement only) 13 Return to reference point, X=0 and Y=0 14 End of program, Control unit reset 15 Just display the end of current listing Line 9 in the above program calls the sub program o0151. This sub program is the actual part of the program which bore holes and is listed below.

1 G76 G98 X131.25 Y0.0 Z-52.0 Q0.5 R2.0; 2 X119.903 Y53.384; 3 (some more x and y values) 4 M99;

The meaning of each line is as follows: 1 Fine boring; Return to initial level in canned cycle after finishing; Starting X,Y coordinate: X=131.25, Y=0.0; Final Z coordinate = -52.0; Before boring tool is taken out, move it 0.5 away from the bored wall of the workpiece; Radius of boring = 2.0 (This value does not have any effect on boring since the tool determines the actual radius.). 2 Repeat boring for X=119.903 and Y=53.384. 3 Repeat the same in line 2. 4 End of sub program.

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STEPS IN USING THE MACHINE

The distinct operations involved in using the CNC machine are listed below in sequence they are done. 1. Generating the program (in G & M Codes) 2. Sending it to the machine 3. Running the program First a drawing of the machined workpiece is created using AutoCAD in a PC. Then using a special routine of AutoCAD, the contours of the cutting tool are generated. This is finally stored as a text file in the hard drive of the PC. Next, the CNC machine is set to retrieve this file. Through the coaxial cable which links the PC and CNC machine, it is then fed into the machine tool. A numeric name for the program is given at the beginning of the file retrieval to figure out the starting point (or the address in the memory) of the retrieving program from earlier read programs. Using this numeric name of the program, it is taken to the front from other programs in the memory and it stays waiting to run. Pressing the "Start" button sequentially executes the listing.

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ADVANTAGES OF CNC MACHINES

CNC machines are widely used in the metal cutting industry and are best used to produce the following types of product: Parts with complicated contours Parts requiring close tolerance and/or good repeatability Parts requiring expensive jigs and fixtures if produced on conventional machines Parts that may have several engineering changes, such as during the development stage of In cases where human errors could be extremely costly Parts that are needed in a hurry Small batch lots or short production runs

a prototype

Some common types of CNC machines and instruments used in industry are as following: Drilling Machine Lathe / Turning Centre Milling / Machining Centre Turret Press and Punching Machine Wirecut Electro Discharge Machine (EDM) Grinding Machine Laser Cutting Machine Water Jet Cutting Machine

And Most important For Electronics industry is that CNC Milling and Drilling is used for Manufacturing Of PCB .( Printed Circutiry Board)..

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