BIO 105 (REVIEWER) CELL THEORY 1.

All living things are made of cells Matthias Schleiden (botanist) 1838, Theodor Schwann (zoologist) 1839 2. Cells come from pre-existing cells. Rudolf Virchow 1855 PROKARYOTIC and EUKARYOTIC CELLS Prokaryotic cells do not have subcellular structures enclosed in membrane. Prokaryotic cells do not have internal membranes. Eukaryotic cells have subcellular structures enclosed in membrane. Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes. The only membrane in prokaryotic cell is the plasma membrane.

MICROSCOPE INVENTIONS 1590 - First Microscope (Johannes and Zaccharias Janssen) (Dutch) 1610 to 1624 Microscope Telescope (Galileo Galilee) (Italian) 1665 - Christopher Cook and Robert Hooke (Englishman) 1673 - Anton van Leeuwenhoek (Dutch)

1866 to 1870 - Ernst Abbe (German) 1931 Electron Microscope (Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska) (German) 1981 - (Zurich, Switzerland) Scanning Tunneling Microscope (Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer) 1986 - Atomic Force Microscope (Binnig, Quate and Gerber) ELECTRON MICROSCOPY 1. Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

2. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

SCANNING PROBE MICROSCOPE uses a probe to examine the surface of a specimen at a very close range. It measures the inter-action between a probe & a sample to form specimen image. 1. Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM ) uses a metal probe. A voltage is applied between the probe tip and the specimen allowing electrons to tunnel between the two, resulting in a current. The strength of the current characterizes the specimen surface. 2. Atomic Force Microscope (AFM ) uses a metal-and-diamond probe. When the probe tip is brought near the specimen surface, forces between the tip and the sample are measured by a device. The strength of the force characterizes the surface of the specimen.

LIGHT MICROSCOPE 1. Brightfield microscope specimen=dark, background=bright 2. Darkfield microscope Special condenser / specimen= bright, background= dark 3. Phase-contrast Microscope Special condenser = controls illumination / Varying refraction of light is transformed into corresponding variations of brightness. 4. Differential interference contrast microscope uses difference in refractive index to produce image. However, the (DIC) microscope uses 2 beams of light separated by prisms. 5. Fluorescence microscope the specimen is treated with fluorescent dye that absorbs ultraviolet light (invisible) then emits light at a longer wavelength (visible). 6. Confocal microscope illuminates one plane of a specimen at a time. The light passes through a pinhole aperture that filters incidental light around it, resulting in clear image. The image is a composite of many individual sections. PHOSPHOLIPIDS

In the cell, the phosphate group tends to lose a hydrogen ion, hence one of the oxygen becomes negatively charged. The nitrogen, being electronegative, tends to attract a hydrogen ion, and becomes positively charged. CARBOHYDRATES

LIPIDS

PROTEINS

NUCLEIC ACIDS [Ribonucleic acid (RNA) and Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)] The nucleotide is the basic unit of structure in RNA and DNA. A nucleotide has three components: 1. A nitrogenous base 2. Sugar: ribose (RNA) , deoxyribose (DNA) 3. Phosphate

Four nitrogenous bases in DNA: Two purines: 1. adenine 2. guanine Two pyrimidines: 1. cytosine 2. thymine

Four nitrogenous bases in RNA: Two purines: 1. adenine 2. guanine Two pyrimidines: 1. cytosine 2. uracil

A nucleoside is made of a nitrogenous base and a Sugar (ribose for RNA; deoxyribose for DNA)

RNA nucleosides (nitrogenous base + ribose)

(nitrogenous base + deoxyribose)

adenine + ribose = adenosine guanine + ribose = guanosine cytosine + ribose = cytidine uracil + ribose = uridine

adenine + deoxyribose = deoxyadenosine guanine + deoxyribose = deoxyguanosine cytosine + deoxyribose = deoxycytidine thymine + deoxyribose = deoxythymidine

DNA nucleosides

ENZYMES An enzyme is a protein molecule that serves as a biological catalyst, increasing the rate of a reaction without itself being changed into a different molecule. Enzymes speed up the cells chemical reactions by lowering energy barriers.

Activation energy is an amount of energy that reactants must absorb to start a chemical reaction.

Active site is the part of an enzyme molecule where a substrate molecule attaches (by means of weak chemical bonds); typically, a pocket or groove on the enzymes surface. A reactant in a chemical reaction is called the enzymes substrate.

A specific enzyme catalyzes each cellular reaction. The enzyme is specific because its active site fits only one kind of substrate molecule. Environment affects enzyme activity such as temperature, pH and salt. Nonprotein helpers of enzymes (Cofactors) Inorganic substances: atoms of zinc Iron Copper

Organic substances (coenzyme) Vitamins NAD NADP

Enzyme Inhibitors

MEMBRANE TRANSPORT The entrance and exit of materials in cells occur through: (a) Passive transport The passage of materials in the cell depends on their concentration gradient or the difference in concentration between two regions. The direction of the movement of materials is from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated. The cell does not need energy for such natural movement to occur. Three kinds of passive transport: diffusion Solutes pass through a selectively permeable membrane from a region of greater concentration to a region of lesser concentration. The movement continues until the solutes are evenly distributed in the two regions. The point of even distribution is called Equilibrium. osmosis Solvent passes through a selectively permeable membrane from a region of greater concentration to a region of lesser concentration. The movement of water continues until equilibrium is reached.

Kinds of osmotic solutions: (a) hypotonic solution A hypotonic solution outside the cell is a medium whose concentration of solutes is lower than that inside the cell. Results to the net movement of water into the cell, making it swell. The pressure caused by the entry of water into the cell is called turgor pressure. (b) hypertonic solution Contains higher concentration of solutes than the cell. The concentration gradient results in the net movement of water out of the cell. The shrinkage of the cell is called plasmolysis. (c) isotonic solution The concentration of the water molecules is the same as that in the cell. No net movement of water occurs. The cell neither swells nor shrinks. facilitated diffusion The passage of a material from greater to lesser concentration is aided by carrier proteins. The carrier proteins change shape as they form channels to facilitate the passage of solutions into the cell.

(b) Active transport Materials move against the concentration gradient or from a place of lower concentration to one with a higher concentration. Requires cellular energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Small materials : by carrier proteins. Large materials: by endocytosis or exocytosis. In endocytosis materials move into the cell. In exocytosis materials are discharged out of the cell. Two types of endocytosis: 1. phagocytosis In phagocytosis (cell-eating) projections of the plasma membrane engulf particles and bring them into the cell. 2. pinocytosis In pinocytosis (cell-drinking), the plasma membrane folds inward, bringing extracellular fluid into the cell In exocytosis large particles move out of the cell by means of vesicles formed by the golgi apparatus. The vesicle fuses with the plasma membranethen opens and empties its contents to the outside.