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Schematic of typical animal cell, showing subcellular components. Organelles: 1 Nucleolus 2 Nucleus 3 Ribosomes (little dots) 4 Vesicle 5 Rough endoplasmic reticulum 6 Golgi apparatus 7 Cytoskeleton 8 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum 9 Mitochondria
10 Vacuole 11 Cytosol 12 Lysosome 13 Centrioles within Centrosome 14 Cell membrane In cell biology, the centrosome is an organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center (MTOC) of the animal cell as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression. It was discovered by Edouard Van Beneden in 1883 [1] and was described and named in 1888 by Theodor Boveri.[2] The centrosome is thought to have evolved only in the metazoan lineage of eukaryotic cells.[3] Fungi and plants use other MTOC structures to organize their microtubules.[4][5] Although the centrosome has a key role in efficient mitosis in animal cells, it is not essential.[6][7][8] Centrosomes are composed of two orthogonally arranged centrioles surrounded by an amorphous mass of protein termed the pericentriolar material (PCM). The PCM contains proteins responsible for microtubule nucleation and anchoring[9] including -tubulin, pericentrin and ninein. In general, each centriole of the centrosome is based on a nine triplet microtubule assembled in a cartwheel structure, and contains centrin, cenexin and tektin.[10]
Contents
[hide]
1 Roles of the centrosome 2 Centrosome alterations in cancer cells o 2.1 Structural aberrations o 2.2 Numeric aberrations 3 Evolution of the centrosome 4 Centrosome associated nucleotides 5 References
Role of the centrosome in cell cycle progression Centrosomes are associated with the nuclear membrane during prophase of the cell cycle. In mitosis the nuclear membrane breaks down and the centrosome nucleated microtubules (parts of the cytoskeleton) can interact with the chromosomes to build the mitotic spindle. The mother centriole, the one that was inherited from the mother cell, also has a central role in making cilia and flagella.[10] The centrosome is copied only once per cell cycle so that each daughter cell inherits one centrosome, containing two structures called centrioles (see also: centrosome cycle). The centrosome replicates during the S phase of the cell cycle. During the prophase in the process of cell division called mitosis, the centrosomes migrate to opposite poles of the cell. The mitotic spindle then forms between the two centrosomes. Upon division, each daughter cell receives one centrosome. Aberrant numbers of centrosomes in a cell have been associated with cancer. Doubling of a centrosome is similar to DNA replication in two respects: the semiconservative nature of the process and the action of cdk2 as a regulator of the process.[11] But the processes are essentially different in that centrosome doubling does not occur by template reading and assembly. The mother centriole just aids in the accumulation of materials required for the assembly of the daughter centriole.[12]
Centrosome (shown by arrow) next to nucleus Interestingly, centrioles are not required for the progression of mitosis. When the centrioles are irradiated by a laser, mitosis proceeds normally with a morphologically normal spindle. Moreover, development of the fruit fly Drosophila is largely normal when centrioles are absent due to a mutation in a gene required for their duplication.[13] In the absence of the centrioles the microtubules of the spindle are focused by motors allowing the formation of a bipolar spindle. Many cells can completely undergo interphase without centrioles.[10] Unlike centrioles, centrosomes are required for survival of the organism. Acentrosomal cells lack radial arrays of astral microtubules. They are also defective in spindle positioning and in ability to establish a central localization site in cytokinesis. The function of centrosome in this context is hypothesized to ensure the fidelity of cell division because it greatly increases the efficacy. Some cell types arrest in the following cell cycle when centrosomes are absent. This is not a universal phenomenon.
When the nematode C. elegans egg is fertilized the sperm delivers a pair of centrioles. These centrioles will form the centrosomes which will direct the first cell division of the zygote and this will determine its polarity. It is not yet clear whether the role of the centrosome in polarity determination is microtubule dependent or independent.
[edit] References
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This instrument provides a revolutionary method of microscopy, with magnifications up to one million. This permits visualization of submicroscopic cellular particles as well as viral agents. In the electron microscope, the specimen is illu-minated by a beam of electrons rather than light, and the focusing is carried out by elec-tromagnets instead of a set of optics. These components are sealed in a tube in which a complete vacuum is established. Transmission electron microscopes require speci-mens that are thinly prepared, fixed, and dehydrated for the electron beam to pass freely through them. As the electrons pass through the specimen, images are formed by direct-ing the electrons onto photographic film, thus making internal cellular structures visi-ble. Scanning electron microscopes are used for visualizing surface characteristics rather than intracellular structures A narrow beam of electrons scans back and forth, producing a three-dimensional image as the electrons are reflected off the specimen's surface.
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Statistics plays a vital role in every fields of human activity. Statistics has important role in determining the existing position of per capita income unemployment, population growth rate, housing, schooling medical facilities etcin a country. Now statistics holds a central position in almost e field like Industry, Commerce, Trade, Physics, Chemistry, Economics, Mathematics, Biology, Botany, Psychology, Astronomy etc, so application statistics is very wide. Now we discuss some important fields in which statistics is commonly applied.
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(1) Business: Statistics play an important role in business. A successful businessman must be very quick and accurate in decision making. He knows that w customers wants, he should therefore, know what to produce and sell and in what quantities. Statistics helps businessman to plan production ac to the taste of the costumers, the quality of the products can also be checked more efficiently by using statistical methods. So all the activities of t businessman based on statistical information. He can make correct decision about the location of business, marketing of the products, financial resources etc
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(2) In Economics: Statistics play an important role in economics. Economics largely depends upon statistics. National income accounts are multipurpose indic for the economists and administrators. Statistical methods are used for preparation of these accounts. In economics research statistical methods used for collecting and analysis the data and testing hypothesis. The relationship between supply and demands is studies by statistical methods, imports and exports, the inflation rate, the per capita income are the problems which require good knowledge of statistics.
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(3) In Mathematics: Statistical plays a central role in almost all natural and social sciences. The methods of natural sciences are most reliable but conclusions dr them are only probable, because they are based on incomplete evidence. Statistical helps in describing these measurements more precisely. Stati branch of applied mathematics. The large number of statistical methods like probability averages, dispersions, estimation etc is used in mathem and different techniques of pure mathematics like integration, differentiation and algebra are used in statistics.
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(4) In Banking: Statistics play an important role in banking. The banks make use of statistics for a number of purposes. The banks work on the principle tha people who deposit their money with the banks do not withdraw it at the same time. The bank earns profits out of these deposits by lending to o interest. The bankers use statistical approaches based on probability to estimate the numbers of depositors and their claims for a certain day.
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(5) In State Management (Administration): Statistics is essential for a country. Different policies of the government are based on statistics. Statistical data are now widely used in takin administrative decisions. Suppose if the government wants to revise the pay scales of employees in view of an increase in the living cost, statistic methods will be used to determine the rise in the cost of living. Preparation of federal and provincial government budgets mainly depends upon statistics because it helps in estimating the expected expenditures and revenue from different sources. So statistics are the eyes of administration state. (6) In Accounting and Auditing:
Accounting is impossible without exactness. But for decision making purpose, so much precision is not essential the decision may be taken basis of approximation, know as statistics. The correction of the values of current asserts is made on the basis of the purchasing power of money current value of it. In auditing sampling techniques are commonly used. An auditor determines the sample size of the book to be audited on the basis of error
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(7) In Natural and Social Sciences: Statistics plays a vital role in almost all the natural and social sciences. Statistical methods are commonly used for analyzing the experiment results, testing their significance in Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Meteorology, Research chambers of commerce, Sociology, Business Administration, Communication and Information Technology etc
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Analysis
(8) In Astronomy: Astronomy is one of the oldest branch of statistical study, it deals with the measurement of distance, sizes, masses and densities of heavenly by means of observations. During these measurements errors are unavoidable so most probable measurements are founded by using statistical methods. Example: This distance of moon from the earth is measured. Since old days the astronomers have been statistical methods like method of least s for finding the movements of stars.
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Different Fields Statistics plays a vital role in every fields of human activity. Statistics has important role in determining the existing position of per capita income, unemployment, population growth rate, housing, schooling medical facilities etcin a country. Now statistics holds a central position in almost every field like Industry, Commerce, Trade, Physics, Chemistry, Economics, Mathematics, Biology, Botany, Psychology, Astronomy etc, so application of statistics is very wide. Now we discuss some important fields in which statistics is commonly applied. (1) Business: Statistics play an important role in business. A successful businessman must be very quick and accurate in decision making. He knows that what his customers wants, he should therefore, know what to produce and sell and in what quantities. Statistics helps businessman to plan production according to the taste of the costumers, the quality of the products can also be checked more efficiently by using statistical methods. So all the activities of the businessman based on statistical information. He can make correct decision about the location of business, marketing of the products, financial resources etc (2) In Economics: Statistics play an important role in economics. Economics largely depends upon statistics. National income accounts are multipurpose indicators for the economists and administrators. Statistical methods are used for preparation of these accounts. In economics research statistical methods are used for collecting and analysis the data and testing hypothesis. The relationship between supply and demands is studies by statistical methods, the imports and exports, the inflation rate, the per capita income are the problems which require good knowledge of statistics. (3) In Mathematics: Statistical plays a central role in almost all natural and social sciences. The methods of natural sciences are most reliable but conclusions draw from them are only probable, because they are based on incomplete evidence. Statistical helps in describing these measurements more precisely. Statistics is branch of applied mathematics. The large number of statistical methods like probability averages, dispersions, estimation etc is used in mathematics and different techniques of pure mathematics like integration, differentiation and algebra are used in statistics.
(4) In Banking: Statistics play an important role in banking. The banks make use of statistics for a number of purposes. The banks work on the principle that all the people who deposit their money with the banks do not withdraw it at the same time. The bank earns profits out of these deposits by lending to others on interest. The bankers use statistical approaches based on probability to estimate the numbers of depositors and their claims for a certain day.
(5) In State Management (Administration): Statistics is essential for a country. Different policies of the government are based on statistics. Statistical data are now widely used in taking all administrative decisions. Suppose if the government wants to revise the pay scales of employees in view of an increase in the living cost, statistical methods will be used to determine the rise in the cost of living. Preparation of federal and provincial government budgets mainly depends upon statistics because it helps in estimating the expected expenditures and revenue from different sources. So statistics are the eyes of administration of the state. (6) In Accounting and Auditing: Accounting is impossible without exactness. But for decision making purpose, so much precision is not essential the decision may be taken on the basis of approximation, know as statistics. The correction of the values of current asserts is made on the basis of the purchasing power of money or the current value of it. In auditing sampling techniques are commonly used. An auditor determines the sample size of the book to be audited on the basis of error. (7) In Natural and Social Sciences: Statistics plays a vital role in almost all the natural and social sciences. Statistical methods are commonly used for analyzing the experiments results, testing their significance in Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Meteorology, Research chambers of commerce, Sociology, Business, Public Administration, Communication and Information Technology etc
(8) In Astronomy: Astronomy is one of the oldest branch of statistical study, it deals with the measurement of distance, sizes, masses and densities of heavenly bodies by means of observations. During these measurements errors are unavoidable so most probable measurements are founded by using statistical methods. Example: This distance of moon from the earth is measured. Since old days the astronomers have been statistical methods like method of least squares for finding the movements of stars.
Cell theory
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A prokaryote
In biology, cell theory is a scientific theory that describes the properties of cells, the basic unit of structure in every living thing. The initial development of the theory, during the mid17th century, was made possible by advances in microscopy; the study of cells is called cell biology. Cell theory is one of the foundations of biology. The three parts to the cell theory are as described below:
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. 2. The cell is the basic unit of structure, function, and organization in all organisms. 3. All cells come from preexisting, living cells.
Contents
[hide]
1 History 2 Modern interpretation 3 Types of cells 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links
History [edit]
The cell was first seen by Robert Hooke in 1665. He examined (under a coarse, compound microscope) very thin slices of cork and saw a multitude of tiny pores that he remarked looked like the walled compartments a monk would live in. Because of this association, Hooke called them cells, the name they still bear. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function.[1] Hooke's description of these cells (which were actually non-living cell walls) was published in Micrographia.[2] His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. The first person to make a compound microscope was Zacharias Jansen, while the first to witness a live cell under a microscope was Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who in 1674 described the algae Spirogyra and named the moving organisms animalcules, meaning "little animals".[3] Leeuwenhoek probably also saw bacteria.[4] Cell theory was in contrast to the vitalism theories proposed before the discovery of cells. The idea that cells were separable into individual units was proposed by Ludolph Christian Treviranus [5] and Johann Jacob Paul Moldenhawer.[6] All of this finally led to Henri Dutrochet formulating one of the fundamental tenets of modern cell theory by declaring that "The cell is the fundamental element of organization".[7] The observations of Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow, and others led to the development of the cell theory. The cell theory is a widely accepted explanation of the relationship between cells and living things. The cell theory states:
All living things or organisms are made of cells and their products. New cells are created by old cells dividing into two. Cells are the basic building units of life.
The cell theory holds true for all living things, no matter how big or small. Since according to research, cells are common to all living things, they can provide information about all life. And because all cells come from other cells, scientists can study cells to learn about growth, reproduction, and all other functions that living things perform. By learning about cells and how they function, you can learn about all types of living things. Cells are the building blocks of life Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to three scientists: Theodor Schwann, Matthias Jakob Schleiden, and Rudolf Virchow. In 1839, Schwann and Schleiden suggested that cells were the basic unit of life. Their theory accepted the first two tenets of modern cell theory (see next section, below). However, the cell theory of Schleiden differed from modern cell theory in that it proposed a method of spontaneous crystallization that he called "free cell formation".[8] In 1855, Rudolf Virchow concluded that all cells come from pre-existing cells, thus completing the classical cell theory. (Note that the idea that all cells come from preexisting cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarised Remak.)[9]
Cell adhesion
References [edit]
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. ^ Inwood, Stephen (2003). The man who knew too much: the strange and inventive life of Robert Hooke, 1635-1703. London: Pan. p. 72. ISBN 0-330-48829-5. ^ Karling JS (1939). "Schleiden's Contribution to the Cell Theory". The American Naturalist 73 (749): 51737. doi:10.1086/280862. ^ Moll WAW (2006). "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek". Archived from the original on 2008-06-02. Retrieved 2008-11-25. ^ Porter JR (June 1976). "Antony van Leeuwenhoek: tercentenary of his discovery of bacteria". Bacteriol Rev 40 (2): 2609. PMC 413956. PMID 786250. ^ 1811, , "Beytrge zur Pflanzenphysiologie" ^ Moldenhawer, Johann Jacob Paul 1812, "Beytrge zur Anatomie der Pflanzen" ^ Dutrochet, Henri 1824, "Recherches anatomiques et physiologiques sur la structure intime des animaux et des vegetaux, et sur leur motilite, par M.H. Dutrochet, avec deux planches" ^ Schleiden, Matthias Jakob 1839,"Contributions to Phytogenesis" ^ Silver (January 1987). "Virchow, the heroic model in medicine: health policy by accolade". American Journal of Public Health 77 (1): 86. PMC 1646803. PMID 3538915. Retrieved 2011-04-04.
Turner W (January 1890). "The Cell Theory, Past and Present". J Anat Physiol 24 (Pt 2): 253 87. PMC 1328050. PMID 17231856. Tavassoli M (January 1980). "The cell theory: a foundation to the edifice of biology". Am. J. Pathol. 98 (1): 44. PMC 1903404. PMID 6985772.
Mallery C (2008-02-11). "Cell Theory". Retrieved 2008-11-25. "Studying Cells Tutorial". 2004. Retrieved 2008-11-25.
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