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A. F.

Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves Fields & Waves Note #6 Gauss Law in Integral Form

10/04

Objectives: Introduce the concept of electric flux to complement the electric flux density and electric field. Present the integral form of Gauss Law and use it to solve for fields in highly symmetrical situations. Electric flux One of the uses of vector surface integrals is the definition of the total electric flux Ye passing through some surface S: Ye = D dS
S

(6.1)

where D = eE is the electric flux density introduced in Note #5, and where e = e 0e r is the effective permittivity of the medium. For the moment, assume that e = e 0 . The differential surface vector dS points normal to the surface S, as discussed in Note #3. (For an open surface, the direction of dS determines the direction in which the flux is measured.) From the units of D (C/m2), we observe that the electric flux has units of Coulombs (C). This suggests that the flux has a direct connection with the charge that produces the electric field under consideration. The link between these two is the focus of Gauss Law. Gauss Law In 1813, Gauss formulated the following law:

D dS = Q
S

enclosed

(6.2)

Equation (6.2) states that the total electric flux out of a closed surface S is equal to the total amount of charge contained within S. If this charge is in the form of a volume charge density, Qenclosed = rv dv
V

(6.3)

where V denotes the volume contained within S. However, this charge may also be in the form of discrete point sources, surface charge densities, etc., that can be summed or integrated to obtain Q enclosed. To illustrate the computation of the total charge, we consider the following examples.

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves Example:

10/04

A uniform surface charge density r s is distributed along the x-y plane. Determine the total charge contained within the volume 0 < x < 1, 0 < y < 2, and 1 < z < 3. The portion of the surface charge density that is contained within the specified volume is that residing within the range 0 < x < 1 and 0 < y < 2. Therefore, Qenclosed =
1 x =0 y =0

Solution:

rsdxdy = 2 rs

(6.4)

Example:

A volume charge density rv is given by the function

rv ( x, y, z) = r0 x 2 y (1 - z)

(6.5)

Determine the total charge contained within the volume 0 < x < 1, 0 < y < 1, and 0 < z < 1. Solution: The integral to be evaluated is Qenclosed = =
1 x =0 y =0 z=0 1

rv dxdydz r0 x 2 y (1 - z)dxdydz
1 y =0

x =0 y =0 z=0 1

= r0

x =0

x 2 dx

ydy

z=0

(1 - z) dz

(6.6)

1 1 1 = r0 3 2 2 =

r0 12

Field calculation using Gauss Law Gauss Law provides an alternative way to calculate the electric field (or force, or flux density) produced by a distribution of charge. This procedure only works for situations where there is considerable symmetry in the charge distribution. To illustrate the process, we initially consider the three fundamental charge distributions considered in Note #4: the point charge, the infinite line charge density, and the infinite sheet of charge.

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves

10/04

Example:

Given that the E and D -fields of a point charge exhibit spherical symmetry, use Gauss Law to find E as a function of r for a point source Q at the origin. First, for a point source of charge at the origin, spherical symmetry implies that the electric field is not a function of q or f, nor does it have a q -component. Therefore, we seek a field of the form component or a f r ( r) E ( r,q,f ) = rE (6.7)

Solution:

The application of Gauss Law requires that we identify a surface S. The choice of this surface is critical, in the sense that it must be compatible with the specific symmetry associated with the electric field in (6.7). Specifically, we would like to choose S to enable us to remove E or D from the integral in equation (6.2). Therefore, this integral must not involve the variable r. The obvious choice for S is a sphere centered at the origin, for which ( rdq )( r sin qdf ) = r r 2 sin qdqdf dS = r It follows that (6.8)

D dS = e E dS
0 S S

r ) (r r 2 sin qdqdf ) = (e 0 rE
S

= e 0 E r r 2 sin qdqdf
S

(6.9)

= e 0 E r r 2 sin qdqdf
S

The integral can be evaluated to produce the surface area for the sphere:

r
S

sin qdqdf =

q =0 f =0 p

2p

r 2 sin qdqdf
2p

= r2

q =0

= r 2 (2)(2p ) = 4pr 2

sin qdq

f =0

df

(6.10)

Therefore, the left-hand side of Gauss Law yields

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves

10/04

D dS = 4pr e E
2 0 S

(6.11)

The right-hand side of Gauss Law is Qenclosed = Q, Therefore, we obtain 4pr 2e 0 E r = Q, or, equivalently, Er = Q , 4pe 0 r 2 r>0 (6.14) r>0 (6.13) r>0 (6.12)

This result is identical to Coulombs Law, applied to a point charge at the origin.

Example:

Use Gauss Law to find E for an infinite line charge density rl distributed along the z-axis. In this situation, we expect that the electric field exhibits cylindrical symmetry, and therefore is not a function of z or f. Furthermore, the electric direction, and not field should be pointed away from the line source in the r -component. Therefore, we seek a field of the -component or a f have a z form E r ( r) E ( r,f, z) = r (6.15)

Solution:

To select a surface S that enables us to remove E or D from the integral in equation (6.2), we must integrate over variables f and z. Therefore, we want S to be the curved surface of a cylinder of radius r. Since such a surface is infinite, it can be closed at the z=0 and z=L planes to form the closed surface S sketched in Figure 1. This surface is comprised of three parts, S1, S2, and S3. On the top face at z=L, ( dr)( rdf ) dS1 = z (6.16)

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves

10/04

On the bottom face, we have (remember that dS must point out of a closed surface) ( dr)( rdf ) dS2 = - z Finally, on the curved side of S we obtain ( rdf )( dz) dS3 = r The surface integral in equation (6.2) can be written as (6.18) (6.17)

D dS = e E
0 S S1 S2

( dr)( rdf ) z (6.19)

( dr)( rdf )} + e 0 E {- z ( rdf )( dz) + e 0 E r


S3

component, the first two integrals on the However, since E only has a r right-hand side of (6.19) vanish, leaving

D dS =
S

z=0 f =0

2p

Er r ( rdf )( dz) e 0r

= e0 Er

2p

f =0

= e 0 E r (2pr)( L)

rdf

z=0

dz

(6.20)

As in the preceding example, since the electric field is constant over S, the integral reduces to the surface area 2prL. The right-hand side of Gauss Law encompasses the part of the line source within S, or equivalently the part between z=0 and z=L. Therefore, Qenclosed =
L z=0

rl dz = rl L

(6.21)

By equating (6.20) and (6.21) we impose Gauss Law to obtain 2pre 0 E r L = rl L or (6.22)

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves Er =

10/04 (6.23)

rl 2pe 0 r

r>0

This result is the same as that found using a superposition integral in Note #4.

Example:

Use Gauss Law to find E everywhere due to an infinite sheet of constant surface charge density. Let the infinite sheet reside in the x-y plane. From the problem symmetry, we expect that E will not be a function of x or y, nor will it have components in those directions. Furthermore, we expect the electric field to point away from the sheet, and be symmetrical on either side. Therefore, Ez ( z ) z < 0 - z E ( x, y, z ) = E z ( z) z > 0 z (6.24)

Solution:

The surface S must straddle the sheet, with a face on each side parallel to the x-y plane and the other faces perpendicular to the x-y plane. For simplicity, consider a box with faces parallel to the x, y, and z planes (Figure 2). Let us denote the face parallel to the x-y plane on the z > 0 side as S+, and the face parallel to the x-y plane on the z < 0 side S. The surface S+ is located at z; S is located at z. Therefore, dxdy dS+ = z and dxdy dS = - z The electric flux integral can be expressed as (6.26) (6.25)

D dS = e E
0 S S+ S

dS+ (6.27)

+ e 0 E dS +
other faces

e 0 E dS

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves

10/04

Since the electric field only has a z-component, the last integral does not contribute. Suppose the dimensions of the box are A and B along the x and y dimensions, respectively. Then we obtain E D dS = e (z
0 S S+ S z z

dxdy ) ) (z

E z ) (- z dxdy ) + e 0 (- z -z = e 0 E z ( z) dxdy
S+

(6.28)

+ e 0 E z ( z) dxdy
S

= 2 ABe 0 E z ( z) and Qenclosed =

x - y plane

rsdxdy = ABrs

(6.29)

By enforcing Gauss Law, we obtain 2 ABe 0 E z ( z) = ABrs or, equivalently, (6.30)

rs , z>0 2e 0 From symmetry, we also obtain


E z ( z) = E z ( z) = -

(6.31)

rs , 2e 0

z<0

(6.32)

This result agrees with that obtained in Note #4.

The previous examples illustrate the steps to follow in an application of Gauss Law to find the field of simple charge distributions. In many situations, charge density may be a function of position. The following examples illustrate the procedure to follow in those cases.

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves Example: An infinitely long coaxial cable (Figure 3) has a surface charge density

10/04

rsa =

K 2pa

(6.33)

on the outer surface of the inner conductor, which has radius a, and a surface charge density

rsb =

-K 2pb

(6.34)

on the inner surface of the outer conductor, which has radius b. Use Gauss Law to find E as a function of r for 0 < r < . Solution: The symmetry in this situation is similar to that of the infinite line charge problem investigated above, and we consider the same behavior for the field: E r ( r) E ( r,f, z) = r (6.35)

We also employ the same surface shape used to analyze the line source, a cylinder of radius r truncated at z=0 and z=L. The top and bottom faces of z = 0, and the integral over S reduces this surface do not contribute, since r to

D dS = e E
0 S S3

( rdf )( dz) r

= 2prLe 0 E r

(6.36)

The calculation of Q enclosed is somewhat more complicated in this situation, since the charge resides only on the surfaces at r = a and r = b. For a surface S with radius r < a, the enclosed charge is zero. When r is slightly greater than a, the surface S encloses all the charge residing on the surface of the inner conductor. In that case Qenclosed =
L

z=0

K adfdz = KL, f = 0 2pa


2p

a < r<b

(6.37)

When r is slightly greater than b, the total enclosed charge adds to zero (the charge on the outer surface cancels that on the inner surface). Thus, we can collectively write

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves 0 r< a = KL a < r < b 0 r>b

10/04

Qenclosed

(6.38)

By enforcing Gauss Law, we obtain 0 r< a 2prLe 0 E r = KL a < r < b 0 r>b or, equivalently, 0 K Er = 2pe 0 r 0

(6.39)

r< a
a< r<b (6.40)

r>b

Thus, the electric field is nonzero between the conductors but is zero elsewhere.

Example:

A spherical region of volume charge density has the functional dependence Kr 2 rv ( r,q,f ) = 0 r<a r>a (6.41)

Use Gauss Law to find E as a function of r for 0 < r < . Since the charge distribution is not a function of q or f, a solution of the form r ( r) E ( r,q,f ) = rE (6.42)

Solution:

is suggested. The surface S would be a sphere centered at the origin, for which

D dS = e E r
0 r S S

sin qdqdf

(6.43)

= e 0 E r 4pr

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves

10/04

Since the charge density is defined by a function of r, we need to evaluate Qenclosed carefully. When r < a, S has the form illustrated in Figure 4. We obtain Qenclosed =
r r=0 q =0 f =0 r

2p

rv ( r,q,f )( r ) 2 sin qdqdfdr


{K ( r ) 2 }( r ) 2 sin qdqdfdr
p q =0

2p

r=0 q =0 f =0 r 4

= K

r=0

( r ) dr

sin qdq

2p

f =0

df r< a

(6.44)

r5 = K 4p , 5

When r < a, Qenclosed is a function of r. However, when r > a, and S has the form illustrated in Figure 5, the upper limit on the integral over r is a, since all the charge is now enclosed by S. Therefore, Qenclosed is independent of r: Qenclosed =
a r=0 q =0 f =0

2p

{K ( r ) 2 }( r ) 2 sin qdqdfdr (6.45) r> a

a5 = K 4p , 5 By imposing Gauss Law, we obtain r5 K 4 p , r< a 2 5 e 0 E r 4pr = 5 K 4p a , r > a 5 or equivalently Kr 3 , r< a 5e 0 Er = 5 Ka , r > a 2 5e 0 r

(6.46)

(6.47)

We observe that the electric field grows in magnitude as r increases to a, then decays with a (1/r2) behavior as r . The E -field is continuous at r = a. Although the charge density is zero for r > a, the electric field is not zero.

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