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6 Rudder Design
6.1 Assumptions and Equations Used in the Design and Analysis of the Rudders.
The rudder should have as small an area as possible to minimise drag. However, if the rudder is too small the
sailor will loose control of the boat at low speeds. Determining an acceptable rudder size is therefore an
empirical exercise. A standard rudder design shall be analysed to provide acceptable characteristics. An
equivalent rudder can then be designed that will also give an acceptable level of control.
In the analysis of the rudder designs, the following assumptions and equations are used:-
All rudders have an elliptical spanwise chord distribution and do not twist or deflect.
S= p a b / 4
ARg = a2 / S
The effective aspect ratio of the rudder ARe is assumed to be twice the geometric aspect ratio due to the free
surface boundary. Although the free surface is not a solid boundary it shall be assumed to mirror the rudder
and hence
ARe = 2 ´ ARg = 2 ´ a2 / S
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A transverse foil at the tip of the rudder (used to increase longitudinal stability - see Chapter 3 ) will increase
the effective aspect ratio of the rudder. From figure 6.1, The foil increases the effective aspect ratio by
approximately 1.3.
\ ARe = 2.6 a2 / S
The transverse foil will increase the total drag of the rudder but this drag shall be ignored when rudder designs
are compared.
The rudders have elliptical plan forms so the following relationships are true.
CL = k a / [ 1 + ( 2 / ARe )]
where
a = angle of attack
k = slope of the lift of the section with angle of attack graph = dL / da
CL = coefficient of lift
ARe = effective aspects ratio
CD = DDP + DDI
where
The maximum section thickness is 12% of the cord length. "From the data for the NACA four and five digit
wing sections it appears that the maximum lift coefficients are the greatest for a thickness ration of 12 per
cent." Theory of Wing Sections. As the maximum lift is a function of area, and maximum lift coefficient for
the minimum area, the sections with the maximum lift coefficients must be used.
No transverse foil
section = NACA 0012
a = 0.65m
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b = 0.2m
k = 1.3 / 12
Table 6.1
0 0.0058 0 0.0058 0 0
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Design 1
k = 1.3 / 12
Table 6.2
0 0.0058 0 0.0058 0 0
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Design 2
k = 1.3 / 12
CL = 1.3 a / [ 12 ´ ( 1 + 2 / 12 )] = 0.09286 a
Table 6.3
0 0.0058 0 0.0058 0 0
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Design 3
k = 0.9 / 8
CL = 0.9 a / [ 8 ´ ( 1 + 2 / 12 )] = 0.09643 a
Table 6.4
0 0.005 0 0.005 0 0
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A limited factor in the design of the foils is the structural consideration. Reducing b by 8% reduces the
thickness of the foil by 8%. This means the second moment of area has decreased by (0.923) 22%. The centre
of pressure has moved down the foil due to the increase in aspect ratio which increases the bending moment
on the foil. The aspect ratio is therefore limited by structural considerations. It shall be assumed that an
effective aspect ratio of 12 is achievable without an excessively heavy structure.
The profile of the rudder should be modified to a crescent form as seen in "Letters to Nature". This type of
plan form is shown to have 4.3% less induced drag for 1.5% less lift than the standard rudder shape (with a
straight trailing edge) at a = 4%.
The theoretical calculated values of lift and drag are based on a plan form with a straight ¼ cord line (wing 1)
and therefore must be modified to take account of plan form
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Table 6.5
Correction factors for profile shape on rudder lift and drag coefficients.
Wing CDI CL fI fL
1 0.00531 0.34157 1 1
The above data helps to support the analysis of the effect of angle of sweep in Chapter 5. Wing 3 has a larger
effective angle of sweep than Wing 1 and has less induced drag for less lift.
Taking into account the profile of rudders, the lift and drag can be calculated as follows.
L = ½ ´ r ´ V2 ´ S ´ fL ´ CL
where
D = ½ r V2 S(CDP + fI CDI)
where
The final design can be compared to the original rudder and actual values of lift and drag compared. The drag
of the transverse foil, which offsets the drag curve, can be included. (Note a for transverse foil assumed to be
0° .)
Ideally the boat would be equipped with 2 rudders, one without a foil for light winds and one with a foil for
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Standard Rudder
Table 6.6
a CDP fI CDI fL CL D L
Newtons Newtons
0 0.0058 0 0 2.5 0
Design 2
D = ½ r V2 S(CDI + CDP )
Rudder Details
AR = 12
S = 0.1021
Section = NACA 0012
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Table 6.7
Actual values of lift and drag for a design 2 rudder with foils at 5 knots.
a CDP fI CDI fL CL D L
Newtons Newtons
0 0.0058 0 0 3.2 0
Design 2
(with no foil)
Section = NACA 0012
S = 0.1021 m2
AR = 0.6862/ 0.1021 = 9.22
Table 6.8
Actual values of lift and drag for a design 2 rudder without foils at 5 knots.
a CDP fI CDI fL CL D L
Newtons Newtons
0 0.0058 0 0 2.5 0
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The tip of the foil will have to be slightly modified to accommodate the transverse foil. The section may also
have to be increased in thickness by using a NACA 0015 section at the very tip. This will make the tip
stronger and the foil less likely to break off.
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