RUNNING HEAD: THE ROLE OF REINFORCEMENT ANDD.

NEILSON

THE ROLE OF REINFORCEMENT AND ITS APPLICATION IN RELATION TO ADOLESCENT DELINQUENCY DANIELLE M. NEILSON CRIM2260, DOUGLAS COLLEGE FALL 2012

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As humans, we act as individuals and make individual decisions for our own life paths. Humans however, are social and these individual decisions do find closure from the influences in the environment that encompasses the person. In interest for this research, the influence on decisions adolescents face in regards to delinquency is the primary focus. Criminologists have created a multitude of theories and explanations over time in an attempt to understand criminal behavior and its origins. The focus of this paper will be predominately within the scope of Learning Theories to explain crime, specifically in relation to the social concept of reinforcement. Reinforcement has the ability to be positive in that it can encourage pro-social behavior and a continuing commitment to our community but it can also be negative by means of teenage experimentation or pressure to identify with deviant behaviors and subcultures, both common examples of delinquency. Reinforcement also occurs on a multi-latitude scale of influences. From a persons macro scope, the society that one is living in, the community that they are contributing to and the family that raised the adolescent are all considered influential players in reinforcement. Peer influence is examined as a primary factor in an adolescents reception of reinforcement as well. The adolescents own personal values, ethics and cognitions also have a role in their susceptibility to engage in delinquent behavior based on how they interpret situations and receive definitions. In short, reinforcement has the ability to encourage one to adhere to or deflect from pro-social societal standards and expectations, and its influence is apparent among a multitude of factors.

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Reinforcement, specifically its method of application in relation to adolescent delinquency, stands out as a pertinent trajectory in ones vulnerability to later criminal offending. The hypothesis generated for direction in research was that in regards to adolescent-onset delinquency, reinforcement and its application are instrumental to a youths heuristics of individuality, which will one day identify as pro-social or not. This concept was quickly supported by a present theme in reinforcement research which is that a low level of nonsocial reinforcement was associated with a low level of offending. In contrast, the increases in nonsocial reinforcement were also associated with increases in offending. (Higgins, G. E. et al, 2011) as well as in context of risk factors for juvenile offending through the evidence that a 10 year old who is exposed to six or more risk factors is 10 times more likely to commit a violent act by the age 18 as a 10-year old exposed to only one risk factor. (Herrenkohl et al., 2000, as quoted in Serin. R., 2010) The priority of this research is to define reinforcement, which can be easily characterized as a holophrase due to its scope and complexity and apply it to theory so that one can understand its multi-latitude application and impact. The methodology involved in collecting data for this research included reflecting reinforcement within different schools of criminology, applying theories of criminal behavior to data observed, researching studies specific to youth delinquency as well as encompassing an ethnographic approach through personal, as well as witnessed experiences with reinforcement, pro-social or not. Through research it became apparent that in order to fully utilize the impact of reinforcement, one must understand the drive towards delinquency and recognize where the presence of reinforcement is influential so that it can ultimately be linked to practice

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within the stakes that keep cohesion in communities and use it as an advantage for participants in the Youth Justice field.

Reinforcement is used in social learning theories as an explanation for deviant behaviors. Edwin Sutherland first hypothesized that criminal behavior is learned behavior, done so through social interaction. He created what is known as the Differential Association Theory, an idea that people come in contact with definitions through their social interactions and that these definitions can be influence ones decision to act in delinquency. The ratio of these definitions, criminal to non-criminal, determines whether a person will engage in criminal behavior. (Sutherland:1939 as quoted in Alder et al., 2009) In 1973, Ron Akers, through his original research with Robert Burgess in expanding Differential Association theory into the Differential AssociationReinforcement Theory, explained what Sutherland had neglected to do through his studies, which was to outline the ways in which definitions are presented and ultimately accepted. Akers confirmed the work of other social learning theorists, such as Bandura to assist him in defining how one could learn or be influenced by behaviors, learning by watching others (i.e., observational learning) and by vicariously experiencing the consequences of other peoples behavior (i.e., vicarious conditioning). (Serin, R, et al., 2011 as quoted in Bandura:1977) In addition to observational learning and vicarious conditioning, in an article specific to adolescent vulnerability to peer influence, it was also stated that adolescents do not have to observe peers engaging in a behavior for it to be reinforced; simply believing that peers approve of the behaviors or perceiving pressure to adopt peers' attitudes promote engagement in the behavior(Petraitis et al., 1995, as

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quoted in Trucco et al., 2011) Because reinforcement can occur through observation, vicarious interactions as well as through the adoption of conformity, both pro and anti social, it is important to address the different scopes in which this phenomenon occurs.

If one were to take the stance that crime itself is a social construct and that what a society defines as a crime differs from one to another, the same could be said of delinquency, acts that are less invasive than actual criminal offences yet are still frowned upon by society. Society has a large scope, it can include the global village, the country or city of residence, the school system an adolescent is enrolled in or the programs and services offered by the community as well as opportunity for advancement within the community. When young people feel valued by their communities, trusted by teachers, and connected to parents or other adults, they are far less likely to abuse drugs, drop out of school, and take unnecessary risks (K. Berger, 2010, as quoted in Benson, 2003; B. Stanton & Burns, 2003) Society as a structure has a tendency to reinforce towards more pro-social behaviors. Examples of positive reinforcement in relation to delinquency include governments setting age limitations on the purchase of tobacco and alcohol, the prohibition of substances such as marijuana as well as defining laws surrounding the age of consent in relation to sexual activity. These implicated prohibitions and controls are all definitions. By society stating that it is not in favour of the law to possess or partake in these behaviors, the youth is presented reinforcement in its unacceptability. Further reinforcement for these common acts of delinquency is when other influences in a youths life carry the same perspective, for example, as within family setting where rules regarding alcohol use and dating ages are present. Schools are also able to reinforce pro-

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social behavior further by providing academia on the consequences of substance use, providing resources on the health hazards of smoking, as well as criteria in sexual education. Society structure however can also provide negative reinforcement to a youth. In a society like Vancouver where the legality of Marijuana is openly questioned scientifically, medically as well as socially, negative reinforcement for its use could be applied if an adolescent simply thinks its use is acceptable, a common belief in our region. Another area that research shows how society and its structure can have reinforcing influence on a youths tendency towards delinquent behavior examines socioeconomic factors and the impact of these factors on adolescents. Disadvantaged neighborhoods provide an opportunity to learn delinquent behavior, associate with delinquent peers, and possibly have delinquent behavior reinforced. (Serin et al., 2011) Within the context of social learning, the opportunity to learn delinquent behavior is a definition. To take the impact of negative reinforcement one step further into theory, it would be valuable to place theorists such as Robert Merton and his General Strain theory into accountability as a notable explanation of reinforcement and delinquency if socioeconomic status is being examined. General Strain theory explains that through consensus or conflict within a society, opportunities for criminal behavior are learned to be thought of as necessary for survival, regardless of deviance from culture. Lower-class people have the least opportunity to reach their goals legitimately. (Alder et. Al., 2009) Within strain theory, negative reinforcement is brought on by positive consequences. For example, if an adolescent were to grow up in a home where money was scarce, they may learn that stealing for food has merit, unknowing or disregarding the fact that the theft is an actual act of delinquency because of their desperation and the positive consequence of

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receiving food for their actions, reinforcing their decision to steal. Other forms of reinforcement available from society are cultural myths and beliefs. For example, if a young man involves himself in a fight, there is fair chance a common response could be the negative reinforcement through the idiom boys will be boys, a definition that could be interpreted by the youth as an excuse for their actions and an example of the Labeling Theory. They are, therefore they are.

The family that an adolescent was raised in plays an integral role to reinforcement in a youths decision to engage in delinquency. The family is where reinforcement begins and it is provided though common beliefs, values, communication and discipline. Research on a youths likelihood of experimenting with the use of Marijuana highlighted the importance of the family and its positive reinforcement in a youths decision to smoke by saying youths who spend more time with their parents, who are closer to their parents, and whose parents reportedly have a greater influence over what they say or do have lower average rates of participation in these law-violating behaviors (Brauer, J. R., 2009). On the contrary, negative reinforcement within the family structure can be provided to an adolescent in the context of substance use (marijuana, alcohol, tobacco) if it is present in the home as a socially acceptable substance. Another important role of reinforcement within the family structure is that of siblings, specifically highlighting the type of reinforcement an older sibling provides to a younger sibling If older siblings are aggressive, are sexually active, or use drugs, teenagers are more likely to follow their siblings example than to learn from their own mistakes. (Berger, 2010). This is an example of what Akers is hypothesizing through his differential association-

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reinforcement theory when he addresses the pattern of vicarious learning as a way one is influenced by the definitions they are presented with. Andrews and Bonata created a list through a mega-analysis that outlined the Central Eight Risk Factors in correlation to crime. Within the Central Eight, family is presented as having significant impact with monitoring and supervision being highlighted as key elements to prevention in non-social behavior. Monitoring and supervising activities is an integral role that parents can play in reinforcing their child towards pro-social behavior. Parents are able to monitor many of the risk factors outlined by Andrews and Bonata, such as anti-social associates, leisure/recreation, education as well as the ability to supervise characteristics associated with delinquency such as adventure seeking and weak self-control. (as quoted in Serin, 2010) By being proactive in the application of monitoring and supervision, parents are reinforcing their children with their expectations for pro-social behavior, it is however important though for parents to remember that when parents permit too much freedom, they may put their young adolescents at risk for a negative peer context, but they can also put their young adolescents at risk if they are perceived as being too intrusive. (Godstein et al., 2005: as quoted in Berger, 2010)

Contrary to the above statistics, it is peer groups that are mostly awarded with the dominant role of reinforcing a youth in their potential delinquency. The learning methods within differential association-reinforcement theory play heavy influence to a youth in relation to their peers. Research across a variety of contexts supports this idea [differential association-reinforcement], which shows that individuals conform to dominant group norms and often change their behavior and attitudes to achieve

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congruence. (McGloin, J., 2009) If a youth believes that the popular crowd is participating in behaviors such as alcohol use, smoking and sex, they are more likely to consider it as an activity to partake in it themselves if reinforcement as a child/youth was not provided in a way that encouraged resilience to these risks. Within social learning, it is believed that one does not need to witness or experience the behavior, as long as they believe it is socially accepted, they are more likely to adopt its principle. As established earlier, there is correlation between the number of negative definitions presented to a youth and the susceptibility to engage in later delinquent behavior because of the presence of excess definitions. Peer substance use and use promotion are considered one of the strongest predictors of adolescent substance use and abuse (Marshal, M. P., 2000) For example, a youth would be more likely to consume alcohol at a party if it were apparent that the majority of the other youth were participating in its use. There are 2 definitions within this example. The first is the potential for peer pressure. If the youth at this party is pressured to conform to the behavior of their present peers, they have received the reinforcement that in order to fit in, they must partake. Another definition available to interpretation would be a youth witnessing their peers partake in the use of alcohol and without external prompting, vicariously associate their potential use with peer acceptance and make a decision for themselves based again on resilience. Although negative reinforcement within peer groups is most definitely present, peer socialization also plays a large part in protecting a youth from engaging in delinquent behaviors. Peers facilitate both destructive and constructive behaviors in one another, making it easier to do both the wrong thing Lets all skip school Friday and the right thing lets study together for that chemistry exam. Peer facilitation helps individuals do things that

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they would be unlikely to do on their own. (Berger, 2010) Peer selection and facilitation is the process of a youth creating their social interactions based on their interests. If a youth has been given opportunity through influences such as sports teams and hobby clubs to socialize with other healthy, active peers they will receive positive reinforcement from pro-social behaviors that encourage a healthy lifestyle. (familyfirstaid.org) The relation to reinforcement is within the peer groups they chose to adhere to, just as it was previously examined how the presence of multiple negative definitions can influence ones decision to act in delinquency, the presence of multiple positive definitions can encourage one to remain a pro-social, contributing youth in the community.

It is important be aware of factors within an individual that can make one more susceptible to interpreting social definitions and adopting them, or choosing not to, into their lifestyle. An adolescents own personal development is integral to their interpretation and understanding of present reinforcements. Adolescence is a developmental period when the amount of time spent with peers increases and peer relationships become the primary social context that influences social development. (Rubin. et. al., 1998: as quoted Trucco, 2011) This finding is relevant in relation to an adolescents cognitive development as they are at a time where their brains are forming and they are learning to interpret their worlds to learn adult decisions. Cognitive development in a youths response to personal surveys about hypothetical dilemmas is not often a factor taken into consideration as pointed out by Berger, 2010, in the Adolescence chapter. It quotes Turbo-charged engines with an unskilled driver and when emotions are intense, especially when one is with peers, the logical part of the brain shuts down If a youth is

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unable to see logic in their decisions towards non-social behavior if their emotions are high and their logic shuts off as stated, how are they supposed to be expected to make a proper interpretation of a definition when their emotions are in the way which more often that not will revolve around a short term goal of peer acceptance? Resilience is also an tool in the defence from negative reinforcement. Resilience is the ability to not conform, compress or sway in persuasion towards behaviors and attitudes that reflect different values and beliefs than what have been instilled by the establishment of a healthy, prosocial upbringing. A quote on resilience specifically in relation to teens that possess it says that they engage in many trials, and commit many errors, and suffer many selfgenerated setbacks; but, unlike the contrast group, they learn from the storms of adolescence, absorbing lessons in interpersonal psychology, in handling feelings, and in shaping their environment (www.psychologytoday.com) Because reinforcement has the ability to influence one through many portals, a youths ability to recognize their potential risk factors and refrain from conforming to possible delinquency is possibly of most importance in the rebellion from negative reinforcement. Their resilience and ability to learn from setbacks will allow them to use their experiences to mold themselves into functioning, pro-social adults by using the positive reinforcements they receive from their pro-social behavior and adopting societies views and ethics into their own personal lifestyle.

In conclusion to this research, the hypothesis that in regards to adolescent-onset delinquency, reinforcement and its application are instrumental to a youths heuristics of individuality, which will one day identify as pro-social or not, has proven to be a true

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prediction. As a youth justice worker, the best tool Ive learned from this research is that just because reinforcement seems like such an obvious trajectory for delinquency, it may not be fully understood because of its complexity but also because of a youths inability to recognize it. It is our job as the adult on the outside who is able to monitor and supervise to ensure we are also educating. The youth in our care need to be taught to be on guard and aware of the messages they receive from influences such as their friends, affiliations, popular culture and hostile home environments. If they are aware, they will be able to make decisions for themselves, understanding that yes we are social and likely to be reinforced by our environments around us, but ultimately it is our own decision to adopt pro-social identities and the positive reinforcements affiliated with doing so.