PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Process theories, or extrinsic theories, attempt to identify the relationships among the dynamic variables which make up motivation and the actions required to influence behaviour and actions. They provide a further contribution to our understanding of the complex nature of work motivation. Many of the process theories cannot be linked to a single writer, but major approaches and leading writers under this heading include: Expectancy-based models Vroom, and Porter and Lawler Equity theory Adams Goal theory Locke Attribution theory Heider, and Kelley (this was discussed in Chapter 11). Expectancy-based models Vroom, and Porter and Lawler The underlying basis of expectancy theory is that people are influenced by the expected results of their actions. Motivation is a function of the relationship between: 1 effort expended and perceived level of performance; and 2 the expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) will be related to performance. There must also be the expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) are available. These relationships determine the strength of the motivational link. (See Figure 12.7.) Performance therefore depends upon the perceived expectation regarding effort expended and achieving the desired outcome. For example, the desire for promotion will result in high performance only if the person believes there is a strong expectation that this will lead to promotion. If, however, the person believes promotion to be based solely on age and length of service, there is no motivation to achieve high performance. A persons behaviour reflects a conscious choice between the comparative evaluations of alternative behaviours. The choice of behaviour is based on the expectancy of the most favourable consequences.

Expectancy theory is a generic theory of motivation and cannot be linked to a single individual writer. There are a number of different versions and some of the models are rather complex. More recent approaches to expectancy theory have been associated with the work of Vroom and of Porter and Lawler.

ERG theory A modified need hierarchy model has been presented by Alderfer. This model condenses Maslows five levels of need into only three levels based on the core needs of existence, relatedness and growth (ERG theory). (See Table 12.2.) Existence needs are concerned with sustaining human existence and survival, and cover physiological and safety needs of a material nature. Relatedness needs are concerned with relationships to the social environment, and cover love or belonging, affiliation, and meaningful interpersonal relationships of a safety or esteem nature. Growth needs are concerned with the development of potential, and cover selfesteem and self-actualisation. Like Maslow, Alderfer suggests that individuals progress through the hierarchy from existence needs, to relatedness needs, to growth needs, as the lower-level needs become satisfied. However, Alderfer suggests these needs are more a continuum than hierarchical levels. More than one need may be activated at the same time. Individuals may also progress down the

hierarchy. There is a frustrationregression process. For example, if an individual is continually frustrated in attempting to satisfy growth needs, relatedness needs may reassume most importance. The lower-level needs become the main focus of the individuals efforts. Alderfer proposed a number of basic propositions relating to the three need relationships. Some of these propositions followed Maslows theory, some were the reverse of the theory. A number of studies were undertaken to test these propositions across different samples of people in different types of organisations. Results from the studies were mixed. For example, the proposition that the less existence needs are satisfied the more they will be desired received constant support from all six samples. However, the proposition that satisfaction of existence needs activates desire for relatedness needs was not supported in any of the six samples. Unlike Maslows theory, the results of Alderfers work suggest that lower-level needs do not have to be satisfied before a higher-level need emerges as a motivating influence.

The results, however, do support the idea that lower-level needs decrease in strength as they become satisfied. ERG theory states that an individual is motivated to satisfy one or more basic sets of needs. Therefore if a persons needs at a particular level are blocked then attention should be focused on the satisfaction of needs at the other levels. For example, if a subordinates growth needs are blocked because the job does not allow sufficient opportunity for personal development, then the manager should attempt to provide greater opportunities for the subordinate to satisfy existence and relatedness needs.

Herzbergs Motivation Maintenance Model/Two Factor Theory

Herzberg in the late fifties developed a motivation theory known as motivation hygiene theory or two-factor theory of motivation. For this purpose, he conducted a study and interviewed some 200 engineers and accountants and asked them to think of a time when they felt good at their jobs and a time when they felt bad at their job and then to describe condition which led to such feelings. Researchers concluded that factors responsible for job satisfaction are different from factors that led to dissatisfaction. Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are not opposite to each others. Absence of job satisfaction does not mean in job dissatisfaction but it is no job satisfaction. The factors so identified where classified by him into two categories: 1) Motivational Factors: These factors are related to the nature of work (job content) and are intrinsic to the job itself. These factors have a positive influence on morale, satisfaction, efficiency and higher productivity. Some of these factors are Achievement, Recognition, Work itself, Responsibility, Advancement, and Possibility of Growth. 2) Hygiene Factors / Maintenance Factors: Hygiene factors do not motivate people. They simply prevent dissatisfaction and maintain status quo. They produce no growth but prevent loss. The absence of these factors leads to job dissatisfaction. The elimination of dissatisfaction does not mean satisfaction and these factors simply maintain a zero level of motivation. For example, if a person indicated low pay as a cause of dissatisfaction, it would not necessarily identify high pay as a cause of satisfaction. Some of these factors are Company Policies and administration, Relationship with supervisor, Work conditions, Salary, Relationship with peers, Personal life, Relationship with subordinates, Status, job Security. Herzbergs Classification of Maintenance and Motivational Factors Maintenance Factors or Dissatisfiers or Hygiene Factors Motivational Factors or Satisfiers

Herzberg noted that the two sets of factors are one-dimensional as their effect can be seen in one direction only. If hygiene factors are present, they act as maintenance factors and if they are absent, they act as dissatisfies. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. But if motivators are present, they provide satisfaction or motivation to the individual. And if motivators are absent, the individual will get no satisfaction. Thus, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are independent rather than opposite ends of the same continuum as was traditionally believed.

D) Mc Clellands Theory of Need David McClelland proposed that an individuals specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by ones life experiences. Most of these needs can be classed as achievement, affiliation, or power. A persons motivation and effectiveness in certain job functions are influenced by these three needs. McClellands theory sometimes is referred to as the three need theory or as the learned needs theory.

McClelland used projective technique called the Thematic Aptitude Test (TAT) to measure people in three dimensions: the need for power, achievement, and affiliation. Individuals with a high need for power take actions that affect other peoples behaviour and arouse strong emotions in them. The need for power can be revealed in socially acceptable ways (demonstrating a socialised power orientation) or in selfish, inconsiderate ways (a personalised power orientation.) Those with strong need for achievement enjoy competition against some standard and unique accomplishment. High achievers like tasks that are neither simple (which anyone could do) or extremely difficult (where the chance of success has more to do with luck than ability), but that challenge them to do their best. People with a strong need for affiliation are particularly concerned with being liked and accepted. These individuals tend to establish, maintain, and restore closer personal relationships with others. a) Need for Achievement People with a high need for achievement (nAch) seek to excel and thus tend to avoid both low-risk and high-risk situations. Achievers avoid low-risk situations because the easily attained success is not a genuine achievement. In high-risk projects, achievers see the outcome as one of chance rather than ones own effort. High nAch individuals prefer work that has a moderate probability of success, ideally a 50% chance. Achievers need regular feedback in order to monitor the progress of their acheivements. They prefer either to work alone or with other high achievers. b) Need for Affiliation Those with a high need for affiliation (nAff) need harmonious relationships with other people and need to feel accepted by other people. They tend to conform to the norms of their work group. High nAff individuals prefer work that provides significant personal interaction. They perform well in customer service and client interaction situations. c) Need for Power A persons need for power (nPow) can be one of two types - personal and institutional. Those who need personal power want to direct others, and this need often is perceived as undesirable. Persons who need institutional power (also known as social power) want to organise the efforts of others to further the goals of the organisation. Managers with a high need for institutional power tend to be more effective than those with a high need for personal power.

Assessment of Needs: Thematic Apperception Test McClelland used the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) as a tool to measure the individual needs of different people. The TAT is a test of imagination that presents the subject with a

series of ambiguous pictures, and the subject is asked to develop a spontaneous story for each picture. The assumption is that the subject will project his or her own needs into the story. Psychologists have developed fairly reliable scoring techniques for the Thematic Apperception Test. The test determines the individuals score for each of the needs of achievement, affiliation, and power. This score can be used to suggest the types of jobs for which the person might be well suited. Implications for Management People with different needs are motivated differently. i) High need for achievement High achievers should be given challenging projects with reachable goals. They should be provided frequent feedback. While money is not an important motivator, it is an effective form of feedback. ii) High need for affiliation Employees with a high affiliation need perform best in a cooperative environment. iii) High need for power Management should provide power seekers the opportunity to manage others.

Porter-Lawler Model
Vrooms expectancy/valence theory has been developed by Porter and Lawler.46 Their model goes beyond motivational force and considers performance as a whole. They point out that effort expended (motivational force) does not lead directly to performance. It is mediated by individual abilities and traits, and by the persons role perceptions. They also introduce rewards as an intervening variable. Porter and Lawler see motivation, satisfaction and performance as separate variables, and attempt to explain the complex relationships among them. Their model recognises that job satisfaction is more dependent upon performance, than performance is upon satisfaction. These relationships are expressed diagrammatically (Figure 12.9) rather than mathematically. In contrast to the human relations approach which tended to assume that job satisfaction leads to

improved performance, Porter and Lawler suggest that satisfaction is an effect rather than a cause of performance. It is performance that leads to job satisfaction. Value of reward (Box 1) is similar to valence in Vrooms model. People desire various outcomes (rewards) which they hope to achieve from work. The value placed on a reward depends on the strength of its desirability. Perceived effortreward probability (Box 2) is similar to expectancy. It refers to a persons expectation that certain outcomes (rewards) are dependent upon a given amount of effort.

The various elements of Porter and Lawlers model as depicted in figure are discussed below: i) Effort: It refers to the amount of energy exerted by a person on a job. ii) Value of Reward or Valence: The outcome of a particular behavior (i.e., effort put by an individual), has a specific valence (or motivating power or value) for each individual. For instance, the possibility of promotion may have a high valence for individuals who like higher responsibilities and may have a low value for individuals who don't want to accept higher responsibilities. Thus, valence is determined by the concerned individual and is not an objective quality of the outcome itself. iii) Perceived Effort-Reward Probability: It refers to the individual's perception of the probability that different rewards depend upon different degrees of efforts. Value of reward

for a person and his perception of effort reward probability will determine the amount of efforts he will put. iv) Performance: Effort leads to performance. But both may not be equal. In fact, performance is determined by the amount of effort and ability and role perception of the individual. That means, if an individual is lacking in ability and/or has wrong role perception, his performance is bound to be unsatisfactory in spite of his putting great efforts. v) Rewards: Performance may lead to two kinds of rewards, namely; intrinsic rewards such as a sense of self-actualization and extrinsic rewards such as working conditions and status. The intrinsic rewards are much more likely to produce attitudes about satisfaction that are related to performance. Moreover, the perceived equitable rewards vitally affect the performance-satisfaction relationship. They reflect the fair level of rewards that the individual feels should be given for a particular level of performance. vi) Satisfaction: The extent to which actual rewards fall short, meet or exceed the individual's perceived level of equitable rewards determines the degree of satisfaction. If actual rewards meet or exceed perceived equitable rewards, the individual will feel satisfied and if these are less than equitable rewards, the individual will feel dissatisfied.

Equity theory of motivation Equity theory of motivation was formulated by J.S. Adams. The Equity Theory of Motivation deals with the way people compare the value of themselves to others in similar work situations based on their inputs and outputs. Inputs are what you bring to the situation, like your skills, time and education. Outputs are everything you get in return, like your salary, bonuses, raises and promotions. It assumes that peoples motivation in an organization is based on the desire to be treated equally and fairly. When the output/input ratio is viewed as equivalent then equity is perceived as attained, there is not much motivation to change the situation. According to Adams (1965) the focus of the theory is on the exchange relationship where individuals give something and expect something in return. What the individual gives is called inputs. On the other side of the exchange, is what the individual receives, called outcomes. The third variable in addition to inputs and outcomes is called the reference person or group. This reference group can be a coworker, relative, neighbor, or group of coworkers. It may even be the person himself in another job or another social role. Table 1 above lists these inputs and outcomes in details.

Table 1. inputs and Outcomes of Equity Theory

The theory proposes that the motivation to act develops after the person compares inputs/outcomes with the identical ratio of the relevant other. Inequity is defined as the perception that persons job inputs/outcomes ratio is not equal to the inputs/outcomes ratio of the comparison other. The basic equity proposal assumes that, upon feeling inequity, the person is motivated to reduce it. Further the greater the felt inequity, the greater the motivation to reduce it. Thus, equity as motivation force will act as follows:

When attempting to reduce inequity, the person may try a number of alternatives, some of which are: 1) Altering his or her inputs. 2) Altering his or her outcomes. 3) Distorting his or her inputs and outcomes cognitively. 4) Leaving the field. 5) Trying to alter or cognitively distort input and outcomes of the comparison other, or force him or her to leave the field. 6) Changing the comparison other.

Figure above contains three different equity relationships: equity, negative inequity and positive inequity. Assume the two people of the equity relationships in figure above have equivalent backgrounds and perform identical tasks. Only their hourly pay rates differ. Equity exists for an individual when his or her ratio of perceived outcomes to inputs is equal to that of the comparison other (See part 1 in figure above). If the comparison other enjoys greater outcomes for similar inputs, negative inequity will be perceived (See part 2 in figure above). On the other hand, a person will experience positive inequity when his or her outcome to input ratio is greater than that of the comparison other (See part 3 in figure above). It is not that the person feeling inequity alone gets motivated to restore equity. The person with a feeling of equity also gets motivated but to maintain the current situation.

Goal-Setting Theory Locke and Latham provide a well-developed goal-setting theory of motivation. The theory emphasizes the important relationship between goals and performance. Research supports predictions that the most effective performance seems to result when goals are specific and challenging, when they are used to evaluate performance and linked to feedback on results, and

create commitment and acceptance. The motivational impact of goals may be affected by moderators such as ability and self-efficacy. Deadlines improve the effectiveness of goals. A learning goal orientation leads to higher performance than a performance goal orientation, and group goal-setting is as important as individual goal setting.

Elements of Goal-Setting Theory Edwin Locke studied the processes by which employees set goals for themselves and then put in efforts to achieve them. There are four elements of goal-setting model explained below: 1) Goal Acceptance: The employees should understand the implications of goals for them and also accept them. If difficult goals are assigned to individuals, they may not feel attached to the goals. That is why, it is desired that the managers should follow a participative approach in setting the goals for the subordinates. 2) Goal Specificity: A specific goal identifies the target in quantitative or measurable terms. This would enable the worker to evaluate his performance and judge as to how he is doing in relation to the goal. Meeting a goal provides the worker with a sense of achievement, pride and personal satisfaction. Specific goals reduce ambiguity and each employee gets a very clear idea as to what is expected of him. This results in improved performance. 3) Goal Challenge: Difficult but feasible goals provide more challenge than easy goals. Reaching an easy target is not competitive and hence hardly exciting. This is particularly true for high need achievers.

However, even the challenging goals must be achievable, given the capability and experience of the individual and the resources available, 4) Performance Feedback: The employees, who have set challenging goals for themselves, need feedback about how well they are doing and how successful they are. Proper feedback can motivate them further. Performance feedback tends to encourage better job performance and self-generated feedback is an especially powerful motivational tool. Goal setting theory proposed that challenging and specific goals are more likely to lead towards better performance. Proper feedback can sustain motivation further. In addition to feedback, two other factors have been found to influence the goals-performance relationship. These are goal commitment and self-efficacy. Goal-setting theory presupposes that an individual is committed to the goal; that is, is determined not to lower or abandon the goal. This is most likely to occur when goals are made public, when the individual has an internal locus of control, and when the goals are self-set rather than assigned. Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief that he is capable of performing a task. If a person has higher self-efficacy, he would have greater confidence to succeed in accomplishing the goal. So, in difficult situations, we find that people with low self-efficacy are more likely to lessen their effort or give up altogether, while those with high self-efficacy are likely to try harder to master the challenge.

Personality Tests
A personality test is a questionnaire or other standardized instrument designed to reveal aspects of an individual's character or psychological makeup. Since personality of an individual plays a crucial role

in shaping an organization, several methods have been evolved to measure personality. Many employers utilize personality tests in the employment selection process to identify people who have more than just the knowledge and skills necessary to be successful in their jobs. The work place is full of people whose personalities are a mismatch for the positions they hold. Psychology has the ability to measure personality and emotional intelligence (EQ), which can provide employers with data to use in the selection process. Personality refers to an individuals unique constellation of consistent behavioral traits and emotional intelligence consists of the ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion.By using personality tests in hiring, employers can increase their number of successful employees.

Types of Personality Tests

1) The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Assessment is a personality test designed to measure preferences in how people see the world and make decisions. The MBTI was originally developed in the 1940s by Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, who thought that an understanding of personality preferences would help women who were entering the workforce for the first time to identify the sort of war-time jobs which would suit them best. By the early 1960s, the initial questionnaire had become refined into the MBTI. The MBTI uses a series of forced choice questions in which the individual has to choose only one of two possible answers to each question. The choices are a mixture of word pairs and short statements and are chosen to reflect opposite preferences. Participants may skip questions if they feel they are unable to choose. The current North American English version of the MBTI includes 93 forced choice questions and there are 88 questions in the European English version. 2) The SHL OPQ32r This test measures aspects of behaviour that are crucial to performance potential, which cannot easily be identified by other techniques, such as reading CVs and interviewing. The OPQ32r provides a clear, simple framework for understanding the impact of personality on job performance. The OPQ32r is available in more than 30 languages and is administered online. The questionnaire takes the majority of people less than 30 minutes to complete and a range of reports are available, providing clear, concise, graphical summaries of performance against job competencies. Most of these reports are designed for use by line managers.

3) Personality Inventories As a widely used method of measuring personality, it consists of several statements related with a specific dimension of personality and individuals are asked to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement. This is usually done by asking both negatively and positively worded statements on selected common themes. 4) Projective Tests This test is conducted to investigate more difficult and sophisticated aspects of an individuals personality. The assumption is that some of the dormant fantasies, feelings, hopes and aspirations can be measured to asses a personality. The test consists of ten

pictures; one half being the same as other half. These are ambiguous, unstructured inkblots and the individuals are asked to indicate what they see in these pictures. Another projective method is the thematic appreciation. Morgan and Murray (1935) developed this test. It consists of twenty pictures, each of which represents a social setting. These pictures provide a relatively defined situations and the individual is asked to write a story of what might be happening in that social situation. 5) Assessment Centre This test consists of a variety of methods used to evaluate the personality of employees in organizations. It may consist of situational tests, management problems, in-basket exercises, business plan presentations, letter and memo writing etc. It is followed by developing behavior categories to assess the performance on the key result areas. The dimensions assessed are personality characteristics such as sensitivity to others, career ambition, integrity, independence etc. 6) IPIP-NEO Personality Test As a personality assessment tool we have chosen the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP-NEO) Test because it has a fairly large number of personality traits that can be associated with the cultural dimensions used to describe the organization. The IPIP-NEO Test estimates the individuals personality on five broad domains (known as the Five-Factor Model) and 30 sub-domains. The test measures normal differences in personality

Reason to go for personality tests Despite the controversy surrounding some of these personality tests, there has been a dramatic increase in the use of personality tests over the past ten years or so. The single most frequently given reason for increases in testing is the need to have a selection process which can withstand legal challenges. Increased test use can therefore be seen in part as a defensive strategy, adopted in response to regulation and legislation. Another factor is the ease with which these tests can now be delivered online. This approach has distinct advantages over paper-andpencil tests: 1) There is no need to print and distribute printed material. This has dramatically lowered the cost of test administration.

2) Results can be processed immediately with no human input. The test administration software can produce very detailed and impressive looking reports. See Example. 3) There has been a growing acceptance of personality testing among the general public. Many people quite happily complete online personality profiles in their own time outside of the recruitment process. 4) There are now more suppliers producing a greater variety of tests. This has driven costs down even further and increased the choice of tests available to recruiting organizations.

Practical Application of Personality Tests

In recent years, more organizations have been using self-reporting personality tests to identify personality traits as part of their hiring or management development processes. Employers recognize that experience, education, and intelligence may not be the only indicators of who the best hire might be. Additionally, understanding one's own personality characteristics may improve one's ability to develop as an employee and manager. Therefore, it is important to understand the different facets of personality and the ways in which they can be measured. Research into the human personality has been conducted for many decades, and much of this work has focused on defining personality and understanding how many dimensions of personality there are. One primary area of agreement about personality is that it is a trait. Most researchers agree that while more than five dimensions of personality are present in human beings, nearly all of them can be subsumed within five: emotional stability, conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion, and openness to experience. 1) EMOTIONAL STABILITY. Emotional stability (also called neuroticism, when scored oppositely) involves a person's ability to remain stable and balanced. A person who is high in emotional stability is even-tempered, calm, and somewhat resistant to stress. A person who is low in emotional stability tends to be moody, depressed, and very susceptible to stress. In most professions, a person who is high in emotional stability is preferred. Employees with low emotional stability are more likely to be distracted from work by stress, deadlines, or situations in their personal lives, whereas those with high levels of this trait are more able to control their emotions and feelings at work. 2) CONSCIENTIOUSNESS.

Conscientiousness is a person's ability to be dependable, organized, punctual, and to persist in the face of setbacks. Research indicates that conscientiousness is the personality characteristic that is most related to job performance across a variety of jobs. Thus, in nearly every situation, a person who is high in conscientiousness will be better suited to perform a job. Individuals who are low in conscientiousness do not give much attention to detail, are likely to overlook deadlines, or may lose important documents. Additionally, individuals low in conscientiousness is more likely to give up when faced with challenges or difficulties in their work, whereas employees with high conscientiousness will continue to persist. 3) AGREEABLENESS. Agreeableness, when high, indicates that a person is warm, friendly, and tactful. Low agreeableness is demonstrated when employees are cold, abrasive, and unfriendly. Preference on whether an employee high in agreeableness or low in agreeableness is somewhat dependent on the type of job. In general, a person with high agreeableness can be easier to work with, because they tend to be easier to talk to and interact with in a group setting. And, in some jobs, being highly agreeable is an advantage, such as in sales, or in other jobs that require patient and friendly interactions with people. However, there are some jobs in which being too warm and friendly can be a detriment, such as a collections agent; and in these jobs, being low in agreeableness could be advantageous.

Table 1

Personality Factor

Characteristics

of Characteristics

of

Individuals High in Factor People Low in Factor

Calm Resistant stress to

Anxious Depressed Insecure Susceptible stress to

Emotional Stability

Secure Stable Dependable Organized Persevering Punctual Amiable Cooperative Flexible Trusting Active Assertive Excitable Sociable

Disorganized Easily discouraged

Conscientiousness

Unpredictable Unreliable Aloof Contrary Suspicious Unfriendly Apprehensive Dull Shy Timid

Agreeableness

Extraversion

Creative Curious Insightful Intellectual

Bored Intolerant Routine-oriented Uninterested

Openness Experience

to

4) EXTRAVERSION. Extraversion is how outgoing and social a person is. Someone high in extraversion enjoys crowds, social gatherings, and working in groups. A person low in extraversion is more comfortable working on his or her own and is less gregarious. As with agreeableness, the level of extraversion that is desired in an employee is dependent on the job. In jobs that involve interacting with others, such as sales, teaching, or public relations, high extraversion may be helpful. However, if a job requires independent work and solitude, such as computer programming, having a person high in extraversion may be difficult, and thus a person lower in extraversion would be preferred.

5) OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE. Openness to experience refers to how open-minded a person is. An individual who is high in openness to experience is curious, imaginative, open-minded, and enjoys trying new things. People who are low in openness to experience are routine-oriented, close-minded, literal, and prefer not to try new things. As with agreeableness and extraversion, the degree to which an employee is benefited by openness depends on the job. High openness is important in jobs that require creativity and flexibility; you would definitely prefer to have high openness in advertising or research positions. However, some jobs reward routine work, and in those jobs in which creativity is not needed or desired, a person low in openness may find these jobs more rewarding.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), developed by Isabel Briggs Myers and her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs, is a well known and widely used personality inventory based on the psychological theories of Carl Gustav Jung. It is often used as a tool for discovering and understanding different normal human personalities and can be utilized in a variety of applications such as academic counseling, career development, conflict resolution, leadership training and relationship counseling, just to cite a few. However, it should be noted that MBTI is not a test as there are no right or wrong answers and it does not reveal everything about oneself. Based on Jungs psychoanalytical theories, Myers deduced that there were four dichotomies which made people differ from one another and referred to them as type preferences. The four dichotomies and their brief descriptions are presented below: a) Extraversion or Introversion: Indicates whether people prefer to acquire their personal energy from the outer world of people and activities, or from inner world of ideas and thoughts. E.g., extraverts prefer being in large group of people and introverts tend to take pleasure in quieter activities. b) Sensing or INtuition: Describes how people take in information, whether they focus on what is actual and real (factual-based) or prefer to interpret or apply meaning to what they see. E.g., people who prefer sensing is down-to-earth and more dependent on past experiences, where as people who prefer intuition are considered idealists and rely more on the future.

c) Thinking or Feeling: Indicates how people prefer to make decisions, whether it is based on logical thinking or influenced by their concerns for themselves and others. E.g., people who prefer feeling over thinking are generally predominant in helpful professions such as counselors and they pay close attention to other peoples needs. In addition, those who prefer thinking may seek factual clarity in solving disputes. d) Judging or Perceiving: Describes the way you manage you life and how you deal with the outer world, whether in an orderly manner or spontaneously. E.g., people who prefer judging like to have everything in order and in a scheduled manner. On the contrary, people who prefer perceiving are more unplanned and spontaneous in their lifestyle, including making decisions. Combinations based on these four categories of type preferences result in 16 different personality types as shown below. i) ISTJ Introverted Sensing with Thinking ii) ISFJ Introverted Sensing with Feeling 3. INFJ Introverted Intuition with Feeling iii) INTJ Introverted Intuition with Thinking iv) ISTP Introverted Thinking with Sensing v) ISFP Introverted Feeling with Sensing vi) INFP Introverted Feeling with Intuition vii) INTP Introverted Thinking with Intuition viii) ESTP Extraverted Sensing with Thinking ix) ESFP Extraverted Sensing with Feeling x) ENFP Extraverted Intuition with Feeling xi) ENTP Extraverted Intuition with Thinking xii) ESTJ Extraverted Thinking with Sensing xiii) ESFJ Extraverted Feeling with Sensing xiv) ENFJ Extraverted Feeling with Intuition xv) ENTJ Extraverted Thinking with Intuition

Research on attitudes assumed that they were causally related to behavior; that is, the attitudes that people hold determine what they do. Common sense, too, suggests a relationship.

However, in the late 1960s, a review of research challenged this interpretation of the relationship between attitudes and behavior, concluding that attitudes were unrelated to behavior or, at best, only slightly related However, more recent research has demonstrated that attitudes significantly predict future behavior and confirmed original belief that the relationship can be enhanced by taking moderating variables into account. 1) Moderating Variables The most powerful moderators of the attitudebehavior relationship are these: a) Importance of the attitude Important attitudes reflect fundamental values, self interest, or identification with individuals or groups that a person values. Attitudes that individuals consider important tend to show a strong relationship to behavior. b) Its specificity. The more specific the attitude and the more specific the behavior, the stronger the link between the two. For instance, asking someone specifically about her intention to stay with the organization for the next six months is likely to better predict turnover for that person than if you asked her how satisfied she was with her pay. c) Its accessibility.

Attitudes that are easily remembered are more likely to predict behavior than attitudes that are not accessible in memory. Interestingly, youre more likely to remember attitudes that are frequently expressed. So the more you talk about your attitude on a subject, the more youre likely to remember it, and the more likely it is to shape your behavior. d) The existence of social pressures. Discrepancies between attitudes and behavior are more likely to occur when social pressures to behave in certain ways hold exceptional power. This tends to characterize behavior in organizations. This may explain why an employee who holds strong anti-union attitudes attends pro-union organizing meetings or why tobacco executives, who are not smokers themselves and who tend to believe the research linking smoking and cancer, dont actively discourage others from smoking in their offices. e) A persons direct experience with the attitude.

The attitudebehavior relationship is likely to be much stronger if an attitude refers to something with which the individual has direct personal experience. Asking college students with no significant work experience how they would respond to working for an authoritarian supervisor is far less likely to predict actual behavior than asking that same question of employees who have actually worked for such an individual. Self-Perception Theory Although most attitudebehavior studies yield positive results, researchers have achieved still higher correlations by pursuing another direction: looking at whether behavior influences attitudes. This view, called self perception theory, has generated some encouraging findings. For instance, when asked about an attitude toward some object, individuals often recall their behavior relevant to that object and then infer their attitude from their past behavior. Self-perception theory, therefore, argues that attitudes are used, after the fact, to make sense out of an action that has already occurred rather than as devices that precede and guide action. When people are asked about their attitudes and they dont have strong convictions or feelings, self-perception theory says they tend to create plausible answers. Self-perception theory has been well supported by, while the traditional attitudebehavior relationship is generally positive, the behaviorattitude relationship is just as strong. This is particularly true when attitudes are vague and ambiguous. However, when individual attitudes have been established for a while and are well defined, those attitudes are likely to guide their behavior too.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). This the most widely used instrument in the world. Respondents are asked a series of situational questions and their answers are categorized on four scales to determine personality type. a. Four Classification Scales: 1) Extraverted/Introverted. People scoring higher on the extraverted side of the scale are more outgoing, social and assertive while those on the introvert side are quiet and shy.

2) Sensing/Intuitive. Sensing individuals are practical, enjoy order and are detail oriented. Intuitive people are more big picture oriented and rely on gut feelings. 3) Thinking/Feeling. This scale is important in decision-making: thinkers use reason and logic while feelers use emotions and their own personal values to make decisions. 4) Judging/Perceiving. Judgers are control oriented and enjoy structure and order. Perceivers are more flexible and spontaneous. b. Sixteen Personality Types: the first letters of the name of the dominant side of each scale (except that N is used for Intuitive) are combined to create a personality type. For instance, ENTJ is a person who is extraverted, intuitive, thinking and judging. This type of person is called Entrepreneur. There are sixteen possible combinations of these four scales. These personality types are used to determine the best match-ups in terms of friends, spouses, coworkers and the like. Unfortunately, the MBTI has been shown to be unrelated to job performance and should not be used as an employment selection tool.