1 ConstructionEquipment(UE502)

Chapter1 IntroductiontoConstructionEquipment

Construction is vital for national development. It may be defined as the creation, renovation, repair and demolition of immobile structures and the alteration of natural topography of the ground. Construction both the activity and the resulting product are notably visible and tangible. Construction reflects the economic, social and cultural activities and value of society. The building and engineering projects with which people come in daily contact affect, in some complex way, their moods and attitudes, their effectiveness and the quality of their lives. Conversely, the traditions, aspirations and vitality of people are reflected in their settlements and their constructed environments. Most construction projects are big and complex, both technically and commercially. There is considerable specialization, both among types of construction and among the site operations of a particular project. With the increasing, understanding of materials, improved designs, improved construction and management techniques and introduction of computers, modern construction is a multi-disciplinary activity. Construction process in character of performance may be mechanized or nonmechanized and in degree of complexity simple and complicated. For example use of Bull Dozer is a simple mechanized work whiles excavation by power shovel is mechanized complex work. Modern construction is becoming complex from time to time. Projects are quite big and complicated. They require a long duration and huge fund. It becomes essential now to use construction equipment to economies the cost of construction. It is not necessary to use construction equipment for small jobs. In most cases the combination of manual labor and machinery appears most justified. Advantages of use of Equipment
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Tough work (beyond the scope of manual), Where human labor is uncertain, The equipment are not affected by social and economic condition of the region, Due to use of machine proper planning of work can be made, which consequently reduce the overall cost of project, For huge work,

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For large quantities to be transported, Equipment help in rapid urbanization of country,

The Drawbacks of Using Machines are Creates unemployment problem, Need maintained properly, High early investment, Needs foreign exchange,

Hence always a comparison is essential between use of machine and labor. Factors to decide for use of equipment or labor: Nature and magnitude of works, Is it essential to use machine? Arrangement of necessary technical support

1.1

Types and Classification of Construction Equipment

Machines and Mechanisms used in construction can be classed in respect to the kind of job, nature of working process, the operation conditions, the type of drive, the capacity (output), the type of running gear, universality and the kind of control. Equipments are used on almost all the project in one form or the other. Equipments are classified as shown below:
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Earthmoving Equipment Excavating and Lifting Equipment Hauling and Placing Equipment Grading and Finishing Equipment Compaction Equipment Asphalt Mixing Plant and Asphalt Laying Equipment Pumping and dewatering Equipment Pile Driving Equipment Concreting Equipment Conveying Equipment

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Bridge Construction Equipment Foundation Equipment Pneumatic Equipment Drilling and Blasting Equipment Shovel and Cranes Trenching Dredging and Tunneling Equipment Aggregate Production Equipment

i) Earthmoving Equipment Earthmoving is a process of cutting and moving soil, rocks or trees from one location to another and processing it so that it meets construction requirements of location, elevation, density, and moisture content and so on. The equipments like Bulldozers are very common of the entire earthmoving machine. Bulldozer is most useful and most project sites require its use in one form or the other. As earthmoving work comprises of Excavating and Lifting, Hauling and Placing, and Compacting; the earthmoving equipment are those required to undertake these tasks. Accordingly, equipments used are; for Excavation and Loading Backhoe, Face shovel, Dragline, Clam shell, and Loaders; for Hauling and Placing Dumpers, Dump trucks, Lorries and Conveyors; for Excavate load haul and place, Dozers, Scrapers and Graders and for Compaction Rollers, Vibrators and Rammers. Besides, earthmoving equipment can be categorized into fixed and mobile. Excavator is under category of fixed while material carrying and pushing equipment are falling under mobile. ii) Excavating and Lifting/Hauling Equipment These are construction equipments used to excavate and load earth material for various purposes. These equipments fall under i) Crane shovel family comprising of Backhoes, Face shovels, Draglines and Clamshells; ii) others comprising of Loaders and Bucket wheel excavators. The shovel family construction equipment comprises of three major assemblies; these are: A carrier or mounting, A revolving superstructure containing the power and control unit and
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A front end attachment. The carrier or mounting can be crawler, truck or wheel mounted type, depending on the mobility required of the equipment. If the job is scattered and requires higher mobility then the wheel mounted is chosen and in case of concentrated work and soft grounds crawler mounted is preferred. The power required depends on the type of material to be excavated, the accuracy of excavation and dumping. The front end attachment is selected depending on the distance from the digging point to the material dumping point, which must be moved by the machine. They could be hydraulic or cable operated. Hydraulic Excavators (Backhoe & Shovel) These two excavators have hydraulic operated front end attachment and are hydraulic excavators except for previous times and in a very few instances at present. The technical characteristics or measure of the hydraulic excavators are its weight and motor output. Based on these two parameters they are divided into three groups:Group-I: with weight of 10, 15, 20 and 25 tons. Their output is less than 150 KW. They are either crawler or wheel mounted. They are transported by low bed trucks or are self driven, if mounted on wheels. Group-II: with weight of 30, 45, and 55 to 60 tons. Their output is 125 to 300 KW. They are manufactured only with crawler mounted and are transported using low bed trucks. They are usually manufactured as backhoes. Group-III: In this group one finds excavators with weight of 70, 135, 200 and 225 tons. Single piece with weight of 350, 500 and 630 tons or higher are sometimes manufactured for rocky excavations open pit mining and cement mining. They are mostly transported dismantled and are assembled on the site. The power ranges above 300 KW. Hydraulic System and Control The equipment has programmable electronic control system, which enable higher output and economical operation. They have built-in load sensors which control or regulate the energy used with the respective demand. Overloading of each driving motor is blocked
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Front End Attachment Hydraulic excavators of group-I are usually equipped with adjustable booms. This arrangement increases the flexibility and mobility of the front end attachment and also increase the effective radius and height. The mobility and flexibility is of an advantage in particular for trench excavations. Hydraulic excavators of group-II are usually equipped with mono block boom and backhoe system. The mono block type is more stable than the adjustable type and also cheaper in fabrication. The third group is meant for rocky excavation in quarry sites, against vertical faces. As a result they are mostly shovels. The excavators can be categorized as Shovel and Back hoes. The shovel is equipment used mainly in quarries, pits and on construction sites and used in excavating/loading blasted rock. They are usually deployed for digging above the machine base line, and they have faster and more accurate digging and dumping cycle. The shovel can be cable operated or hydraulic operated machine. Back hoes are excavators designed primarily for excavation below grade. Thus in a backhoe operation, it is always advantageous to position the hauler at a lower level with respect to the excavator. The only difference between the shovel type excavator and the backhoe type is the direction of the bucket. The backhoe as its name implies is excavating towards itself and the shovel away from itself. There are also the so called telescoping excavator and walking excavators. The telescoping excavator is a hydraulic excavator with same type of mounting and revolving superstructure but with different front end attachment. The front end attachment is a telescoping boom, which can rotate 360o and can be lifted up to 35o up and 85o down with respect to the horizontal. It can be extended up to 12 meters, with each telescoping unit measuring 4 meters. The walking excavator is similar to the other excavators except that its mounting consists of two legs on wheels and two legs on telescoping pedestals, which are used to step forward and backward under difficult situations. iii) Hauling and Placing Equipment Hauling units transport materials from one place to the other. Hauling units are mainly trailers pulled by tractors, trains or trucks.
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The choice of one particular hauling unit is dependent on the working conditions and distance to be transported. Trucks are the most used transport/hauling equipment and they are commonly called dump trucks. They can be front dumper, side dumper, rear dumper or bottom dumper trucks. The selection of dump trucks is based on nature of work, nature of route, matching capacity and whether it on highway or off-highway. iv) Grading and Finishing Equipment Grading is the process of bringing earth work to the desired shape and elevation. Finish grading involves smoothing slopes, shaping ditches and bringing the earthwork to the elevation required by the plans and specifications. The equipment mainly used for these operations is the motor grader. Motor Grader is equipment used for grading, finishing, trimming, bank sloping ditching, backfilling and scarifying. Grader is operating using a blade mounted under its body. v) Compaction Equipment Compaction is the process of increasing the density of a soil by mechanically forcing the soil particles together, thereby expelling air from the void spaces in the soil. Compaction is used to: Increase bearing strength, Reduce compressibility, Improve volume change characteristics, Reduce permeability

Degree of compaction depends on; Soil property, moisture content, compaction method, amount of compaction effort, thickness of soil layer and material gradation. The three basic compaction forces are; manipulation/kneading and dynamic compaction. static compaction/weight,

Static Compaction: Compaction is achieved by pressing. To achieve good compaction bigger weight is required. Nowadays static compaction alone is not used. Manipulation: This is a process of expelling air from the void space by continuously bringing the material to be compacted up and down.
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Dynamic compaction: this involves impact and vibration. Impact and vibration have the same method, but the difference is in their frequency only. Compaction above 50 Hz is vibration and anything below that is impact. Plain steel rollers, Vibrating rollers, Temping rollers, Pneumatic tired rollers are some of the most common compaction equipments. Plain steel rollers or smooth drum roller weighing from 5 to 15 tones are used for ordinary rolling works where deep compaction is not required. Rollers can be a two wheel or three wheel tandem rollers. The rollers are designated in terms of weight which is stated in tones. A 8/10 tones indicates that minimum weight of machine is 8 tones and can be ballasted to give a maximum weight of 10 tones. For compacting earthwork in embankment or canals where compaction is required to be done to a great depth, sheep foot temping roller is used. Pneumatic tired rollers compact the soil through static weight kneading and vibrating. It consists of ballast box mounted between two axles. Manually propelled self-propelled vibro plates are used for consolidation and compaction of soils where large units are not practical. vi) Asphalt Mixing Plant and Asphalt Laying Equipment Tar and bitumen heaters are used to heat tar and bitumen for road construction and maintenance works. Nominal capacity of tar and bitumen heaters are 100, 300, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000, 3000, 5000, 7500 and 10,000 liters. Tar and bitumen sprayer is a bitumen boiler fitted with a pumping and spraying equipment. Nominal capacity of tar and bitumen sprayers is 1000, 1500, 2000, 3000, 5000, 7600 and 10,000 liters. vii)Pumping and dewatering Equipment Many times water creates problem at construction sites. Under such circumstances we need the area to be dewatered to ease the construction. To dewater the area Pumps are required. A pump is a device which transfers the mechanical energy supplied from an external source to the liquid blowing through the machine. Pumps can be submergible or external types as the case may be. Pumps are usually classified into two:

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a) Positive displacement pumps; the operating force is applied directly to the liquid thereby increasing the energy of the liquid. Rotary pumps or reciprocating pumps are the examples of this type. b) Rotodynamic (centrifugal) pumps; employ a rotor moving in a liquid in the casing. The movement of a rotor imports high velocity to the liquid which is then discharged due to the centrifugal force. viii) Pile Driving Equipment

Piles may be driven into the ground by using pile driver. A pile driver consists of a device to hold a length of pile in place, a hoist to lift it into the vertical or inclined position and hammer device to provide impact energy required to derive a pile. ix) Concreting Equipment Concrete referred to as plain concrete is a material obtained by cementing together with inert material such as sand, gravel or some other suitable material which is hard and durable. It is very strong in compression. In general the following operations are involved for production of concrete:a) Batching the material b) Mixing c) Handling and transporting d) Placing finishing and curing Different operations involve different equipments. Batchers: Batchers are used for proportioning the ingredients of concrete. Materials are batched volumetrically or weight batching may be done. For large and important jobs weight batching is more or less essential. If a project is large enough to justify the additional investment in equipment for handling and batching aggregate, an elevated storage bin equipped with a weighing batcher should be used. It will make necessary to provide a clamshell or other suitable equipment to handle and transport aggregate from stock pile to the bin. Cement is also stored in bins and materials are collected in terms of weight, weighing by beam scale or spring less dial scale attached to a hopper, suspended beneath the storage bins.
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Concrete Mixers: Concrete mixers mix the concrete ingredients to make mix of specified consistency. Mixers are specified by volume of mixed concrete discharged after mixing of the batch and expressed in cubic meter. Principal types of concrete mixers are: Drum Type: these consist of drum and they can be Tilting, Non-tilting or reversing types. Paving mixer: are used primarily to mix and place concrete for pavements of highways, streets and airports. They are mounted on crawler trucks in order that they may move along with the placing of concrete. Transit mixers: are the truck units used to supply freshly mixed concrete to a job situated away from the site of the central batching and mixing plant. Mixing of concrete is done in a mixer attached to a truck.

Handling and Transportation: As soon as concrete is mixed it is transferred from place of mixing to the site where it is to be placed. In no case this time should exceed the initial setting time of it. Further it should not cause segregation and should be economical. Compaction of Concrete: To insure dense structure free from bubbles compaction of concrete is done. It can be done by hand or mechanical vibrators. Less vibration do not produce the required compaction while over vibration causes segregation and bleeding of concrete. x) Conveying Equipment A conveyor is an equipment which is capable of carrying material in a continuous stream and usually has some kind of an endless chain or belt which by its motion constitutes the primary device of the conveyor. xi) Bridge Construction Equipment Pile driving equipment is one of the most used bridge construction equipment, where the bridge foundation is pile. Timber piles, concrete piles, steel piles and composite piles are the common ones. Pile driving equipment consists of pile driving hammers and pile driver and accessories. For an ordinary hammer: M.D.2010/11

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Energy = Weight of ram + Fall of hammer Pile hammers are rated in terms of m-kg of energy delivered per blow. A heavy ram impact hammer is working on a short stroke is more effective in driving a pile than a light ram stroke hammer. xii) Foundation Equipment Pile driving equipment is single most important foundation equipment used for pile foundations. For the rest of the works related to foundation works are using the common construction equipments like excavators, loaders, dump trucks and the like. A pile driver consists of a device to hold a length of pile in place, hoist to lift it into the vertical or inclined position and hammer device to provide impact energy required to drive a pile xiii) Pneumatic Equipment

Pneumatic Equipments are construction equipments used in construction jobs, which are operated by use of compressed air. Pneumatic Equipments include; Road Breakers, Jack Hammers, Wagon Drills, Drifters, Concrete Vibrators. Compressed air is used for various other jobs like spray painting, conveyors, riveting hammers and grinders. Compressed air is commonly used because of the following advantages: Can be transmitted from one point to another with ease, use of compressed air is safer Pneumatic tools are lighter than other similar ones, Tools using compressed air do not overheat and are cheaper and easy to maintain.

Air compressor is the most common pneumatic equipment used to increase the pressure of air by reducing its volume.

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19)

Drilling and Blasting Equipment

Drilling and blasting is done before taking up the excavation work. This is commonly carried out for aggregate production, excavating in tunnels, breaking pavement and rocks etc. Drills in construction are operated either by air or by hydraulics. Blasting is done to loosen the rock for ease in excavation. Blasting is performed by discharging the explosive placed in the hole drilled for the purpose. Blasting is discharging of explosive to loosen the rock, Explosive is a chemical compound which when burnt under favorable conditions produces a pressure, Blasting Powder is a low explosive made from Sulphur, charcoal and sodium or potassium nitrate. Since it is slow burning are seldom used for rock blasting. Dynamite is a high explosive with nitroglycerine as the main constituents and are initiated by a detonator. 20) Shovel and Cranes

Shovels Shovel family represents rope operated excavators and uses different types of front end attachments. Followings are the four types front end attachments, by changing them only, one type of machine is converted into another type, basic structure remain unchanged. i) The Dipper or Power Shovel, ii) The Dragline, iii) The Clamshell, iv) The Backhoe or Hoe Dipper Shovel or Power Shovels are used for digging hard rock in quarries or ore in mines. These are used for digging above the machine base level, and have faster and more accurate digging and dumping cycle as compared to dragline, Hoes and Clamshells. The power shovel consists of boom, dipper stick, the bucket and the mechanism of operation. Dragline operates in such a way it drags the bucket against the material to be dug. Long light boom of the dragline allows it to dig and dump over long distance as
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compared to a power shovel or Hoe. Therefore it is most suitable for excavation of channels and cannels can handle wet material and suitable for underwater excavation while standing away from the pit on a firm soil. Unlike power shovel it can dig materials below its track level and can handle only softer materials. Clamshell is a machine having most of the characteristics of dragline and crane in common. Dragging is done like a dragline, once the bucket is filled it works like a crane. It is very useful for accurate spot dumping of material in a confined space in a vertical plane. It is used for handling of loose or soft and medium hard materials only. Hoe is also known as Drag-shovel or pull shovel. Since the digging mechanism resembles to an ordinary garden hoe, the equipment is named as Hoe. The equipment has an ability to penetrate even the toughest of materials. Due to this ability these are commonly used in quarries which have tough digging condition. Cranes Cranes have wide application in construction projects, industries and in shipping etc. These are used for lifting the loads and placing them at desired place. These are generally electric operated or diesel operated. The cranes can be classified in the following five classes: Derrick cranes Mobile crane Overhead crane Traveler crane Tower crane 21) Trenching Dredging and Tunneling Equipment

Trenching is an excavation of trenches for construction purposes. It is an open ditch type of excavation commonly for laying water, power, sewer and other utility lines. Dredging means excavation of bed of river, lake or sea for the purpose of deepening. This excavation is commonly done at docks and harbors to increase the depth of water way to provide sufficient draft for ships. Dredger is an equipment used for dredging. Common dredgers used now a days are Dipper dredger, Ladder dredger, suction dredger and Grapple dredger. Tunneling in recent years has gained importance in construction industry. This are required generally for following purposes:
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For underground traffic, Conduit for water, Access to mines, Conduit for utility services, Subways and underground parking, Selection of equipment for tunneling depends mainly upon quantum of work involved, so that tunneling work is carried out economically, speedily and safely. 22) Aggregate Production Equipment

Aggregate of various sizes are required for most of the construction activities. Production of aggregate involves drilling, blasting, loading, transporting, crushing, screening, handling and storing. Crushing plants are used to produce aggregates. These crushing plants are fed with the stones broken from the rocks. The sizes of the stones depend upon the capacity and the crushing system adopted. Types of Crushers: Followings are types of crushers: i) Jaw Crusher: Jaws crush the stones by compression. The jaw crushers used as either primary or secondary crushers but are considered best for primary crushing. These crushers have two jaws, one is fixed jaw and the other is swing jaw. ii) Impact Crusher: These crushers are used where materials are too hard and abrasive and finished product requirement is for cubical shape well graded material. In these types of crusher, stones are broken by means of impact and not by compression as in jaw crusher. In the impact breaker, stone is normally fed into the top a breaking chamber and struck by rotating hammers while it is in suspension. The hammer repeatedly throw the material against breaker bars forming the roof of the breaker chamber. These are used for primary or secondary crushing. Since impact is instantaneous, the breaking almost eliminates the possibility of the development of hidden cracks in the product. This quality is important for aggregate production. iii) Roller Crusher: The roller crusher is a production crusher, and follows a primary breaker in the crushing circuit. It is suitable for all types of materials. The roller crusher can be adjusted to produce a wide range of sizes of material by changing the discharge opening. The material is fed into the crusher by means of a feeder discharging into the hopper.
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iv) Cone Crusher: Cone crushers are used to produce the final product, since they can receive and crush smaller size of stones of ore and produce more fine aggregates. Crushing Plants: Crushing plants are being manufactured by large number of manufacturers all over the world with capacities up to 1000 tons per hour or so. These plants are either stationary or portable and changes in the design and construction from manufacturers to manufacturer and as per job requirement. The crushing plant employ 2 stages; the primary crushing units are either jaw crusher or impact crusher and produces the rocks to sizes between 75mm and 250mm, whereas the secondary units use jaw, impact or cone crushers, in which primary crushed rock is further reduced to sizes say 5 to 50mm. Materials are transported from the primary unit to the secondary unit by means of conveyor belts. The secondary unit is equipped with vibrating screen, return belt conveyors, stockpiling conveyors and chutes. 1.2 General Principles of Equipments

For machine intensive construction projects the equipment cost to performe a particular activity has to be calculated carefully, so that to estimate the unit price of the individual item. Cost of equipments are commonly calculated on hourly basis. Determination of equipment cost per hour comprises of: - Depreciation cost, - Running cost, - Owning cost The owning cost comprises initial costs other than purchasing cost, insyrance costs, and storage costs. Once the equipment breakeven costs, which include all costs of equipment owning and operating costs as well as the cost of operators and overhead costs are determined then profit margin, which depends entirely on the market competetiveness and company strategies, while income tax based on tax regulations of the specific country need to be considered to arrive to the final equipment cost.

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Once the equipment cost per hour is established, be it on rental basis or otherwise, the cost per unit production or per activity can be determined, provided one knows the equipment production per a given period. i.e.

Forexample:

This hand out will deal with how to estimate the productivities of the different equipment in earth moving operation in the preceding chapters.

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Chapter-2

Planning and Selection of Construction Equipment

Information required to make selection of construction equipments are: Name of manufacturer, model number, capacity, type, engine type, horse power, speed, dimension s, operating pressure, type of controls, fuel consumption and weight. These information are used for evaluation of the bid to purchase the equipment. Some important issues to be taken into consideration while planning and making a selection of construction equipments are; downtime cost, obsolescence cost and depreciation. Downtime Cost: Downtime is a time that a machine is not under working condition. The machine is either under repair or adjustment. Hence the productivity of machine decrease s abd subsequently the production cost per unit increases. The loss of mony because the machine is not being under use due to downtime is called downtime cost. If a machine has an operating cost of 100 birr per hour and downtime is 5%, then downtime cost per hour is 5 birr. Hence if the machine is used for 2000 hours per year the n the total downtime cost is 2000x5 = 10,000 birr. Hence there is a loss of birr 10,000 per year on its production. As the downtime goes on increasing with usage downtime cost also increases. Obsolescence Cost: Due to continuos improvements of machines, the production cost per unit of new machine decreases. This advantage can be gained only by replacing the old equipment by new improved one. A person who has got this older equipment sustains loss in the form of decrease in the profit is called obsolescenece cost.

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Average Value of Equipment: Average cost of the equipment is average of the cost of the equipment in the beginning of first year and nth year. Where n is the useful life of equip ment. Consider an equipment has cost (p) on the date of purchase. It is expected that it will have no salvage after expiry of its useful life.
where, C = Cost of the Equipment

If the Equipment has got salvage value of Vs at the end of useful life of the equipment, the book value of the equipment in the beginning of nth year will be:

Therefore Average Cost of Equipment (C) equals:=

Average annual premium of insurance and taxes are generally calculated on the basis of average cost of equipment. Exaples and exercises are to be worked out. Depreciation: Every asset has got certain useful life. Its biik value goes on decreasing with time. This decrease in value of an asset with use or age is defined as depreciation. It is a means of writing off the cost of the asset in a rational and syatematic manner. The book value of the asset is the difference between the cost of the asset on the data of

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purchasing and the total depreciation made againest asset to that date for which the book value is to be calculated. The simplest way of calculating depreciation of an asset is by distributing the depreciatio n base (original cost of equipment) over its useful life.

2.1

Planning for Construction Equipment

Equipment planning on major construction project besides its relation includes: Type of Equipment, Number and size of Machines Type and amount of works to be done, Availability of equipment and its parts and Working shifts

The type of equipment selected depends on types of work, amount of work, soil condition s and type of material to be handled. The number and size of equipment depends on amount of work, working days availbale, number of shifts, availability of labour etc. 2.2 Selection of Construction Equipment

Propoer selection of construction equipment increases the speed of construction and makes project most economical. Some general considerations may be made from construction equipment selection are: Availability withease, economics should be worked out, Choice should be restricted to standard equipment. Special equipment should be selected if job justifies its selection,
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2.3

Topographical condition, type of soil, access to place etc, Less variety of equipment should be used, Equipments manufactured in own country is prefered, Size of equipment should be according to the amount of work, It is better to use more than one equipment of small size than using of one of large size. Obsolescence of equipment, Equipment should be capable of doing more than one job, but it should not be versatile, The technical and economical aspects should be analysed, Earthmoving Works

Earthmoving is a process of moving soil or rock from one location to another and process ing it so that it meets construction requirements of location elevation, density, moisture content and so on. Activities The activities involved in earthmoving are: Excavating, Loading, Hauling, Placing, Compacting, Grading and Finishing

Materials Soil and rock are materials of interest in construction, when one talks about earthmoving.

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General Soil Charactersitics Trafficability: is ability of a soil to support the weight of vehicles under repeated traffic load. When poor trafiicability condition exists, propoer drainage, stabilization of haul routes or the use of low grounds - pressure construction equipment may be required Loadability: is measure of the difficulty in excavating and loading a soil Soil Volume Change Characteristics Bank: Material is in its natural state before disturbance. Itsunit volume is identified as bank cubic meter (Bm3). Loose: material has been excavated or loaded. Its unit volume is identified as loose cubic meter (Lm3). Compacted: material after compaction. Its unit volume is identified as a compacted cubic meter (Cm3) Swell Swell is an increase in volume of soil due to excavation. During excavation unit bank volume is changed (Bank Density) as a result of swelling. Swell is an expression of relationship between Bank and Loose (excavated) volume.

L=

L=

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B=

Bv= 100

Swell (%) = [ Shrinkage

Shrinkage is a result of compaction and is the reverse of swelling. Shirinkage is an expression of relationship between Bank and Compacted soil volume.

NB:BothSwellandShrinkagearecalculatedagainstBankVolume

Load and Shrinkage Factors In performing earthmoving calculations it is more apropriate to convert all volumes into a common unit of measurement. (one of VL, VB, VC). To simplify the computation it is good to have a conversion factor. These factors are called Load Factor and Shrinkage Factor. A Pay meter is that volume unit which is used as a basis of payment in contract. Load Factor:

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But

Spoil Banks If a pile of excavated material is long when compared to its width it is called spoil bank, but if it is dumped from a fined position a spoil pile is created. Spoil Bank is excavted material while Spoil Pile is Dumped.

H B

=AngleofRepose L>B

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Conical Spoil Pile

H=D/2*tan
H

V=D3tan/24 D3=24V/tan

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Chapter - 3 Production and Job Management of Construction Equipment

The aim of project management is to make the project cost effective as much as possible. If the cist is not competent the project cost becomes too high to win the bid. Therefore production estimate of equipments and job management is necessary in the construction projects. 1. Earthmoving Equipments The production of earthmoving equipment can be estimated by: Production = Volume per cycle * Cycle per hour Cycle per hour include all appropriate efficiency factors, so that it represents the number of cycles actually achieved (expected to be achieved) per hour. Usually manufactureres provide charts on table.

Cycle per hour can be determined by: a) number of effective working minutes per hour, b) multiplying the number of theorotical cycle per hour by a numerical efficiency factor as follows:Job Condition Excellent Excellent Good Fair Poor
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Management Condition Good 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.61

Fair 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.57 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.52

Poor

0.84 0.78 0.72 0.63

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management condition includes:- Skill, training and motivation of workers, - Selection, operation and maintenance of Equipments, - Planning job layout, supervision and condition of work Job condition includes:- Topography and work dimension, - Surface and weather condition, - Specification requirement, Exercice-1 Observation indicate that an excavation carries an average bucket load of 1.5 Lm3 per cycle. Cycle time average 1 minute. Job conditions are rated as good and management condition as fair. Estimate the hourly production in Lm3 for this operation. Exercise-2 The hourly cost of a shovel is Birr 36 and of a truck is Birr 16. If an equipment fleet consisting of one shovel and eight trucks achieve a production of 141 Bm3/hr, what is the unit production cost? Exercise-3 A soil weighs 1282 kg/m3 loose, 1602 kg/m3 in place and 1842 kg/m3 compacted. Find the swell and shrinkage of this soil and if a scraper has a heaped volume capacity of 33.6 m3, calculate how many Bm3 of soil the scraper can carr 2 Excavating and Lifting Equipments
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These includes mainly:- Crane - Shovel family (shovels, draglines, hoes and calm shells) - Dozers, - Loaders, - Scrapers i) Excavator Production In order to estimate production of an excavtor first the volume of material actually contained in bucket load should be determined. Machine Back hoe Clamshell Dragline Loader Shovel Rated Bucket Capacity Struck volume plate line or water line capacity 90% of struck volume Heaped Capacity at 2:1 angle of repose Stuck volume

Struck Volume: when the load is struck or flush with the bucket sides, Plateline Capacity: bucket volume in a bucket following the outline of the bucket sides, Water Line: level that would result of the bucket if filled with water, Heaped Volume: maximum volume that can be heaped without spillage at a given diameter. To make a better estimate of the volume of material in one bucket a bucket fill factor or bucket efficiency factor is considered. Otherwise one can assume heaping on buckets to take care of swelling of soil in bank state.
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Exercise-1 Estimate the bucket load for a loader whose heaped capacity is 3.82 m3. The soils bucket fill factor is 0.9 and its load factor is 0.8 3 Crane - Shovel Family The crane - shovel family consists of three major assembles:- a carrier or a mounting, - a revolving super structure containing the power and control units (turn tables) - a front and attachement i) Shovels A cable operated shovel digs with a conbination of a crowed action and a hoist action. Eventhough a shovel has a limited ability to dig below track level, it is very efficiet when digging from track level to about the height of the shipper shaft. The vertical distance that permits the bucket to obtain a full load without undue crowding or hoisting is known as the optimum deth of cut. This depth depends on shovel size, angle of swing and height of bank, types of soil to be excavted and overall jpb efficiency. The shovel must have a vertical surface againset for effective digging. This digging face is earily formed when excavating a bank or a hillside. Best application of shovel is when digging of enbankment is on one side and dumping or loading on the other side. Shovel production The production of a shovel is calculated as: Actual Production = Ideal output * Swing-depth factor * Efficiency

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The ideal output and the swing depth factot are determined from tables of manufactirers. The efficiency is determined from job and mangement conditions. It is sometimes appropriate to multiply the result by bucket laod factor in case loose volume is used. Actual Production = [Ideal Output][Swing Depth Factor]x[Efficiency][Bucket Load Fa ctor] Exercise Determine the expected shovel production of "diesel powered cable operated shovel" in bank cubic meters per hour for the following condition: Shovel size Swing angle Average depth of cut Material = 1.53 m3 = 120 m3 = 2.5 m3 = Common earth

Job & Management conditions are good Job Management The two major factors controlling shovel production are the swing angle and lost time during the production cycle. Therefore the angle of swing between digging and dumping should always be kept to a minimum. Haul units must be positioned to minimize the cost as units enter and leave the loading position. When only single loading position is available the shovel operator should utilize the time between the departure of one haul unit and the arrival of the next to move up the digging face and to smooth the excavation area. The floor of the cut shovel be kept smooth to provide an even footing for the shovel and to facilitate moveme nt in the cut area. The shovel should be mobed frequently to keep it at optimum distance for the working face. Keeping dipper teeth sharp will also increase production.

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Other Applications are:- Dressing slope, - Making its own Road way, - For very shallow trenches - etc ii) Draglines The Dragline is a very versatile machine that has the longest reach for digging and dump ing of any member of the crane-shovel family. But it doesn't have the positive digging action or lateral control of the shovel. Hence the bucket may bounce or move side way during hard digging. Production Estimate Estimated Production = Ideal output * Swing depth factor * Efficiency Exercise-1 Determine the expected dragline production in Lm3 per hour based on the following data: - Dragline size - Swing angle - Average depth of cut - Material = 1.53 m3 = 1200 = 2.5m = common earth

- Job management condition is good - Alternatively job efficiency factor = 50 min/hr

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Job Management Trial operations may be necessary to select boom length, boom angle, bucket size and we ight and the attachement position of the drag chain that yeild maximum production. As shovel operation maximum production is obtained with a minimum swing angle. iii) Back Hoes This is an excavator designed primarly for excavtion below ground (below ground level). The backhoe is widely utilized for trenching work. It can also perform laying pipe bedding placing pipe trenching work. backfilling etc. In trench excavation the best measure of production is the length of trench excavated per unit time. Production Estimate Production [Lm3/hr] = C*S*V*B*E Where: C = Cycle/hr S = Swing depth factor E = Job efficiency V = Heaped bucket volume (Lm3) B = Bucket fill factor

In trench excavation a fall in factor (adjustment factor) should also be considered for materials that fall back.

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Standard Cycle per hour for hydraulic

Type of Material Wheel Tractor Soft (Sand, Gravel Loam0 Average (common earth, soft clay) Hard (tough clay rock) Depth of cut (% of optimum) 45 30 50 70 90 1.33 1.28 1.16 1.04 60 1.26 1.21 1.10 1.00 Swing depth factor Angle of Swing 75 1.21 1.16 1.05 0.95 90 1.15 1.10 1.00 0.90 120 1.08 1.03 0.94 0.85 180 0.95 0.91 0.83 0.75 110 160 130 100 135 200 160 120 170 Machine Size Small Excavator (0.76m3 or less) 250 Medium (0.74 - 1.72 m3) 200 Large (>1.72m3) 150

Adjustment factor for trench excavation production Type of Material Soft Avergae Hard Exercise - 1 Find the expected production in Lm3 per hour of a small hydraulic excavator. Heaped bucket capacity is 0.57 m3. The material is sand and gravel with a bucket fill factor of
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Adhjustmnent Factor 0.60 - 0.70 0.90 - 0.95 0.95 - 1.00

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0.95. Job efficiency is 50 min/hr. Average depth of cut is 4.3m. Maximum depth of cut is 6.1m and average swing = 900. Job Management In selecting a proper backhoes for a project consideration must be given to the maximum depth, working radius and dumping height required. Check also for the adequate clearance of the carrier, superstructure and the boom during operation. Also the backhoe will excavate fairly hard material, don't use the backet as the sladge in attempting to fructure rock. Light blasting or use of a power hammer may be necessary to loosen rock sufficiently for excavation. When lifting pipe don't exceed load given in the manufacturers safe capacity chart for the suituation. iv) Clam shells When the crane shovel family is equipped with a crane boom and clam shell bucket, it be comes an excavator known as clamshell. Clam shells are commonly used for excavating bulk material from rail, cars and ships and moving bulck material from stock piles. Production Estimate The production estimate is based on the equation: Production = Volume per Cycle * Cycle per hour Exercise - 1 Estimate the production Lm3 per hour for a medium weight clam shell excavating loose Earth. Heaped bucket capacity = 0.75 m3. The soil is commomearth with a bucket fill
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factor of 0.95. Estimated cycle time is 40 seconds. Job efficiency is 50 min/hr. Job Management The maximum allowable load (bucket weight plus soil weight) on a clam shell should be obtained from the manufacturer Clam Shell Loading Chart. If a Clam Shell loading chart is not available, limit the load to 80% of the safe lifting capacity given by the crane (boom) Capacity Chart for rubber tyred equipment or 90% for crawler mounted equipment. Cycle time i reduced by organizing the job so that the dumping radius is the same as the digging radius. Keep the machine level to avoid swinging appel or down wheel. v) Cranes Cranes are primerly used for lifting, lowering and transporting loads. Cranes are of different types:a) b) c) Mobile cranes: consisting of a crane shovel carrier and superstructure equipped with a boom and hook. Hydraulically operated equipment: with hydraulically powered telescoping boom cranes (up to 24 stories) (ex. KATO crane). Tower Crane: are widely used on Buildings and Construction Projects because of it wide operating radius ued unlimited height capacity. The main factors that controls the load that may safely be lifted by a tower crane is its operating radius (distance from center of rotation to the hook). For the other cranes this is function of the boom length anf boom angle above the horizontal.

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Crane manufacturers provide charts giving the safe lifting capacity as a function of boom length, boom angle and position of boom with respect to the carrier. Other factor to be taken into consideration is the amount of counter weight and condition of supporting surface. Job Management There are a number of attachments besides the hook available to assist the crane in lifting and transporting various types of loads. Among these concrete buckets, slings and special hooks are most often used in construction applications. Crane accidents occure frequently in construction works, particularly when lifting near capacity loads and when operating with long booms. Some suggestions for safe crane operation includes:a) Use a communication system or hand signs when the operator can not see the load at all time. Make sure that all workers involved in the operation know the hand sign s to be used. b) Provide tag lines or restraining lines when there is any danger due to swinging load s and etc. 4. i) Compacting and Finishing Compaction

Compaction is a process of increasing the density of the soil by mechanical forcing the so il particles closer together, thereby expelling air from the void spaces. Consolidation is an increase in soil density resulting from expulsion of water from the soils void spaces. The degree of compaction depends on: M.D.2010/11

Soils physical and chemical properties, Soils moisture content, Method of compaction,

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Amount of compactive efforts, Thickness of soil layer being compacted (lift thickness),

The basic compaction forces are:Static weight, Impact (good for plastic soils) Vibration (good for cohesive soils)

Types of Compaction Equipments Tamping Foot Rollers: This utilizes a compacting drum with a protruding feet. Exaple Sheep foot rollers Vibratory Compactors: These range from small hand operated compactor to rollers. Example; Vibratory plate compactor and vibratory tamping foot compactor. Steel wheel or smooth drum rollers: Tampers or Rammers: small impact type compactors which are primarly used for compaction in confined areas. Estimating Compactors Production Based on the compctors speed lift thickness and effective width of compaction the follow ing formula can be used to estimate compactor production:

Where:

P = Number of passes required

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W = Width of compaction per pass (m) S = Compactor speed (Km/hr) L = Lift thickness (cm) E = Job efficiency Typical Operating Speed of Compactor
Compactor Tamping foot, crawler towed Tamping foot, wheel towed High speed tamping foot - First two or three passes - Walking out - Final Passes Smooth wheel Vibratory - Plate - Roller 1-2 2-3 5-8 13 - 19 16 - 23 3-6 Speed (km/hr) 5-8 8 - 16

The speed and the lift thickness are the most important factors which advesly affect the production and must be estimated carefully. Usually trial operations are carried out to determine L & S. In making trial operation it is usually required to determine the exact values of soil moisture content, lift thickness and roller weight that yields maximum production for achieving the specified soil density. 5. Grading and Finishing

Grading is a process of bringing earth work to the desired shape and grade. Its finishing involves, smoothing slopes, shaping ditches and bring the earth work to the elevation required by the plans and specification. Balancing is the process of cutting down high spots and filling in lowspots of each road way layers. Trimming is a process of bringing
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each road-way to its final grade. Motor Grader A motor grader is an equipment used for grading and finishing. The blade of a motor grader is called a mold board and is equipped with replacible cutting edge and end pieces. It has a wide range possible positions as in Bull Dozers. Graders are available with auto matic grade control system that permits precise grade control. Grade Excavators & Triming These are machines that are capable of finishingroad way and air field subgrades & bases faster and more accurately than motor graders. They are capable of removing soil and old asphalt pavements. They are equipped with integral belt conveyors that are used for loading into haul units or depositing outside the excavated area. Estimating Grader Production It is computed on a linear basis completed per hour for road ways and on area basis for ge neral construction products. The time required to complete a road way may be estimated by:-

Average speed depends on operator skill, job condition etc. The follwing can be used in the calculation:
Operation Bank sloping Ditching Finishing Grading & Road Maintenance M.D.2010/11 Speed (km/hr) 4.0 4.0 - 6.4 6.5 - 14.05 6.4 - 9.7

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Exercise - 1 A 24.1 km of gravel road requires reshaping and leveling. Estimated number of passes is 6 with 2 passes @ 6.4 km/hr; with 2 passes @ 8.0 km/hr and with 2 passes @ 9.7 km/hr where the Job efficiency is 0.80. How much grader hours will be required? Job Management Careful job planning use of skilled operator and competant supervision is required to max imize grader production. For distance less than 300 meter, have the grader back rather tha n to turn around.

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Chapter-4

Equipment Management

4.1 4.2 4.3

Equipment Management in Construction Projects Economics of Construction Equipment Safety and Insurances

4.1

Equipment Management in Construction Projects

The cost of equipment in a project varies from 10 to 30% of the total cost of the project depending on the extent of mechanization. Proper planning, selection, procurement, installation, operation maintenance and equipment replacement policy plays an important role in equipment management for the successful completion of the project. Equipment manager's main task is to reduce downtime, achieve optimum equipment utlization and increase production at minimum cost. The cost analysis and the will of adopting proper techniques suited to the situation are the basic factors for the success and therefore, there is a need for a rational planning, proper selection and judicious deployment of equipment in relation to the condition so as to achieve optimum utilization. Equipment management integrates and continously interacts with human, technical, and production system in order to achieve top efficiency and cost effectiveness. Purchase of Equipment Once the selection of the equipment is done the purchase order for the selected model and type is issued considering lead time for the supply of equipment, time required for installation and commissioning and the time when the equipment should be available for use. The complete procurement action is divided in various activities like calling enquiries, its technical and financial evaluation, ordering, contract making, transporting,
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assembling and installation and commissioning and should be followed vigorously, as any delay in any of these avtivities will result in delay in completion of the project. Therefore these activities are monitored at top most priority. Generally fast moving or maintenace spares are purchased along with the equipment specially for the period of one or two years. Equipment should be purchased in phases, so that the money is not blocked and equipments required later do not remain idle. Purchasing v/s Hiring The decision whether to purchase or acquire by hiring should be in favour of the sources which is more economical. Points in favour of purche are: when the equipment is likely to complete its useful life at the end of the project, remains available for use whenever it is needed, purchased equipment is kept in better condition and relaible,

Points in favour of Hire (againest owning) are: 4.2 possible danger of obscelence, when the equipment requires huge initial investment, when the equipment can not be used for its full life, Economics of Construction EQuipment

Economics of construction equipment deals with the study of working of the equipment to compute the unit costs of production. Unit cost of production is calculated after estimat ing the cost of production by calculating hourly ownership and operating cost of the equipment and knowing hourly production of that equipment.

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Equipment selection is a decision making from various alternatives which gives least cost of unit production. It should consider the rate of interest on the equipment, time required to complete the project and effect of time on the project, as we know that time is money. Hourly Working Rate: Hourly working rate of construction equipment comprises of the following components: (i) Owning Cost and )ii) Operating Costs. Owning Cost is made up of investment cost, deprciation cost and major repair cost. Operating Costs includes cost of fuel, cost of lubricants, servicing and maintenance cost, labor cost, cost of field repairs and various other overheads. 4.3 Safety and Insurance

Millions of industrial accidents occure every year. In these accidents a lot of workeres lose their lives every year in the world. Accidents may cause injury which sometimes result in death or permanent total displacement. Statistics shows that 98% accidents can be avioded and only 2% can not be pre-assessed. Accident can not be expressed in money terms only. It also affects individuals and his family. Losses Due to Accidents Losses due to accident are either direct or indirect losses. Direct losses are the losses due to the employer, which he pays to the workers for compensation. Employer also pays for medical expenses incurred on the worker. These type of losses can be measured in terms of money. Indirect losses arise from the following sources: Loss of time of his injured person, Loss of time of his fellow workers, who stop work at the time of accident to help him, Loss of time of supervisors in assisting, investigating, making alternative arrangements and selecting and training new workers to fill the vacancy,
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Loss caused due to damage caused to the machine, Loss due to reduction in the efficiency of workers after recovery, Loss due to reduction in the efficiency of fellow workers due to fall in their moral, Loss to the injured worker; his income, medical expenses and pain felt.

Engineering Insurances The engineering insurance covers may be machinery erection insurance or machinery breakdown insurances. The followings are relevant engineering insurances: Contractors all risks insurance Machinery breakdown insurance Loss of profit insurance following machinery breakdown and Contractor plant and machinery insurance

Contractors all risk insurance (CAR) This provides insurance on all risks i.e. on almost any sudden and unforseen loss or damage occuring to the property insured. These include, fire, explosion, flood, rain, wind, storm, snow, earthquake, teft, bad workmanship, lack of skill, war, negligence, radiation, penality losses, repair etc. Machinery Breakdown Insurance Breakdown cover is offered to all type of installed machinery working in fixed premises. The cover can be extended to include damage to third party. Loss of Profits Insurance Following Machinery Breakdown or Machinery Loss of Profits Policy Some times when a small but vital part of a machine fails, entire work comes to a stand still. In these circumstances this insurance policy covers the consequential losses that may be suffered by the machine user following a breakdown. Contractors Plant and Machinery Insurance Construction machinery are now-a-days insured under the contractors plant and
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machinery (CPM) insurance policy, which is annual policy, providing insurance againest Loss due to Overturning, Act of God, Riot, Strike and Theft. This insurance doesn't cover losses arising due to electric or mechanical breakdown, normal wear and tear and negligence.

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