chemistry Form Four: Chapter 9 - Contact Process

A brief summary of the Contact Process:

Solid sulfur, S(s), is burned in air to form sulfur dioxide gas. The gases are mixed with more air then cleaned by electrostatic precipitation to remove any particulate matter. The mixture of sulfur dioxide and air is heated to 450 degree Celcius and subjected to a pressure of 101.3 - 202.6 kPa (1 -2 atmospheres) in the presence of a vanadium catalyst (vanadium (V) oxide) to produce sulfur trioxide, with a yield of 98%. Any unreacted gases from the above reaction are recycled back into the above reaction. Sulfur trioxide is dissolved in 98% (18M) sulfuric acid to produce disulfuric acid or pyrosulfuric acid, also known as fuming sulfuric acid or oleum. Water is then added to the oleum to produce 98% of sulphuric acid.

Attention: If the sulphur trioxide is added directly to water an acid mist forms which is difficult to contain because the reaction to form sulphuric acid solution is very exothermic!

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 9 - Haber Process

1. The physical properties of ammonia are: Colourless and alkaline gas

Strong pungent smell Highly soluble in water

2. Ammonia usually produces white fumes of ammonium chloride when reacted with hydrogen chloride. 3. The main uses of ammonia are:

Manufacturing nitrogen fertilizers Manufacturing nitric acid through Ostwald process. To make explosives, dyes, household cleaners and nylon As a cooling agent.

Making of Ammonia
Ammonia is manufactured by combining nitrogen and hydrogen in an important industrial process called the Haber process. The reaction is reversible and the production of ammonia is exothermic.

Nitrogen gas is obtained from the fractional distillation of liquid air. Hydrogen gas is obtained through the reaction between natural gas and steam. Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed in the ratio of 1 : 3

How to separate ammonia When the gases leave the reactor they are hot and at a very high pressure. Ammonia is easily liquefied under pressure as long as it isn't too hot, and so the temperature of the mixture is lowered enough for the ammonia to turn to a liquid. The nitrogen and hydrogen remain as gases even under these high pressures, and can be recycled.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 9 - Making of Alloy

An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition in which metal is the major component. The making of alloy is: To increase the strength and hardness of a pure metal. To prevent corrosion.

To improve the appearance of a pure metal.

Pure Metal

Pure metal is made up of one type of atoms that are in same size. Therefore, when a force is applied, the layers of atoms can slide over one another. Thus, metals are ductile or can be stretched. There are some empty spaces in between the pure metal atoms. When a metal is knocked or pressed, groups of atoms may slide and then settle into new positions. Thus, metals are malleable or can be shaped.

Alloy

 Some of the spaces between the metal atoms are filled up by the foreign atoms which may be bigger or smaller than the original metal atoms. The presence of foreign atoms disrupts the orderly arrangement or the pure metal. The layers of metal atoms are prevented from sliding over one another easily. This makes alloys stronger and harder than pure metals.

Examples of alloy
Alloy Steel Stainless steel Bronze Brass Magnalium Duralumin Pewter Solder cupronickel Composition 99 % iron + 1 % carbon 74 % iron + 18 % chromium + 8 % nickel 90 % copper + 10 % tin 70 % copper + 30 % zinc 70 % aluminium + 30 % magnesium 95 % aluminium + 4 % copper + 1 % magnesium 97 % tin + 3 % lead and antimony 50 % tin + 50 % lead 25 % copper + 75 % nickel

Chemistry Form Four: Chapter 8 - Preparation of Insoluble Salt

Insoluble salt can be prepared by using double decomposition reaction or precipitation reaction. A precipitate is a solid that forms out of solution. For an insoluble salt such as SILVER CHLORIDE, you need to find a soluble SILVER compound and a soluble CHLORIDE compound. A good choice for the soluble silver compound is SILVER NITRATE because almost all nitrates are soluble.

A good choice for the soluble chloride compound is to use a sodium salt because almost all sodium salts are soluble.

The precipitate forms because the solid (AgCl) is insoluble in water.

The remaining sodium nitrate is soluble and so only the silver chloride will be precipitated. Once prepared, collect the salt by filtration and wash the solid. Dry it with a few sheets of filter paper.

hemistry Form Four: Chapter 8 - Application of Precipitation of Salt

Precipitation reaction occur all around us. For example, sometimes the pipes in our homes get clogged because precipitates of magnesium and calcium oxides have deposited themselves within the pipes. This can happen with "hard" water.

Another example is a kidney stone. A kidney stone is nothing more than a precipitate - often of calcium ions (from cheese) and oxalates. It is often suggested that a good way to avoid kidney stones is to drink a lot of water. This helps because the solubility of the precipitate increases with the amount of water - thus avoiding the formation of the kidney stone to begin with.

Various size of kidney stone

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 3 - Experiment of Magnesium Oxide Empirical Formula

Procedure of the experiment:

Magnesium ribbon is cleaned with sandpaper to remove the oxide layer on its surface.

The lid is removed at intervals to allow oxygen to enter the crucible and react with magnesium. The crucible is then quickly covered with its lid to prevent the white fumes of MgO from escaping. Heating, cooling and weighing are repeated until a constant mass is obtained to ensure that the magnesium ribbon reacts completely with oxygen gas. The white powder is magnesium oxide

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 3 - Experiment of Copper Oxide Empirical Formula

Dry hydrogen gas must be passed through the combustion tube for a few minutes to remove all the air before heating the copper oxide. While heating the oxide, dry hydrogen is passed through continuously and excess of hydrogen gas must be burnt to prevent oxygen gas from the air oxidize the hot copper.

Black copper oxide

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 4 - Periodic Table

Elements in the periodic table are arranged in periods (row) and groups (column). Groups include having the same electron arrangement in their outermost shell, which results in group elements sharing similar chemical properties. The electrons in the outermost shell is termed valence electrons. Valence electrons determine the chemical properties of the element and participate in chemical bonding.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 4 - Physical Properties of Group 1 Elements

Group 1 elements are soft metal and can be cut with a knife

Silvery grey surface

Low density compared to other metals

Lower melting and boiling points than most other metals

As the atomic radius increases, the charges are further apart and the electrical attractive force is reduced. This results a weaker metallic bond and little heat energy is needed to overcome the bond. Thus, the melting/boiling point decreases as we go down the group.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 4 - Reactivity of Group 1

Reactivity of Group 1 increases when go down the group.

WHY?

When an alkali metal atom reacts, it loses an electron to form a singly positively charged ion which is a stable noble gases electron arrangement. When go down the group, the atomic radius gets bigger due to an extra filled electron shell and the outer electron is further and further away from the nucleus. Therefore the outer electron is less strongly held by the positive nucleus as the attractive force is decreased. As a result, the outer electron is more easily lost and react more vigorously.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 4 - Physical Properties of Halogen

The melting and boiling points increases down the group as the atomic radius increase. The van der Waals become stronger and thus more heat energy is needed to overcome these forces between the molecules. The physical state of halogens change gradually from gas to liquid to solid due to an increase in melting and boiling point.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 4 - Reactivity of Group 17

When a halogen atom reacts, it gains an electron to form a singly charged negative ion which has a stable noble gas electron arrangement.

As you go down the group of 17, the atomic radius gets bigger due to an extra filled electron shell. The valence electron is further and further away from the nucleus. The forces of attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons become weaker, making it more difficult to gain electrons. Therefore, the halogen is less reactive down the group.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 4 - Special Characteristics of Transition Elements

1. Transition elements can form coloured compounds

2. Transition elements have varying oxidation number Iron has two common oxidation states (+2 and +3) in, for example, Fe 2+ and Fe3+. It also has a less common +6 oxidation state in the ferrate(VI) ion, FeO 42-.

Manganese has a very wide range of oxidation states in its compounds. For example: +2 +3 +4 +6 +7 in Mn2+ in Mn2O3 in MnO2 in MnO42in MnO4-

3. Transition elements can form complex ions A complex ion has a metal ion at its centre with a number of other molecules or ions surrounding it. Some examples of complex ions formed by transition metals

[Fe(H2O)6]2+, [Co(NH3)6]2+, [Cr(OH)6]3- , [CuCl4]24. Transition elements can act as catalysts Iron in the Haber Process The Haber Process combines hydrogen and nitrogen to make ammonia using an iron catalyst.

Vanadium(V) oxide in the Contact Process At the heart of the Contact Process is a reaction which converts sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide. Sulphur dioxide gas is passed together with air (as a source of oxygen) over a solid vanadium(V) oxide catalyst.

Nickel in the hydrogenation of C=C bonds This reaction is at the heart of the manufacture of margarine from vegetable oils. However, the simplest example is the reaction between ethene and hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 5 - Ionic Bond

Ionic bonds are formed when valence electrons are transferred from a metal atom to a non-metal atom. Metal atom releases valence electron to form positive ion in order to achieve stable noble gas octet electron arrangement. Non-metal atom gains valence electron to form negative ion in order to achieve stable noble gas octet electron arrangement. Positive ions and negative ions are held strongly by electrostatic force.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 5 - Covalent Bond

Covalent bonds are formed when one or more electron pairs are shared between non-metallic atoms to form a molecule in order to achieve a stable duplet or octet electron arrangements of noble gas.

How covalent bond is formed in carbon dioxide: Atom oxygen has 6 valence electrons and 2.6 electron arrangement. Each atom oxygen needs 2 more electrons to fill the valence shell in order to achieve a stable octet electron arrangement. Hence, each atom oxygen contributes 2 electrons for sharing.

Atom carbon has 4 valence electrons and 2.4 electron arrangement. Each atom carbon needs 4 more electrons to fill the valence shell in order to achieve a stable octet electron arrangement. Hence, each atom carbon contributes 4 electrons for sharing. One atom carbon shares 4 electrons with two atom oxygen to achieve a stable octet electron arrangement.

Some examples of covalent bond:

Types of covalent bond:

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 5 - Lewis Dot Structure of Covalent Compound

Lewis structures are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule and the lone pairs of electrons that may exist in the molecule. A Lewis structure can be drawn for any covalently bonded molecule, as well as coordination compounds. They are similar to electron dot diagrams in that the valence electrons in lone pairs are represented as dots, but they also contain lines to represent shared pairs in a chemical bond (single, double, triple, etc.).

Lewis structures show each atom and its position in the structure of the molecule using its chemical symbol. Lines are drawn between atoms that are bonded to one another (pairs of dots can be used instead of lines). Excess electrons that form lone pairs are represented as pairs of dots, and are placed next to the atoms.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 5 - Electrical Conductivity of Ionic Compound

In solid state, ionic compound does not conduct electricity. It is because there is no freely moving ions in solid state. The negative ions and positive ions are strongly held together by electrostatic forces in a crystal lattice structure as shown below:

But, when ionic compound is heated up until its boiling point, the sufficient heat energy able to break up the strong electrostatic forces between positive ions and negative ions. This causes negative ions and positive ions to move freely in molten state. Thus, ionic compound can conduct electricity in molten state.

When ionic compound dissolves in water, the crystal lattice structure collapses and thus releases positive ions and negative ions. This causes negative ions and positive ions to move freely in aqueous state to conduct electricity. Click on the diagram below to play!

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 6 - Electrolyte

Electrolyte is a chemical substance which conducts electricity in the molten or aqueous state. Electrolytes are able to conduct electricity because there are freely move ions in the molten or aqueous state. Examples of electrolyte are salt solution, dilute acids and dilute alkalis

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 6 - Electrolysis of Lead (II) Bromide

Electrolysis is a chemical process where a substance in its molten state or in an aqueous solution decomposed by electric current. This involves conversion of energy from electrical energy to chemical energy. Electrodes are the strips of metals inserted into electrolyte for conduction of electricity. he metal electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery is

called the anode (+). The metal electrode connected to the negative terminal of the battery is called the cathode (-).

Electrolytic cell is the complete set-up for electrolysis. This consists of the vessel containing the electrolyte, anode, cathode, battery and wires.

At the Cathode Observation When electricity is flowing, a silvery

At the Anode Observation When electricity is flowing, brown

deposit of lead metal forms on the cathode. In fact, as it is molten, it is more likely to drip off in a molten blob. Half equation Pb2+ + 2e ---> Pb Explanation The lead(II) ions, as they are positive, move to the negative cathode, where each ion gains two electrons to form a lead atom.

fumes of bromine gas are seen at the anode. Half equation 2Br- ---> Br2 + e Explanation The bromide ions, as they are negative, move to the positive anode, where each loses an electron to form a bromine atom. Then two of these newly formed atoms combine to form bromine gas.

Any reaction at a cathode involved a gain in electrons. This is called reduction or more exactly, cathodic reduction .

Any reaction at an anode involves a loss of electrons.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 6 - Electrolysis of Concentrated of Sodium Chloride Solution

Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution

Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution

At anode :

Anions : OH- and ClOH- ions are selectively discharge according to the position of ions in the Electrochemical Series, ES. Gas bubbles are formed which lighted up a glowing wooden splinter. This gas is oxygen. 4OH- ---> 2 H2O + O2 + 4e

At anode :

Anions : OH- and ClCl- ions are discharged instead of OH- because of their higher concentration in the electrolyte. A greenish-yellow gas with a pungent and choking smell is released. The gas turns the blue litmus paper red and then white. 2Cl- ---> Cl2 + 2e

At cathode:

Cations : H+ dan Na+ H+ ions are selectively discharge according to the position of ions in the ES. Gas bubbles are formed. When a lighted wooden splinter is placed near the mouth of the test tube, a pop sound is produced. Hydrogen gas is produced 2H+ + 2e ---> H2

At cathode:

Cations : H+ dan K+ H+ ions are selectively discharge according to the position of ions in the ES. Gas bubbles are formed. When a lighted wooden splinter is placed near the mouth of the test tube, a pop sound is produced. Hydrogen gas is produced 2H+ + 2e ---> H2

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 6 - Types of Electrodes Affect Product of Electrolysis

Carbon dan platinum electrodes are inert because both of these materials do not react with the electrolytes or the product of electrolysis. Other electrodes except carbon and platinum can react with the electrolytes.

Chemistry Form Four : Chapter 6 - Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate

Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate using carbon electrode. The bulb is lighted indicates that copper (II) sulphate is an electrolyte which can conduct electricity. Carbon electrode is inert which does not react with electrolyte or product of electrolysis.

At anode : Hydroxide ions ions are selectively discharged. Gas bubbles are formed which lighted up a glowing wooden splinter. This gas is oxygen.

At cathode : Copper ions are selectively discharged. Shiny brown metal deposited around cathode. This metal is copper.

Electrolysis copper (II) sulphate solution with copper electrodes

At cathode : Copper ions are selectively discharged. Shiny brown metal deposited, makes the cathode thicker. This metal is copper. At anode : Copper electrode eroded and became thinner. Copper anode dissolved to form copper ions.

Chemistry Form Four: Chapter 6 - Electroplating of copper metal

1) Anode --> plating metal = copper

2) Cathode --> object to be electroplated = iron key 3) Electrolyte --> salt solution that contains electroplating metal ions = copper (II) sulphate

cathode: A brown metal deposited on the surface of the iron key. anode: Copper anode becomes thinner.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 6 - Purification of Metal

The anode is a impure copper. The cathode is a pure copper. When electricity is passed through the cell, the copper is dissolved at anode where Cu2+ ions go into solution. Anode copper becomes thinner.

At cathode, copper ions are selectively discharge and deposited. Cathode copper becomes thicker.

The blue intensity of solution remains unchanged because concentration of copper (II) ions in the solution remains unchanged. The rate at which copper enter into electrolyte from anode is equal to the rate at which the copper ions discharged at cathode.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 6 - Extraction of Aluminium From its Ore

The ores of aluminium is called bauxite. Bauxite is a composition of aluminium oxide, (Al2O3).

The position of aluminium in the reactivity series indicates that, it could not be extracted by reducing the oxide using carbon or carbon monoxide. Electrolysis of molten aluminium oxide ("alumina") will, however, give aluminium and oxygen.

A = carbon anode B = molten aluminium C = molten aluminium oxide and cryolite D = carbon cathode

The function of cryolite is to lower the melting point of aluminium oxide. Aluminium metal forms at the cathode electrode and sinks to the bottom of the tank, where it is tapped off. Oxygen forms at the anode electrodes. This oxygen reacts with the carbon of the anode electrodes, forming carbon dioxide, and they gradually burn away. Consequently, the anode electrodes have to be replaced frequently.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 6 - Daniell Cell

Daniell cell is also known as Galvanic cell which using same working principle as voltaic cell. It converts chemical energy to electrical energy. Daniell cell is a part of a battery consisting of two metals joined by a salt bridge or a porous pot.

More electropositive metal acts as negative terminal which undergoes oxidation process (release electron) Less electropositive metal acts as positive terminal which undergoes reduction (gain electron). Electron flow from negative terminal to positive terminal.

The function of salt bridge or porous pot is to allow the movement of ions to pass through it to complete electrical circuit. Another function is to separate two electrolyte solutions. Examples of salt bridge are sodium chloride or potassium nitrate.

At Negative Terminal: More electropositive metal ( Zinc )

Observation: Zinc plate dissolves or becomes thinner, its mass decreases Half chemical equation : Zn ------> Zn2+ + 2e

At Positive Terminal: Less electropositive metal ( Copper )

Observation: Copper plate becomes thicker Half chemical equation : Cu2+ + 2e > Cu

Chemistry Form Four: Chapter 6 - Displacement of Metal from Salt Solution

Electrochemical series can be constructed by using displacement reaction of metal from salt solution. A more electropositive (reactive) metal can displace a less electropositive metallic ion (less reactive) from its salt solution. For example: Reaction between magnesium and copper (II) sulphate produces copper and magnesium sulphate.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 6 - Constructing Electrochemical Series based on the Potential Difference between Two Metals

In a voltaic cell, two different metals are used to create a potential difference. A higher metal in the electrochemical series will be made negative terminal. A lower metal in the electrochemical series will be made positive terminal. Conversion of energy is chemical energy to electrical energy.

Metals which are further apart in the electrochemical series produce a higher voltage than metals which are close to each other. By arranging the metals in order of their voltage readings, you can build up the electrochemical series.

Chemistry Form 4: Understanding of Acid and Bases

Acid is a chemical substance that dissolves in water to produce hydrogen ions, H+ ions. This causes the concentration of hydrogen ion in the solution to increase and the pH to drop.

According to the Arrhenius definition, when hydrogen chloride which is a gas HCl is dissolved in water, it dissociates to produce hydrogen ions and chloride ions in solution. This making HCl an acid when dissolves in water.

Without presence of water, the acid will not dissociate to produce hydrogen ions and it will not show acidic properties. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Also, a base is a chemical substance that dissolves in water to produce hydroxide ions, OHions. This causes the concentration of hydroxide ion in the solution to increase but decrease in concentration of hydrogen ion. This is why the pH increases when a base is added to water. According to Arrhenius definition, sodium hydroxide, NaOH is a base because when it dissolved in water, the NaOH dissociates to produce hydroxide ions.

Without presence of water, the base will not dissociate to produce hydroxide ions and it will not show basic properties. Acid When added to water pH < 7 When added to water dissociates to release a hydrogen ion (H+) Base When added to water pH > 7 When added to water dissociates to release a hydroxide ion (OH-)

Operational Definition Arrhenius Definition

The Swedish Chemist, Svante Arrhenius (1859-1927). The Arrhenius definition of acids and bases is an extension of his theory of electrolyte solution, which formed his 1884 doctoral thesis.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - Strength of Acid

The strength of an acid depends on the degree of dissociation of the acid in water to produce hydrogen ions and anions. The pH of an acid solution depends on the concentration of hydrogen ions.

Strong Acid

Weak Acid

 Strong acid have a higher degree Weak acid have a lower degree of of dissociation. dissociation. A strong acid is an acid which A weak acid is an acid which dissociates completely in water to ionises partially in water to produce a high concentration of produce a low concentration of hydrogen ions. hydrogen ions. Only a part of the molecules ionises and the remaining Thus, pH value for strong acid is still in covalent molecules. lower than weak acid. Thus, pH value for weak acid is higher than strong acid. Click on the diagram below to play! Weak Acid Strong Acid
Examples of strong acid

HCl HBr HI

Hydrochloric acid Hydrobromic acid Hydroiodic acid

HNO3 Nitric acid H2SO4 Sulfuric acid Perchloric HClO4 acid

Examples of weak acid

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - How to Differentiate Between Strong Acid and Weak Acid
A) Reaction between acids and reactive metals

Strong acids can react with reactive metal faster and more vigorously. More hydrogen gas produced at a faster rate. Weak acids can react with reactive metal slower and less vigorously. Less hydrogen gas produced at a slower rate.

B) Electrical conductivity

Conductivity Behavior of Acids Compounds Appearance of light bulb water, H2O no light hydrochloric acid, HCl bright Inference of Ions or Molecules molecules ions mostly molecules, less acetic acid, HC2H3O2 dim weak ions Strong acids able to conduct electricity better as shown in hydrochloric acid because it contains a large number of freely moving ions as strong acids dissociate completely in water. Weak acids conduct electricity weakly as shown in acetic acid because it contains a few number of moving ions as weak acids dissociate partially in water. Most of weak acids still remain in covalent molecule.

Classification Weak or Strong weak strong

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - Strength of Alkali

The strength of alkali depends on the degree of dissociation of the alkali in water to produce hydroxide ions. The pH of an alkali solution depends on the concentration of hydroxide ions.

Strong Alkali Strong alkali have a higher degree of dissociation. A strong alkali is an alkali which dissociates completely in water to produce a high concentration of hydroxide ions. Thus, pH value for strong alkali is higher than weak alkali.

Weak Alkali Weak alkali have a lower degree of dissociation. A weak alkali is an alkali which ionises partially in water to produce a low concentration of hydroxide ions. Only a part of the molecules ionises and the remaining still in covalent molecules. Thus, pH value for weak alkali is lower than strong alkali.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - pH Scale

The pH scale is used to measure degree of the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution based on the concentration of hydrogen ions. pH is defined as the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution.

Click on the diagram below to play! 1. The higher the concentration of H+ , the lower the pH value. 2. The higher the pH value, the higher the concentration of hydroxide ions. 3. At pH =7, the concentration of H+ ions is equal to the concentration of OH- . The solution is termed as being neutral for example pure water. 4. The stronger an acid, the lower of its pH value. 5. The stronger an alkali, the higher of its pH value.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - Concentration of Solution (Molarity)

Molarity is defined as moles of solute per liter or 1 dm 3 of solution. Molarity is used to express concentration of solution. 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3

The unit of molarity is mol dm-3

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - Preparing a Standard Solution

Standard solution is a solution whose concentration is known accurately. The solution is normally expressed in mol dm-3 Standard solution can be prepared by using a calculated mass of solute or dilution method from concentrated solution.

MAKING STANDARD SOLUTIONS FROM CONCENTRATED AQUEOUS

Equipment typically used when preparing a solution in a volumetric flask includes the volumetric flask and its glass stopper, pipette, a medicine dropper, and a funnel. Water can be delivered from the beaker or wash bottle. Procedure:

MAKING STANDARD SOLUTIONS FROM CALCULATED MASS Procedure:

Volumetric flask is more accurate than beaker for the preparation of standard solution. Water is added using dropper to bring the solution to the graduation mark. Standard solution must be covered by stopper to prevent the contamination of the standard solution by foreign particles. After preparing the standard solution, shake it well to ensure thorough mixing.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - Neutralization Reaction

As you can see from the equations, acids release H+ into solution and bases release OH-. If we were to mix an acid and base together, the H+ ion would combine with the OH- ion to make the molecule H2O, or plain water:

H+(aq) +

OH-(aq)

H2O

Neutralization is a reaction between acid and base to produce salt and water only as shown below: Acid HCl HBr Base + NaOH + KOH Water H2O H2O Salt + NaCl + KBr

Uses of neutralization
1. Soil treatment - if the soil is too acidic, it is treated with a base in order to neutralise it. Common treatments use quicklime (calcium oxide) or chalk (calcium carbonate). 2. Indigestion - too much hydrochloric acid in our stomach leads to indigestion. Therefore, to cure this ailment we need to neutralise the acid with a base such as, sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda), or milk of magnesia. 3. Bee sting contains acid - In order to relieve the painful symptoms of the sting we need to neutralise the acid. By rubbing on calamine lotion (zinc carbonate) or baking soda the acid can be neutralised.

4. Wasp sting contains alkaline - Hence acid is needed to neutralise and remove the painful sting. Vinegar (ethanoic acid) is used.

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - Titration Method

The technique of titration is used to find out accurately how much of a chemical substance is dissolved in a given volume of a solution, that is, the concentration of the solution.

The technique uses a set of apparatus with which volumes of solutions can be measured to an accuracy of greater than 0.1 cm3. Three important pieces of apparatus are: Burette - Measures accurately the volume of a solution added. Readings can be taken to an accuracy of half a division.

Pipette - Delivers an accurate volume of a solution. Often this is 25 cm3. Volumetric flask - Used to make up an accurate volume of a solution, for example, 250 cm3. This could be a standard solution (of exactly known concentration and known solute).

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - Determining the Molarity of Acid and Base Using Titration

List of important command words, with examples

List of important command words, with examples The words used in examination questions often indicate what sort of answers are expected. 1. Define (Takrifkan) This means you are only required to write a concise statement to say what something is or means Example: Define relative atomic mass Suggested Answer: It is the average mass of an atom of an element compared with 1/12th of the mass of a carbon-12 atom

2. State (Nyatakan) This means a short, concise answer is expected, without explanation Example: State one commercial use of aluminium Suggested Answer: It is used to manufacture soft drink cans

3. List ( Senaraikan) This means you are to give a number of points in a list. Each point might only be a single word or a short phrase or sentence Example: List three pollutants that are produced by car engines. Suggested Answer: Carbon dioxide Nitrogen dioxide Unburnt fuel /soot

4. Explain (Jelaskan/huraikan) This usually means some reference to chemical theory Example: Explain why 2.0 mol/dm-3 hydrochloric acid reacts more quickly with solid calcium carbonate than 1.0 mol/dm3 acid Suggested Answer: For the 2.0 mol/dm-3 acid, there are more hydrogen ions per unit volume of acid and so collide more frequently with calcium carbonate (your mention of 'more frequent collisions' is the theory)

5. Describe (Huraikan) Writing in full and systemically, what has been carried out, observed or deduced and with diagram of apparatus used. Example: Describe how ethanol can be produced by fermentation in the laboratory. Suggested Answer: Your answer should contain the following :

Simple diagram of the apparatus One or two sentences saying what you should do, including: Materials used (ie sugar, yeast, water ) Conditions (ie leave in a warm place for a few days; plug the flask so that air cannot get in ) Equation (if you know it ) or at least mention that glucose decomposes into ethanol and carbon dioxide.

(How much you write would depend on the marks allocated for the question)

6. Predict or deduce (Ramalkan) This means you are to deduce an answer from information in the question or from anearlier answer. You are not expected to produce an answer from memory. Example : Predict the physical state of octane, which has 8 carbon atoms (You are given the boiling points of all the alkanes with 1-7 carbons atoms) Sugested Answer: A liquid at room temperature ( From the given boiling points of the other
alkanes, you can predict that octane will have a higher boiling point and will thus be a liquid at room temperature)

7. Suggest (Cadangkan) This means that you are not expected to know the correct answer but you are supposed to make a logical deduction from the information given in the question or from your chemical knowledge. Your answer may not be true, but it is correct if what you say is sensible from what you might reasonably be expected to know Example : From your knowledge of Group VII, suggest two physical properties of astatine at the bottom of the Group Suggested Answer: Astatine would be a black solid which does not conduct electricity, because all the Group VII elements are non-metals and the elements become darker down the Group, with increasing density. (This would be the logical answer even though no one has ever been able to obtain a lump of astatine to see what it looks like or to find out if it really does not conduct electricity!

8. Calculate (Hitungkan) This means a numerical answer is expected and the working given in full/all the steps shown Example : In an experiment, 1.30 g of zinc powder and 200 cm3 of 0.2 mol/dm3 sulphuric acid were reacted together. 1. Calculate the number of moles of zinc in 1.30 g [1]

2. Calculate the number of moles of sulphuric acid in the solution [2] Suggested Answer: (a) moles of zinc = 1.3/65 = 0.02 mole (b) 200/1000 x 0.2 = 0.04 mol 9. Determine (Tentukan) This usually means the answer cannot be measured directly but is obtained by calculation or perhaps, by taking a reading from graph. Normally a numerical answer is expected

10. Sketch (Lakarkan) This is often applied to graphs. It means that only the correct shape and approximate position of the graph is expected. It might mean you need to add one or two numbers to make the position clear. (Plotting a graph requires actual/experimental readings)

If you are asked to sketch a diagram then only a freehand drawing is expected. It can be quite rough but it must be clear what is shown and any important details must be clear. For example, if a rubber bung is supposed to seal a flask, this should be obvious in your sketch; it would be wrong to leave a gap between the flask and the bung. In a sketch of apparatus, the proportions must be roughly correct.Eg a test tube should not be drawn larger than a conical flask.

Some command words in Paper 3

(1) To differentiate between 'products' and 'observation' Observation: describe what is actually seen/observed/smelled Products: names in full, not formula

Examples of observation (i) Solid or precipitate formed.Colour must be mentioned

(ii)Whether solid in (i) is soluble or insoluble in excess of named reagent (iii) If gas, colour must be stated( if relevant) or chemical test described followed by the result (iv) change in colour : must state initial and the final colours

Common mistakes in describing observations Correct Colourless (solution) No change seen Colourless gas given out Deflection of ammeter needle Purple solution decolourised Brown deposit/solid seen Moist red litmus paper turns blue

Inaccurate/Incorrect Clear (solution) No reaction seen Hydrogen gas released Movement shown by ammeter Purple colour disappears or purple solution bleached Product of electrolysis at the cathode: Brown precipitate seen Red litmus paper becomes blue litmus paper

Examples of 'Action Words' in Chemical Tests (i) Add one reagent to another in a named container (ii) Mix together 2 reagents /chemicals in named container (iii) For gases : Channel/pass a gas through eg a combustion tube (excess will escape) Bubble the gas into eg lime water (no excess coming out) (iv) Insert glowing splint into a test tube containing ---------(v)Place/Put lighted splint near the mouth of a test tube containing -------(vi) Titiskan / add, drop by drop or a little at a time.