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Advantages of Static Relays

Static relays in general possess the following advantages: 1. Low burden on current and voltage transformers, since the operating power is. in many cases, from an auxiliary d.c. supply. 2. Absence of mechanical inertia and bouncing contacts, high resistance to shock and vibration. 3. Very fast operation and long life. 4. Low maintenance owing to the absence of moving parts and bearing friction. 5. Quick reset action and absence of overshoot. 6. Ease of providing amplication enables greater sensitivity. 7. Unconventional characteristics are possible the basic building blocks of semiconductor circuitry permit a greater degree of sophistication in the shaping of operating characteristics, enabling the practical utilization of relays with operating characteristics more closely approaching the ideal requirements. 8. The low energy levels required in the measuring circuits permit miniaturization of the relay modules.

Differences between Shunt Reactor and Power Transformer


Posted Sep 18 2012 by Edvard in Transformers, Transmission and Distribution with 2 Comments
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Differences between Shunt Reactor and Power Transformer

Main Differences
Shunt Reactor and Transformer both appear similar in construction. Reactors are also often equipped with Fans for cooling similar to Power Transformers. However, there are major differences between the two. While a Power Transformer is designed for efficient power transfer from one voltage system to another, a shunt reactor is intended only to consume reactive VArs (or in other words it can be stated as to produce lagging VArs). Thus, there are more than one winding on a Power Transformer with magnetic core which carry the mutual flux between the two. In reactor there is just one winding. The core is not therefore meant only to provide a low reluctance path for flux of that winding to increase the Inductance. In case of a Power Transformer, primary Ampere-Turns (AT) is sum of exciting AT and secondary AT. AT loss (in winding resistance, eddy loss and hysteric loss) is kept to as minimum as possible. Exciting AT is small compared with the secondary AT. Rated current is based on the load transfer requirement.

Detailed view of an iron core divided by air gaps Magnetizing current is small and is negligible value when compared with the secondary rated current. Further, since mutual flux is main flux which results in transformation, leakage flux is kept small and will be based on fault current limitation. In case of a Shunt Reactor due to absence of other windings, all primary AT is equal to the exciting AT. Similar to a Power Transformer, loss in AT (in winding resistance, eddy current and hysteresis) are also kept to minimum by design. Magnetizing AT is major component of a Shunt Reactor. Reactor magnetizing current is its rated current. Since a Shunt Reactor magnetizing current is large, if it is designed with Iron alone as a Power Transformer, there will be large hysteresis loss. Air gaps in Iron core are provided in a Shunt Reactor to reduce this loss and to minimize the remanent flux in the core. Thus a Shunt Reactor may also be constructed without iron (air-core).
By construction, a Shunt Reactor can be oil immersed or dry type for both with and without iron core.

Dry type Reactors are constructed as single phase units and are thus arranged in a fashion to minimize stray magnetic field on surrounding (in the absence of metallic shielding). When such an arrangement is difficult, some form of magnetic shielding is required and designed with care to minimize eddy current loss and arcing at any joints within the metallic loops. One of the advantages of dry type reactor is absence of inrush current. Oil immersed reactors can be core-less or with gapped iron core. These are either single phase or three phase design with or without fan cooling. These are installed within tanks which hold oil & act as metallic magnetic shields. In some cases, a Shunt Reactor may have additional small capacity winding which can provide power for small station power loads. Since Shunt Reactor rating is normally based on MVAr rating, this added station load VA shall be accounted for in designing the Reactor for such applications.

Types of shunt reactors

Shunt reactors are used in high voltage systems to compensate for the capacitive generation of long overhead lines or extended cable networks.

The reasons for using shunt reactors are mainly two


The first reason is to limit the overvoltages and the second reason is to limit the transfer of reactive power in the network. If the reactive power transfer is minimized i. e. the reactive power is balanced in the different part of the networks, a higher level of active power can be transferred in the network.

Reactors to limit overvoltages are most needed in weak power systems, i.e. when network short-circuit power is relatively low.

Voltage increase in a system due to the capacitive generation is:

U(%) = QC x 100 / Ssh.c


where: Qc is the capacitive input of reactive power to the network Ssh.c is the short circuit power of the network With increasing short circuit power of the network the voltage increase will be lower and the need of compensation to limit over-voltages will be less accentuated. Reactors to achieve reactive power balance in the different part of the network are most needed in heavy loaded networks where new lines cannot be built because of environmental reasons. Reactors for this purpose mostly are thyristor controlled in order to adapt fast to the reactive power required. Especially in industrial areas with arc furnaces the reactive power demand is uctuating between each half cycle.
In such applications there are usually combinations of: 1. Thyristor controlled reactors (TCR) and 2. Thyristor switched capacitor banks (TSC). These together makes it possible to both absorb, and generate reactive power according to the momentary demand.

Four leg reactors also can be used for extinction of the secondary are at single-phase reclosing in long transmission lines. Since there always is a capacitive coupling between phases, this capacitance will give a current keeping the are burning, a secondary arc. By adding one single-phase reactor in the neutral the secondary arc can be extinguished and the single-phase auto-reclosing successful. Resource: Shunt Reactors and Shunt Reactor Protection - S.R. Javed Ahmed

220V DC System at Thermal Power Station


Posted Feb 15 2012 by Bipul Raman in Energy and Power, Maintenance with 0 Comments

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UPS Battery & Critical Reserve Power (photo by Infinity Power Solutions)

The 220V DC system supplies direct current as source of operating power for control, signaling, relays, tripping and closing of switchgears, emergency motors of most important auxiliary systems. Under normal conditions of station generation, the storage battery units are kept floating in DC bus bars by means of the trickle chargers (also known as float chargers). The trickle chargers of each battery unit, which is a rectifier with AC input, is normally made to take all DC requirements of the power station without allowing the battery to discharge. This is achieved by maintaining the DC output voltage of trickle charger a few volts higher than the voltage of the battery. With this, the trickle charger besides meeting all the DC requirements of the power station, supplies a few hundred milliamps of direct current to the battery to compensate the loss in the capacity of the battery due to action between the plates of the cell. With this arrangement, the battery remains connected to the DC bus bars as a standby supply source and immediately supplies the DC load in the vent of temporary failure of complete AC system.

The complete AC power system failure in a power station is known as emergency situation. DC battery units are designed to supply station DC loads for an emergency period of one hour. The tickle charger normally supplies the station DC load and the momentary loads will also be catered for by the trickle charger and if such a load is more than its capacity, the battery being in parallel with the trickle charger will supply the excessive load. The trickle charger will normally be kept operating at around 1152.15 V ie 247 volts. In case of AC mains failure the full battery of 115 cells will supply the load ie 230 volts. If the emergency lasts for one hour with an appropriate load of 450 Amps, then battery will supply the load for one hour when its end voltage will drop down to 1.75 volts per cell ie 201 volts. After the emergency when the quick charger is closed the full battery will receive a boost charge and at the same time only the voltage of 98 cells will appear across the load. If a second emergency occurs during quick charging, then immediately all the 115 cells are connected to the bus by closing the switch meant for the purpose. During routine daily testing of emergency DC motors connected to main distribution board middle section, supply has to be taken from the quick charger and the middle section has to be kept isolated from the left and right sections of main distribution board. This is to test the quick charger.

Types of battery being used:


1. Lead-acid battery tubular 2. Lead-acid battery plaint 3. Ni-Cd battery

Procedure followed in commissioning a battery


1. The battery is charged initially to its capacity. The lead acid Battery has a capacity of 1000AH ie it may be charged for 10 hrs with charging current of 100 A or 5 hrs with charging current of 200 A. in case of Ni-Cd battery with a capacity of 2500 AH is charged for 12.5 hrs. with a charging current of 200A. 2. Now the battery is discharged at the rate of 10% of its capacity in case of lead-acid battery and 20% or 40% of its capacity in case of Ni-Cd battery. 3. Now the battery is recharged to its capacity. 4. Constant voltage charging of battery is called float charging. A lead acid battery of cell voltage 2.2V is float charged upto 2.42 V. A Ni-Cd battery of cell voltage 1.2V is float charged upto 1.41 V. 5. Constant current charging of a battery is called boost charging. A lead acid battery with bank voltage 237 may be boost charged to 279V. A Ni-Cd battery with bank voltage 242 may be boost charged to 283V. Top

Equipment used in 220V DC supply system Sources of AC power

Two sources of AC power have been provided for both quick charger and trickle charger, one is the normal source and other is standby. AC power supply to the chargers is through transformers having off-load tap changing arrangement. An AC voltage-signaling relay communicates; AC voltage low when the supply voltage becomes low.
Voltage level indicating device

A voltage level indicating device in MDB gives audio and visual annunciation when the DC bus voltage changes beyond set low (180-210) and high limits (240-270).
AVR

The DC voltage is maintained at desired value automatically by means of AVR unit provided at panel board.
Insulation monitoring device

This device annunciates when the insulation resistance of either positive bus to earth or negative bus to earth falls below 20 kilo ohms and also when the ratio of insulation resistance of positive bus to earth to negative bus to earth is 1.5 or above.
Flickering light device

This has been installed in the MDB, for flicker supply to control and check whether device is in order or not. Control and signaling panels have two sets of bus bars, one fed by main distribution board left section and the other by MDB right section. The loads of the first panel should be kept switched to the set of bus bars fed by MDB. Left section and the loads of the second panel should be kept connected to the set of bus bars fed by MDB right section.
Electrostatic Precipitator

Dust extraction from industrial gases has become necessity for environmental reasons or for improving production. Most of the plants in India use coal as fuel for generating steam. The exhaust gases contain large amount of smoke and dust, which are being emitted into the atmosphere. This has posed a real threat to the mankind as a devastating health hazard. Hence it becomes necessary to free the exhaust from smoke and dust. There are various ways of extracting dust. Electrostatic dust precipitation method is most widely used as its efficiency is excellent and it is easier to maintain. Its other advantages are:

Ability to treat large volumes of gases at high temperature Ability to cope up corrosive atmosphere

Offer low resistance path for gas flow.

An electrostatic precipitator is equipment, which utilizes an intense electric force to separate suspended particles from the flue gases. The process involves:

Electrical charging of suspended particles Collection of charged particles from collecting electrode. Removal of particles from collecting electrode.

The flue gases pass between electrodes and are subjected to an intense electric field. The emissive electrodes are connected to the negative polarity of HV power supply while collecting electrodes are connected to positive polarity and grounded.
The HV power supply equipment is supplied in two parts:

The high voltage transformer rectifier (HVR) The electronic controller (EC)

The EC-HVR equipment provides high voltage DC across the precipitator electrodes. The EC provides controlled AC voltage through thyristors (SCR) and associated controls to the primary of step up transformer. The EC has been designed to supply 0 to 415V to the primary of step up transformer through AC reactor. The equipment operates as constant current controller. Heaters

Heaters are provided to raise the temperature of flue gases, as they become conductive when heated. 24 heaters are provided for stage I electrostatic precipitators. Rating: 550W heaters
Zones

The flue gases from the boiler section reach electrostatic precipitator section through ducts. The flue gases are allowed to pass through various zones each having its own heaters, collecting and emissive electrodes and DC supply. These zones are provided to lessen the burden on a single zone and to take the load of other zone in case of maintenance or damage of a particular zone. Stage I have 16 zones eight belonging to PASS A and rest to PASS B. Stage II has 20 Zones five belonging to each PASS A, PASS B, PASS C and PASS D.
Diodes

These are provided to rectify the AC voltage to the required DC voltage for electrostatic precipitators to work. The required DC voltage is 70 kV, 1000 mA. Type: BY 127

Motors

Rapping motors are provided along with each zone. A hammer is coupled to each of the motors shaft. Due to rotary motion of motor these hammers hit the collecting electrodes after a certain time delay and the ash is allowed to flow down through outlet in form of slurry. Rating: .5A motors A GD screen (gas diverting) motor is also provided in electrostatic precipitator to provide a zigzag motion of flue gas so as to allow the heavy dust particles to settle down and removed.
Top Features: Spark regulation

Flashovers of extremely low intensity are difficult to detect using the comparator technique. Non detection results in sustained arcing which may damage the collecting electrode. For such digital detection system is adopted.
Fast ramp control

In case of fast changes in operating conditions of precipitator many sparks may occur within a short time reducing current to a low value, when the disturbance disappears, it may take a relatively long time before the current can assume its normal value. This is the case particularly if selected rate of rise is low.
Top Modes of operation Back corona mode

In this mode the precipitator voltage decreases with increase in precipitator current. This reduces the efficiency of precipitator and consumes unnecessary power.
Charge ratio mode

In a high resistive dust a potential gradient is created within the dust layers which causes occurrence of local sparks in dust layer. This spurious discharges or BACK CORONA occurs as soon as potential gradient is high. This has negative impact on efficiency.
Charge ratio

This mode supplies current in pulses and provides a dense corona for a short circuit time and at same time gives a low current to avoid back corona.

Sources: Internet and several books of Electrical Engineering

Historical Review of Power System Stability Problems


Posted Dec 8 2010 by Edvard in Energy and Power, Transmission and Distribution with 1 Comment
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Historical Review of Power System Stability Problems

As electric power systems have evolved over the last century, different forms of instability have emerged as being important during different periods. The methods of analysis and resolution of stability problems were influenced by the prevailing developments in computational tools,

stability theory, and power system control technology. A review of the history of the subject is useful for a better understanding of the electric power industrys practices with regard to system stability. Power system stability was first recognized as an important problem in the 1920s (Steinmetz, 1920; Evans and Bergvall, 1924; Wilkins, 1926). The early stability problems were associated with remote power plants feeding load centers over long transmission lines. With slow exciters and noncontinuously acting voltage regulators, power transfer capability was often limited by steady-state as well as transient rotor angle instability due to insufficient synchronizing torque.
To analyze system stability, graphical techniques such as the equal area criterion and power circle diagrams were developed. These methods were successfully applied to early systems which could be effectively represented as two machine systems.

As the complexity of power systems increased, and interconnections were found to be economically attractive, the complexity of the stability problems also increased and systems could no longer be treated as two machine systems. This led to the development in the 1930s of the network analyzer, which was capable of power flow analysis of multimachine systems. System dynamics, however, still had to be analyzed by solving the swing equations by hand using step-by-step numerical integration. Generators were represented by the classical fixed voltage behind transient reactance model. Loads were represented as constant impedances. Improvements in system stability came about by way of faster fault clearing and fast acting excitation systems. Steady-state aperiodic instability was virtually eliminated by the implementation of continuously acting voltage regulators. With increased dependence on controls, the emphasis of stability studies moved from transmission network problems to generator problems, and simulations with more detailed representations of synchronous machines and excitation systems were required. The 1950s saw the development of the analog computer, with which simulations could be carried out to study in detail the dynamic characteristics of a generator and its controls rather than the overall behavior of multimachine systems. Later in the 1950s, the digital computer emerged as the ideal means to study the stability problems associated with large interconnected systems. In the 1960s, most of the power systems in the U.S. and Canada were part of one of two large interconnected systems, one in the east and the other in the west. In 1967, low capacity HVDC ties were also established between the east and west systems. At present, the power systems in North America form virtually one large system. There were similar trends in growth of interconnections in other countries. While interconnections result in operating economy and increased reliability through mutual assistance, they contribute to increased complexity of stability problems and increased consequences of instability. The Northeast Blackout of November 9, 1965, made this abundantly

clear; it focused the attention of the public and of regulatory agencies, as well as of engineers, on the problem of stability and importance of power system reliability.
Until recently, most industry effort and interest has been concentrated on transient (rotor angle) stability. Powerful transient stability simulation programs have been developed that are capable of modeling large complex systems using detailed device models. Significant improvements in transient stability performance of power systems have been achieved through use of high-speed fault clearing, high-response exciters, series capacitors, and special stability controls and protection schemes.

The increased use of high response exciters, coupled with decreasing strengths of transmission systems, has led to an increased focus on small signal (rotor angle) stability. This type of angle instability is often seen as local plant modes of oscillation, or in the case of groups of machines interconnected by weak links, as interarea modes of oscillation. Small signal stability problems have led to the development of special study techniques, such as modal analysis using eigenvalue techniques (Martins, 1986; Kundur et al., 1990). In addition, supplementary control of generator excitation systems, static Var compensators, and HVDC converters is increasingly being used to solve system oscillation problems. There has also been a general interest in the application of power electronic based controllers referred to as FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) controllers for damping of power system oscillations (IEEE, 1996). In the 1970s and 1980s, frequency stability problems experienced following major system upsets led to an investigation of the underlying causes of such problems and to the development of long term dynamic simulation programs to assist in their analysis (Davidson et al., 1975; Converti et al., 1976; Stubbe et al., 1989; Inoue et al., 1995; Ontario Hydro, 1989). The focus of many of these investigations was on the performance of thermal power plants during system upsets (Kundur et al., 1985; Chow et al., 1989; Kundur, 1981; Younkins and Johnson, 1981). Guidelines were developed by an IEEE Working Group for enhancing power plant response during major frequency disturbances (1983). Analysis and modeling needs of power systems during major frequency disturbances was also addressed in a recent CIGRE Task Force report (1999). Since the late 1970s, voltage instability has been the cause of several power system collapses worldwide (Kundur, 1994; Taylor, 1994; IEEE, 1990). Once associated primarily with weak radial distribution systems, voltage stability problems are now a source of concern in highly developed and mature networks as a result of heavier loadings and power transfers over long distances. Consequently, voltage stability is increasingly being addressed in system planning and operating studies. Powerful analytical tools are available for its analysis (Van Cutsem et al., 1995; Gao et al., 1992; Morison et al., 1993), and well-established criteria and study procedures are evolving (Abed, 1999; Gao et al., 1996). Present-day power systems are being operated under increasingly stressed conditions due to the prevailing trend to make the most of existing facilities. Increased competition, open transmission

access, and construction and environmental constraints are shaping the operation of electric power systems in new ways that present greater challenges for secure system operation. This is abundantly clear from the increasing number of major power-grid blackouts that have been experienced in recent years; for example, Brazil blackout of March 11, 1999; Northeast USACanada blackout of August 14, 2003; Southern Sweden and Eastern Denmark blackout of September 23, 2003; and Italian blackout of September 28, 2003. Planning and operation of todays power systems require a careful consideration of all forms of system instability. Significant advances have been made in recent years in providing the study engineers with a number of powerful tools and techniques. A coordinated set of complementary programs, such as the one described by Kundur et al. (1994) makes it convenient to carry out a comprehensive analysis of power system stability.
SOURCE: Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution by Leonard L.

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