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Outline solid for naturally occurring elements or ions; dashed for ones that rarely or never occur in nature. Atomic Number Symbol
(see scale at far right)
Ions least depleted from mantle in formation of crust Ions enriched in CAIs (Ca-Al-rich inclusions in meteorites) relative to the composition of the solar system Ions that enter early-forming phases in igneous rocks Ions commonly concentrated in residual soils and residual sediments. Small symbol ( ) indicates less certainty. Ions concentrated in deep-sea ferromanganese nodules relative to seawater Ions that enter later phases in igneous rocks because of their large size (mostly "large-ion lithophiles") 8 most abundant solutes dissolved in seawater 9th to 16th most abundant 17th to 22nd most abundant Most abundant solute in average river water (HCO3) 2nd to 8th most abundant solutes in average river water Solutes that can be limiting nutrients in the growth of bacteria Solutes that can be limiting nutrients in the oceans Micronutrient solutes on land Macronutrient solutes on land Ions essential to the nutrition of at least some vertebrates ("essential minerals")
234
Ions that tend to only enter O2--bearing solids late, or not at all, and instead to enter or remain in aqueous solution.
54 Ge Actinium
m=72.59 r=1.05
3+
(number of protons)
Cations that form simple fluoride minerals Cations that form simple oxide minerals Cations that form simple sulfide minerals Cations that form simple bromide or iodide minerals Cations that form oxysalt minerals (e.g., S6+ in sulfates, As5+ in arsenates) Anions that form minerals with K+ and Na+ Anions that form minerals with Mg2+ Anions that form minerals with Al3+, Ti4+, and Zr4+ Anions that form minerals with Si4+ Anions that form minerals with Cu+ Anions that form minerals with Ag+ Anions that form minerals with Au+
Elements that occur as native minerals, recognized in antiquity ( recognized from Middle Ages to 1862; recognized after 1963.) Elements that make natural mineral alloys with Fe Elements that make natural mineral alloys with Cu Elements that make natural mineral alloys with Os Elements that make natural mineral alloys with Pt Elements that make natural mineral alloys with Au 4 most abundant constituents in atmosphere 5th to 8th most abundant
Fe
Zr
Li
Lu
10 most abundant elements in Earth's crust 11th to 20th most abundant elements in Earth's crust 21st to 40th most abundant elements in Earth's crust 41st to 92nd most abundant elements in Earth's crust
Elements that are thought to make up most of the Earth's core (Fe>Ni>Co), along with possibly S or O
Noble Gases
(No ionization) He
Helium
H+
Noble Gases
(No ionization) He
Helium
Coordinate F>O>N=Cl>Br>I>S
Commonly coordinate with O of carboxyl groups of organic ligands
See also Insets 1 to 5 and 7.
(smaller print where very scarce) z = ionic charge r ionic radius = ionic potential or charge density
z = / 4 z r= /r 2
Cations that m=1.0079 coordinate r=10-5 with OH (or H2O) in 123 solution
z / r =
Hydrogen ion
1
Gases
m=4.0026 r=1.2 34 Ne
Neon
Beryllium ion
m=9.012 r=0.31
Cations that coordinate with O2 in solution (e.g., as NO3, PO43, SO 42, etc.) 5+
Inset 9.
H2
Molecular hydrogen
Anions
Anions
with full outer electron shells
Hydrogen as hydride
10
Fe 6+
26
Nonmetals
r=0.25
r=0.77
z/ = 16 r
6 C
N2
7 8
8
as in atmospheric OH0, HO2, and H2O2
Anions that commonly coordinate with H+ (e.g., as CH4, NH3, H2S, H2O, etc.) 3 Also see 4 2
Fluorine as fluoride
m=4.0026 r=1.2 34 Ne
Reduced carbon
N 7 6 Reduced nitrogen
Inset 9.
4 +
8F
10
Neon
Oxygen as oxide
m=18.998 r=1.36
m=20.180 r=1.5
Metals
10
z /r = 1
Na+ 11 Mg2+12 Al 13 Si
Sodium ion Magnesium ion
16
m=22.990 r=0.95
Intermediate
m=20.180 r=1.5
20 21 22
Ar
Argon
18
Where Fe2+ and Fe3+ would fall if they were hard cations
23
Potassium ion
K+ 19 Ca
m=39.098 r=1.33
phosphate (PO43 sulfate (SO4 m=24.305 and HPO4 2) m =28.086 m=32.066 m =26.982 r=0.65 r=0.41 m=30.974 r=0.50 r=0.29 r= r=0.34 0.27 24 25 26 32 33 34 36 26 27 28 29 30 31 Fe 3+ Fe 2+ 5+ 6+ + 3+ 4+ 2+ 20 Mn7
16 15 S P Sulfur as Phosphorus as
2 )
6+
Cl
7+
Intermediate Cations
(Some electrons remain in outer shell)
as perchlornate (ClO 4 )
Sc
m=39.948 r=1.8 36 38 40 Kr
Ti2+22
Titanium ion
39 40 41
m=85.468 r=1.48
40 42 43
45
( 48)
m=50.942 r=0.74
as in arsenites
r=0.90
z /r =
64 66
67 68 70 Cd
(1+ r=1.13)
(2+ r=0.93)
44 46 48 ?
69 71
In
1,3+
Indium ion
36 Krypton
4+ 5+ 2+ Rb+ 37 Sr 38 Y3+ 39 Zr 40 Nb 41 Mo 6+ 42 Molybdenum Zirconium ion Rubidium ion Strontium ion Yttrium ion Niobium (or
m=83.80 r=1.9 78 80 82 83 84 86 Xe
m=87.62 r=1.13 84 86 87 88
Columbium) ion
as molybdate
85 87
Cs+
89
La3+& REEs
90 91
92 94 96 ? Hf
m=92.906 r=0.70
93 (96)
Ta
54 Xenon
m=131.29 r=2.1
124 126 128 129 130 131 132 134 136
Radon
(222)
219 220 222
m=232.038 r=0.95
(+3 r=1.14)
Neptunium
Plutonium
(231)
(+4 r=0.98)
as uranyl (UO22+)
223
227 228
231 234
Very limited Very limited natural natural occurrence occurrence on Earth on Earth
z /r=
z / r =
Rn
86
m=132.905 m=137.327 r=1.35 r=1.69 See below 130 132 134 135 136 170Yb 133 137 138 3+ Fr + 87 Ra2+ 88 Ac 89 Actinium ion Francium ion Radium ion m=227.03? (223) (226) r=1.18 r=1.40 r=1.76
as tantalate presumably m=178.49 as rheniate m=180.948 m=183.84 r=0.81 r=0.73 r=0.68 m=186.207 r=0.56 174 176 177 180 182 183 178 179 180 180 181 184 186 185 187
Tantalum
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
r=1.46 r=1.37 r=1.35 r=1.35 r=1.38 r=1.44 r=1.60 r=1.71 r=1.75 r=1.82
z /r = 1
m=208.980
The only bismuthide minerals are of Pd, Ag, Pt, Au, and Pb
z / r =
5771
72 Hafnium ion
4+
73 Tantalum ion
5+
6+
74
Re7+
75 Rhenium ion
Np
93 Pu
94
z /r = 2 z /r = 1
m=192.217 m=195.078 m=196.967 m=200.59 m=204.383 m=183.84 m=186.207 m=190.23 r=1.40 r=0.66 r =0.69 r=0.96 r=1.37 r =0.65 r=1.19 r=0.64 (3+ r=0.85) 196 198 199 210 211 212 184 186 190 192 193? 204 206 207 180 182 183 200 201 203 205 206 208 210 211 209 210 211 214 215 187 188 189 191 193 194 195 212 214 215 184 186 185 187 197 202 204 206 207 208 210 196 198 212 214 216 218 190 192 3+ 2+ 4+ 5+ 4+ Elements 95 and beyond do not occur naturally: Hg Tl 80 Thallic thallium 82 Bi 81 Pb 83 U 92 95: Americium 101: Mendelevium Mercuric ion Plumbic lead Bismuth ion Uranium ion 96: Curium 102: Nobelium r =1.10 r =0.84 r=0.95 r=0.74 r=0.97 97:Berkelium 103: Lawrencium
1
= z/r 4
4+
74
Gold ion
Mercurous ion
Polonium
Ta
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Bismuth as bismuthide
Re
75 Rhenium ion
4+
Os
76 Osmium ion
4+
Iridium ion
Ir
4+
77
Pt
78 Platinum ion
2+
Au+
79
106 108 110 111 112 113 113 115 114 116 + + 81 Hg 80 Tl
m=112.411 m=114.818 m=118.710 m=121.760 m=127.60 m=126.904 3+ r=0.81 r=0.97 r=0.44 r=0.89 Iodine r=0.90 1+ r=1.32 r=1.12 is shown twice
112 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 122 124
48 Cadmium ion
2+
49
Sn
70 72 73 74 76 2+
m=74.922 r=0.69
75
Sb
as in antimonites
m=78.96 r=0.50 74 76 77 78 80 82
4+
Tellurium ion, as in tellurites
Chromium
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Zinc
Arsenic
Selenium
r=1.27
5+
r=1.48 r=1.6
m=74.922 r=2.22
50
Stannous tin
51 Antimony ion,
3+
75
Te
52
53
44
Ru
45
Rh
46
Pd
47
Ag
Silver
48
Cd
Cadmium
49
In
Indium
50
Sn
Tin
51
Sb
52
Te
Sb
51
m=78.96 r=1.98 74 76 77 78 80 82 Te 2 52
m=79.904 r=1.95
(7+ r=0.39)
Calcium ion
Scandium ion
21
Ti 22 V
Titanic titanium
23 Cr
24
22 Ti Titanium ion
r=0.75
3+
VVanadium ion
r=0.61
3+
4+
Coordination with S or O likely 3+ 24 Mn3,4+ 25 Fe3+ 26 Co3+ 27 Ni 3+ 28 Cu2+ 29 Cr Chromic Cobaltic cobalt Nickel ion 23 chromium Manganese ion Ferric iron Cupric copper
m=51.996 4+ r=0.53 r=0.69 3+ r= 0.64
2+
z
z /r = 4
S
/r = 8
12 13 14
4
Silicon as silicide
14 15
Phosphorus as phosphide
16 17 18
Sulfur as sulfide
19
Chlorine as chloride
20 21 22
Ar
As
r=0.37
33
Se
34
Elemental Forms
(uncharged)
Principal elements in iron meteorites (Fe>>Ni>>Co) and, with S or O, presumably dominant elements in Earth's core
13
Aluminum
14
Silicon
z r/ =
Sn4+
Stannic tin
50
r=0.47 Sb5+ As
3+
antimonate
23 VVanadous vanadium
28 Cu 29 27 Ni Nickel ion 50 52 53 54 Mn 25 26 Co Cobaltous cobalt Manganous Mn Ferrous iron m=58.693 Cuprous copper 2+ 24 m=54.938 m=63.546 Cr m=55.845 m=58.933 r=0.72 Chromous r=0.74 r=0.76 r=0.80 r=0.96 chromium 58 60 50 51 55 61 62 64 r=0.90 59 63 65 54 56 57 58 2+ 2+ 3 , 4+ 41 Mo2+ 42 Tc 43 Ru 45 Pd 46 Ag + 47 44 Rh Technetium 4+ Ruthenium ion 4+ Rhodium ion Silver ion 42 Very limited m=101.07 m=102.906 Palladium ion m=107.868 Nb Mo Molybdenum ion m =106.42 natural 3+ r=0.69 r=0.86 =95.94 occurrence r=1.26 r=0.86 4+ r=0.67 41 m on Earth r=0.68 96 98 99 3+ 102 104 105 99 94 95 96 100 101 Nb 92 ( 100 ) 106 108 110 107 109 103 97 98 100 102 104
Fe
r=0.64 2+
r=0.63
2+
r=0.73
2+
r=0.69
+
Zn
2+
Zinc ion
31 30 Ga Gallium ion
m=69.723 r=0.62
3+
Germanium ion
51
r=0.42 Te6+ 52
tellurate
Al Si
16 S
Sulfur
Si 14 P3 15 S 2 16 Cl 17
m=28.086 m=30.974 m=32.066 m=35.453 r=2.71 r=1.81 r=1.84 r=2.12
Most known natural occurrences of phosphides and silicides are in metorites and cosmic dust.
18
Argon
r=1.43 r=1.34
m=39.948 r=1.8 36 38 40 Kr
r=0.62
r=0.56
as selenite(SeO32)
32 33 34 36
Se
2
Selenium as selenide
35 36 37
Br
m=65.39 r=0.74
33 Arsenic,
4+ 34 Se Selenium
24
Cr
Fe
26
Co
27
28
Ni
Cu
29
Zn
30
33
(Atomic masses and isotopic information are omitted to conserve space)
34
Se
As
As3
Copper
Arsenic as arsenide
33
34
35
36
Krypton
Bromine as bromide
m=83.80 r=1.9 78 80 82 83 84 86 Xe
Xenon
79 81 (82)
Iodine as iodide
Antimony Tellurium
121 123
Thallous thallium
as a solute in seawater because it speciates both as I (to right) (here). and IO3
m=126.904 m=127.60 r=2.16 m=121.760 r=2.21 (7+ r=0.50) r=2.45 120 122 123 (124) 127 129 124 125 126 121 123 ( 128 ) (130) 128 130 Bi
2,3
Antimony as antimonide
Tellurium as telluride
53
54
m=131.29 r=2.1
124 126 128 129 130 131 132 134 136
84
z/r= 8
73
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
83
At
85
Astatine
Rn
Radon
86
(222)
215 218 219 218 219 220 222
237
z = /r 8
239
Coordinate I>Br>S>Cl=N>O>F
Commonly coordinate with C of organic ligands, as in methylmercury Rare earth elements (REEs) (effectively "Hard" or "Type A" cations in their 3+ state)
*For the sake of simplicity, the 235U-207Pb and 232Th-208Pb series are omitted.
z /r =
z/r = 2
Ce
3+
4+
Cerium ion
Eu
Li Na
Be 2+ Mg
Bromellite
251
B 3+ Al
C 4+
3
57 3+ Tm 69 Lu 71 Ho 67 58 Holmium ion m =150.36 Thulium ion m =173.04 Lutetium ion No natural Lantha- Lanthanum ion Ce m =140.908 151 153 m =144.24 Cerium ion m=157.25 m=158.925 m=162.50 m=167.26 m=164.930 r=0.96 r=1.04 nides: m=138.906 m=140.116 r=1.09 m=168.934 r=0.94 occurrence m=174.967 r=1.08 r=1.02 2+ r =0.99 (2+ r = 1.13) r=0.97 r=0.93 r=1.15 (4+ r=0.92) r=0.95 63 152 154 155 r=1.00 r=1.11 156 158 142 143 144 on Earth 144 147 148 Eu 168 170 171 162 164 166 176Hf ? 176 175 149 150 156 157 160 161 162 146 145 172 173 136 138 140 Europium ion 169 165 167 168 170 ? 138Ba 159 141 138 139 (150) 158 160 148 150 ? 142 152 154 163 164 174 176 r=1.12
La Dy Er
z/r = 2
Substitutes for Ca2+
r=1.01
63 Europium ion
3+
3+
3+
68 Erbium ion
3+
3+
Yb
70 Ytterbium ion
3+
3+
Inset Inset 9: 9: The The many many valence valence states states of of nitrogen nitrogen and and carbon carbon
calculated calculated assuming assuming H H is is 1+ 1+ and and O O is is 2-. 2-. Valence Example state Example
Li Na
Bromellite
2+ Be9
B 3+ Al
C 4+ Si 4+
H= 6
N 5+ P 5+ S 6+
1700
Li
Be 2+
2681
B 3+
723
C 4+
216
N 5+
500
Li4.4
6+
Bromellite
2+ 3+ Be7.4 B 2.77 2+
2.4
C 4+
N 5+
5+ P 1.37
Si
4+
Periclase 160
38 Quartz
P
50
Lime 115
Ca2+
Ti216
200
4+
V 5+
Inset 6: Melting and decomposition (d) temperatures (K) of oxides of intermediate and soft cations
0 160
Cassiterite 4+
As
5+
Inset 7: Conceptual model of the behavior of oxides of hard (and intermediate) cations
Li Cations N 1
+
Rutile
3+
4+
5+
Minerals with
Rb
4+ 5+ Sr 2+ Y 3+ 15 Zr 152* Nb 87 0
*Baddeleyite has Ks = 95 GPa but is not the most stable ZrO2 phase at ambient conditions; value shown is for the latter.
40 0
Cs
Ba
2+
71
La
3+
Hf
4+
145
120 0 80 0
KAl2Si3O8 (Kspar) Na3PO4 CaSO4 (Olympite) (Anhydrite) Al2 SiO5 (K-S-A) Na2SO4 AlPO4 ZrSiO4 (Zircon) (Berlinite) (Thenardite)
Si
4+
5+
6+
Tenorite 1903 3+ Hematite 2+ 3+ 00 2000 3+ Mn Cu 12 Co Paramont- Eskolaite 1353(d) Fe Argutite Arsenolite Zincite 1719 1838 1168 (d) 3+ 3+ roseite 4+ 4+ 3+ 2+ Ga As Cr Bunsenite Ge V 2+ 2+ Zn 2+ 2+ Cuprite 547 2079 1388 + 2240 2603 Fe Mn Co Cu Ni 2242 2400 2054 1652 2078 2228 1509 Romarchite Valentinite Monteponite Manga- Wstite 2+ 4+ nosite 1600 2+ 2+ 2+ 3+ 3+ 2000 Mo Ag+ Sn Rh Pd
Sn
588
Mineral Nonmineral
Sellaite
(MgF2 )
Villiaumite
(NaF)
AgF Halite
Cl Br I
Chlorargyrite
(AgCl)
(NaCl)
Cd
In
1373(d) Tugarinovite
2185
1353(d)
Sb
928
Minerals with cations of low (e.g., K+) to moderate (e.g., Al3+) ionic potential
Au3+
2+ 423(d) +
Hg +
373(d) 2+
W
See also Inset 3.
4+
Re
4+
Ir
4+
Tl +
852
Pt
Massicot Bismite 2+ 3+
~1773(d) 1173(d)
Pb
Bi
1098
High z/r Strong O Rb bonds, but Intermediate cation-cation Low z/r repulsion z/r Weak cation- Strong cationoxygen bonds oxygen bonds
2
Bromargyrite
(AgBr)
Iodargyrite
(AgI)
5+ NO3 (nitrate) 4+ CO (carbon dioxide) 4+ 2NO 2 (nitrogen dioxide) 3+ HOOCCOOH (oxalic acid) 3+ NO2 (nitrite) 2+ CO (carbon monoxide) 2+ NO (nitric oxide) acetic carbohydrates, 1+ Nacid, (nitrous oxide) 2Odiamond 0 graphite, 0 N2 (nitrogen) 2 CH3OH (methanol) 3 NH3 (ammonia) Other alkanes 3 C2H6 (ethane) yield non(methane) 4CO CH integer values 4+ (carbon dioxide) 24 from 4 to 2. 3+ HO O C C O OH (oxalic acid) 5+ NO3 (nitrate) 2+ CO (carbon monoxide) 4+ NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) acetic acid, carbohydrates, 03+ NO2 (nitrite) graphite, diamond 2+ NO (nitric oxide) 2 CH3OH (methanol) 1+ N2 O (nitrous oxide) 3 C2 H6 (ethane) Other alkanes 0 N (nitrogen) yield noninteger values 4 CH2 4 (methane) 3 NH from 4 to 2. 3 (ammonia)
Shown above in the main table. N2 is the most abundant constituent of the atmosphere; NO2 , NO, N2 O, and NH3 are minor constituents.
Mg
7 Quartz
Na
1193
Mg
2+
Al 3+
2345
Si
4+
3125
1996
5+
855
290
+ Na9.9 Mg
Periclase
S 6+
H= 8
Perovskite 5.5
Lime
2+ Ca3.5
Ti 4+ >9
6.5
(Ru=6-6.5) Srilankite
3-3.5 Shcherbinaite
V 5+
Cr 6+
Ca2+ Sc 3+
3200
Ti 4+
2103
943
V 5+
Cr 6+
K14.0 Ca2+
Lime 1.4
Sc3+
Ti 4+
9.7 Rutile
5+ V 7.6 Cr 6+
Shcherbinaite
H=
4
Mineral of 2+ one cation: 7 Quartz Hardness
Sr
Y 3+
Rb
673
Sr 2+ Y 3+
2938
Zr 4+ Nb
3123
10 00 5+
H= 4
1785
Mo6+
1074
Rb
28.9
2+ Sr4.3
Y 3+
Zr 4+ Nb5+ Mo6+
Baddeleyite Molybdite
(Mohs scale)
La 3+ Hf 4+ Ta 5+ W 6+
H=6
7 Tantite
Cs
Ba2+ La 3+ Hf 4+ Ta 5+ W 6+
2286 2580 3173 2058 1745 Mineral 9.7
2+ La 3+ Hf 4+ Ta 5+ W 6+ Ba6.7
Tantite
0 10
1500
2000
1500
2500
200
2500 0 300
10-8
Na+( )-,
Solubility of Ag+( )-, Hg2+( )-, and Mg2+( )-bearing halides (mol/L)
Thorianite 6
Th 4+
Th 4+
3493
Th 4+ Thorianite
v. 4.8e 02 22 October 2012
3000