Small-Scale Hydropower in The Miraflor National Reserve

Small-scale hydropower in the Miraor National Reserve Micro centrales hidroelctricas en la Reserva Nacional de Miraor
Feasibility report Informe de viabilidad

Christine Driessen Iviss Medina Lilieth Rodrguez Michel Robijns Ren Kersten Nils-Lasse Weiner Simon Vieler Version 1; January 26, 2013
Delft University of Technology
Contents
Contents List of Figures List of Tables 1 Summary Resumen 2 Key illustrations Grcos principales 2.1 Most economically viable layouts La mayora de los diseos econmicamente viables 2.2 Overview Vista general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Salto Angelica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 La Laguna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 La Estancia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 San Jos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 La Piscina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 Posa el Caf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Key data Datos principales 3.1 Salto Angelica . 3.2 La Laguna . . . 3.3 La Estancia . . 3.4 San Jos . . . . 3.5 La Piscina . . . 3.6 Posa el Caf . . 4 Energy demand Demanda energtica 4 5 7
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5 Matching of supply and demand Adecuacin de la oferta y la demanda 23 5.1 The concept of the plant factor El concepto de factor de la planta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 5.2 Plant factors Factores de la planta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Contents
5.3
Conclusions Conclusiones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6 Hydrology study Estudia de hidrologa 6.1 Precipitation Precipitacin . . . 6.2 Evapotranspiration Evapotranspiracin 6.3 Runo Escorrenta . . . . 6.4 River discharge Cuadal . . . . . . .
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7 Results and recommendations Resultados y recomendaciones 7.1 Salto Angelica . . . . . . . 7.2 La Laguna . . . . . . . . . 7.3 La Estancia . . . . . . . . 7.4 San Jos . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 La Piscina . . . . . . . . . 7.6 Posa el Caf . . . . . . . . 7.7 Comparison; best value for Comparacin . . . . . . . 8 Hydro design
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41 42 47 51 55 58 62
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9 The velocity-area method Uso de molinos en la mediciones de caudales 9.1 The theory La teora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 The execution La ejecucin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 The results Los resultados . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 The salt-delution method El mtodo de solucin de sal 10.1 The theory La teora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 The execution La ejecucin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 The results Los resultados . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Future demand trends Demanda futura
70 70 70 72
73 73 74 75
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Contents 12 Water demand Demanda de agua 13 Energy supply options Opciones de suministro de energa 14 Management, Finance, and O+M Administracin, Finanzas y O+M 15 Welfare Bienestar 16 Creating the terrain map Crear el mapa del terreno 16.1 The color relief map El color de mapa en relieve 16.2 The hill shade map Sombra de la colina . . . . . 16.3 The slope shade map La sombra pendiente . . . . 16.4 Contour lines Curvas de nivel . . . . . . . 16.5 Rendering the terrain map Dibujar el mapa del terreno
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17 MATLAB scripts containing the calculations Los clculos en MATLAB 17.1 Hydrology study Estudia de hidrologa . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2 Demand study and plant factors Estudio de demanda y los factores de planta 17.3 Salto Angelica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.4 La Laguna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.5 La Estancia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.6 San Jos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.7 La Piscina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.8 Posa el Caf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.9 Grading Clasicacin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Bibliography
95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 108 115 121 127 132 138
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List of Figures
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 4.1 4.2 5.1 5.2 5.3 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 Overview of all points of interest. . . . . . . . . . . . . The three recommended layouts for Salto Angelica. . . Net power output: 110 m head and 700 m tube length. The three recommended layouts for La Laguna. . . . . Net power output: 100 m head and 550 m tube length. The three recommended layouts for La Estancia. . . . Net power output: 60 m head and 350 m tube length. The three recommended layouts for San Jos. . . . . . Net power output: 45 m head and 350 m tube length. The three recommended layouts for La Piscina. . . . . Net power output: 50 m head and 500 m tube length. The three recommended layouts for Posa el Caf. . . . Net power output: 50 m head and 450 m tube length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 16 17 17
Energy demand curve for a single house. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Energy demand curve for the Miraor National Reserve. . . . . . . . . . . 22 The case of using a reservoir to increase energy output during peak hours. 25 Plant factors for installed capacities in the range from 100 kW to 400 kW. 25 Daily demand not covered with a certain installed capacity. . . . . . . . . 27 Precipitation in 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Precipitation in 2011. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Precipitation in 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average precipitation over a typical annual cycle. . . . . . . . . . Evapotranspiration over a typical annual cycle. . . . . . . . . . . Runo over a typical annual cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drainage basin area for Salto Angelica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drainage basin area for La Estancia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drainage basin area for San Jos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drainage basin area for La Laguna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drainage basin area for La Piscina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drainage basin area for Posa el Caf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Estimated ow duration curve for the Miraor National Reserve. Monthly river discharge for Salto Angelica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monthly river discharge for La Estancia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monthly river discharge for San Jos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monthly river discharge for La Laguna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monthly river discharge for La Piscina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 29 30 30 31 32 33 34 34 35 35 36 37 38 38 39 39 40
LIST OF FIGURES
6.19 Monthly river discharge for Posa el Caf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19 7.20 7.21 7.22 7.23 7.24 7.25 7.26 7.27 7.28 7.29 7.30 7.31 7.32 7.33 7.34 7.35 7.36 7.37 Salto Angelica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The three recommended layouts for Salto Angelica. . . . . . . . . . . . . Net power output: 110 m head and 700 m tube length. . . . . . . . . . . Individuals supplied with electricity: 110 m head and 700 m tube length. Net power output: 80 m head and 450 m tube length. . . . . . . . . . . Individuals supplied with electricity: 110 m head and 700 m tube length. Net power output: 40 m head and 225 m tube length. . . . . . . . . . . Individuals supplied with electricity: 40 m head and 225 m tube length. La Laguna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The three recommended layouts for La Laguna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Net power output: 100 m head and 550 m tube length. . . . . . . . . . . Individuals supplied with electricity: 100 m head and 550 m tube length. Net power output: 50 m head and 300 m tube length. . . . . . . . . . . Individuals supplied with electricity: 50 m head and 300 m tube length. La Estancia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The three recommended layouts for La Estancia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Net power output: 60 m head and 350 m tube length. . . . . . . . . . . Individuals supplied with electricity: 60 m head and 350 m tube length. Net power output: 45 m head and 250 m tube length. . . . . . . . . . . Individuals supplied with electricity: 45 m head and 250 m tube length. San Jos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The three recommended layouts for San Jos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Net power output: 45 m head and 350 m tube length. . . . . . . . . . . Individuals supplied with electricity: 45 m head and 350 m tube length. La Piscina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The three recommended layouts for La Piscina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Net power output: 50 m head and 500 m tube length. . . . . . . . . . . Individuals supplied with electricity: 50 m head and 500 m tube length. Net power output: 35 m head and 300 m tube length. . . . . . . . . . . Individuals supplied with electricity: 35 m head and 300 m tube length. Posa el Caf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The three recommended layouts for Posa el Caf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Net power output: 50 m head and 450 m tube length. . . . . . . . . . . Individuals supplied with electricity: 50 m head and 450 m tube length. Net power output: 30 m head and 250 m tube length. . . . . . . . . . . Individuals supplied with electricity: 30 m head and 250 m tube length. Scores for each location and layout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 43 44 44 45 45 46 46 48 48 49 49 50 50 52 52 53 53 54 54 56 56 57 57 59 59 60 60 61 61 63 63 64 64 65 65 67
11.1 Population growth of Miraor. 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 88 90 94
Color relief map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hill shade map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Slope shade map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . The resulting map rendered by Mapnik.
List of Tables
2.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 9.1 Ranking list of the most economically viable layouts. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Overview Overview Overview Overview Overview Overview of of of of of of the the the the the the possible possible possible possible possible possible layouts for Salto Angelica. layouts for La Laguna. . . layouts for La Estancia. . layout for San Jos. . . . layouts for La Piscina. . . layouts Posa el Caf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 18 19 19 19 19 42 47 51 55 58 62 68
Overview of the possible layouts for Salto Angelica. . Overview of the possible layouts for La Laguna. . . . Overview of the possible layouts for La Estancia. . . Overview of the possible layout for San Jos. . . . . Overview of the possible layouts for La Piscina. . . . Overview of the possible layouts for Posa el Caf. . . Ranking list of the most economically viable layouts.
Results of the velocity-area method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1 Summary Resumen
This report contains the results of a feasibility study of small-scale hydropower in the Miraor National Reserve in Estel, Nicaragua. In addition to that, this report contains a thorough explanation of the process of obtaining the results. At this time of writing, only 12% of the 16 000 residents of Miraor have access to electricity. There are established plans to extend the national electricity grid to Miraor within two years. Nonetheless, there is great interest in having a supply of sustainable energy in Miraor. Development funds from the German government have been allocated for a sustainable energy project and a go-ahead was already given. Such a project requires a vast amount of preparation and that is how this feasibility report came to be. River ow rate was measured at six points of interest in the Miraor National Reserve. The obtained data on ow rate in addition to a theoretical study using data on precipitation results in an accurate estimate of the river discharge in Miraor. A highly detailed terrain map was created and using that map, twelve possible layouts for a hydropower plant were identied. For each layout the net energy output was determined as well as the amount of individuals that can be supplied with that amount of energy. The various layouts were compared to each other on several characteristics. The comparison allowed for the identication of the most economical options and thus to pronounce meaningful recommendations. Este informe contiene los resultados de un estudio de viabilidad de las pequeas centrales hidroelctricas en la Reserva de Miraor en Estel, Nicaragua. Adems de eso, este informe contiene una explicacin detallada del proceso de obtencin de los resultados. En la actualidad, slo el 12 % de los 16 000 habitantes de Miraor tiene acceso la electricidad, aunque se establecen planes de extender la red nacional de electricidad a Miraor en un plazo de dos aos; no obstante, hay un gran inters en contar con un suministro de energa sostenible en Miraor. El gobierno alemn tiene asignado fondos para proyectos de produccin de una energa sostenible y una luz verde fue dada ya; este proyecto requiere de una gran cantidad de preparacin y viabilidad y este informe contiene dichos datos. El caudal de ujo del ro se midi en seis puntos de inters en la reserva de Miraor. Se ha creado un mapa muy detallado del terreno y el uso de ese mapa fue para ver doce diseos posibles para una central hidroelctrica. Para cada diseo la salida de energa neta fue determinada as como la cantidad de individuos que pueden ser suministrados con esa cantidad de energa. Los diversos diseos se compararon con entre s en varias caractersticas. La comparacin permiti la identicacin de las opciones ms econmicas y por lo tanto a pronunciar unas recomendaciones.
2 Key illustrations Grcos principales

This chapter contains a concise summary of all results without further explanation. For further explanation please consult the rest of this report. For each point of interest two illustrations are shown. The rst illustration shows an overview of dierent possibilities for the layout of the tube. The coordinates shown correspond to the location of the red dot in the respective illustration. The second illustration shows the estimated net power output over an annual cycle. Este captulo contiene una descripcin concisa de todos los resultados sin ms explicaciones. Para obtener una explicacin ms detallada por favor consulte el resto de este informe. Por cada punto de inters se muestran dos ilustraciones, la primera ilustracin muestra una visin general de las diferentes posibilidades para el diseo del tubo, las coordenadas que se muestran corresponden a la ubicacin del punto rojo en la ilustracin correspondiente; la segunda ilustracin muestra la produccin estimada de energa neta sobre un ciclo anual.
2.1 Most economically viable layouts La mayora de los diseos econmicamente viables
This section contains the results of a comparison of all the dierent locations and their respective optional layouts. A fair comparison is made by giving each layout at each site a grade. Intuitively, layouts with a high power output while having a small turbine and a short tube are most favorable because that gives a high power output at a relatively low price. Net power output, tube length, and turbine size were the factors in this comparison. See gure 2.1 on the following page for the list. Esta seccin contiene los resultados de una comparacin de las distintas ubicaciones y sus respectivos diseos opcionales. La comparacin es equitativa, dando a cada disposicin en cada sitio una calicacin. Intuitivamente, diseos con una gran potencia de salida, mientras que que tiene una pequea turbina y un tubo corto son ms favorables debido a que da una salida de alta potencia con un relativamente bajo precio. Salida de potencia neta, longitud del tubo, y tamao de la turbina fueron los factores en esta comparacin. Vase la gura 2.1 para la lista.
2 Key illustrations Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Grcos principales Score 100 98 83 81 81 76 71 58 55 53 51 45
Location La Estancia; layout 1 La Estancia; layout 2 La Laguna; layout 2 Salto Angelica; layout 2 Salto Angelica; layout 3 La Laguna; layout 1 Salto Angelica; layout 1 San Jos Posa el Caf; layout 2 La Piscina; layout 2 Posa el Caf; layout 1 La Piscina; layout 1
Table 2.1: Ranking list of the most economically viable layouts.
2.2 Overview Vista general

The map in gure 2.1 on the next page shows the position of all points of interest with respect to each other and the terrain. For precise position information in the form of coordinates please consult chapter 7 on page 41. El mapa de la gura 2.1 muestra la posicin de todos los puntos de inters con respecto a la otra y el terreno. Para obtener informacin sobre la posicin precisa en forma de coordenadas, consulte el captulo 7.
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2 Key illustrations
Grcos principales
Figure 2.1: Overview of all points of interest.
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2 Key illustrations
Grcos principales
2.3 Salto Angelica
Figure 2.2: The three recommended layouts for Salto Angelica.
Salto Angelica: 700 m tube lenght and 110 m head 18 16 Estimated net power output [kW] 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug Month [] sep oct nov dec
Figure 2.3: Net power output: 110 m head and 700 m tube length.
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2 Key illustrations
Grcos principales
2.4 La Laguna
Figure 2.4: The three recommended layouts for La Laguna.
La Laguna: 550 m tube lenght and 100 m head 25
Estimated net power output [kW]
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2 Key illustrations
Grcos principales
2.5 La Estancia
Figure 2.6: The three recommended layouts for La Estancia.
La Estancia: 325 m tube lenght and 60 m head 15
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Grcos principales
2.6 San Jos
Figure 2.8: The three recommended layouts for San Jos.
San Jos: 350 m tube lenght and 45 m head 30
25 Estimated net power output [kW]
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Grcos principales
2.7 La Piscina
Figure 2.10: The three recommended layouts for La Piscina.
La Piscina: 500 m tube lenght and 50 m head 40 35 Estimated net power output [kW] 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
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2 Key illustrations
Grcos principales
2.8 Posa el Caf
Figure 2.12: The three recommended layouts for Posa el Caf.
Posa el caf: 450 m tube lenght and 50 m head 150
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3 Key data Datos principales

This chapter contains one table for every point of interest. The table contains the mean, maximum, and minimum power output of a potential future hydropower plant over the coarse of a year. In addition to that, the mean, maximum, and minimum amount of individuals that can be supplied with the respective power output is given. These numbers are given for every layout option. For a more elaborate explanation please consult chapter 7 on page 41. Este captulo contiene una tabla para cada punto de inters. La tabla contiene la media, mximo y mnimo de potencia salida de un futuro potencial de la planta de energa hidroelctrica a lo largo de un ao. Adems de eso, la cantidad media, mximo y mnimo de individuos que pueden ser suministrado con la potencia de salida respectivamente. Estos nmeros se asignan para cada opcin de diseo. Para una explicacin ms detallada por favor consulte el captulo 7.
3.1 Salto Angelica

Power output [kW] Maximum Minimum 16.72 2.95 12.16 2.15 6.08 1.07 Individuals supplied [-] Mean Maximum Minimum 922 1338 236 671 973 172 335 486 86
Layout 1 Layout 2 Layout 3
Mean 11.53 8.39 4.19
Table 3.1: Overview of the possible layouts for Salto Angelica.
3.2 La Laguna
Power output [kW] Mean Maximum Minimum 15.34 22.24 3.93 7.67 11.12 1.96 Individuals supplied [-] Mean Maximum Minimum 1227 1780 314 614 890 157
Layout 1 Layout 2
Table 3.2: Overview of the possible layouts for La Laguna.
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3 Key data
Datos principales
3.3 La Estancia
Power output [kW] Maximum Minimum 14.96 2.64 11.22 1.98 Individuals supplied [-] Mean Maximum Minimum 826 1197 211 619 898 158
Layout 1 Layout 2
Mean 10.32 7.74
Table 3.3: Overview of the possible layouts for La Estancia.
3.4 San Jos

Power output [kW] Maximum Minimum 28.23 4.98 Individuals supplied [-] Mean Maximum Minimum 1558 2257 399
Layout 1
Mean 19.47
Table 3.4: Overview of the possible layout for San Jos.
3.5 La Piscina
Power output [kW] Maximum Minimum 38.97 6.88 27.78 4.81 Individuals supplied [-] Mean Maximum Minimum 2150 3118 550 1505 2182 385
Layout 1 Layout 2
Mean 26.88 18.81
Table 3.5: Overview of the possible layouts for La Piscina.
3.6 Posa el Caf

Power output [kW] Mean Maximum Minimum 102.37 148.42 26.19 61.42 89.05 15.72 Individuals supplied [-] Mean Maximum Minimum 8189 11874 2095 4914 7124 1257
Layout 1 Layout 2
Table 3.6: Overview of the possible layouts Posa el Caf.
19
4 Energy demand Demanda energtica

This section will deal with the energy demand curves for single households as well as energy demand curves for the entire population. As of january 2013, the Miraor National Reserve has 16 000 residents. The average family size is 5. This implies that 3200 families live in the national reserve. The source of these numbers is a census by FORO Miraor. According to ATDER-BL, if you are able to insist on all lights being of the energy-saving compact-uorescent type, the peak demand per house during highest demand time (6 to 8 PM in a rural area) can be 120 watts or less, per house. In addition to that, the assumption was made that there are two other peaks of electricity use during a day. One small peak occurs in the early morning and another small peak occurs around noon, times when people tend to gather at their houses. A case study from a rural village in Peru supplies us with an example of an energy demand curve. The conditions (e.g., climate, hours of daylight, culture, and the development of the population) are similar to the conditions in Miraor. An energy demand curve for a single house in Miraor was made, assuming that the shape is identical to the case in Peru and incorporating all the other assumptions stated above. The estimated energy demand curve for a single house can be found in gure 4.1 on the following page. Considering that there are 3200 houses, Esta seccin se ocupar de las curvas de demanda de la energa de los hogares, as como la curva de demanda de energa para toda la poblacin. A partir de enero de 2013, la Reserva de Miraor tiene 16 000 habitantes. El tamao promedio de la familia es de 5 miembros. Esto implica que 3200 familias viven en la reserva Miraor. La fuente de estos nmeros es un censo del FORO Miraor. Segn ATDER-BL, si usted es capaz de insistir en que toda la iluminacin sea tipo compacta uorescente, es decir ahorradoras de energa, la demanda pico por vivienda durante el tiempo pico de demanda (6 a 8 de la tarde en una zona rural) puede ser como mximo 120 watt, por cada casa. Asimismo, se supuso que hay dos picos de demanda de la electricidad durante un da, un pequeo pico temprano por la maana y otro se produce en la noche, momentos en que la gente tiende a reunirse en sus casas. Un estudio de caso de una aldea rural en el Per nos suministra con un ejemplo de una energa la curva de demanda. Las condiciones (por ejemplo, el clima, las horas de luz del da, la cultura y el desarrollo de la poblacin) son similares a las condiciones en Miraor. Se hizo una curva de demanda de energa de una sola casa en Miraor suponiendo que la forma es idntica al caso en el Per y la incorporacin de todas las otras condiciones dichas anteriormente. La curva de demanda de energa estimada para una sola casa se puede
20
4 Energy demand
Demanda energtica
Estimated hourly energy demand of one house 120
100
Energy demand [W]
80
60
40
20
1 AM 2
9 10 11 121 PM 2 Time [hours]
9 10 11 12
Figure 4.1: Energy demand curve for a single house.
the energy demand curve for a single house can be extrapolated to estimate the energy demand curve for the 16 000 residents of Miraor. Please see gure 4.2 on the next page for the estimated energy demand curve for the entire population of Miraor. It can be safely assumed that there is no seasonal variation in the demand curve. This is due to the fact that neither any part of Nicaragua features a cold winter nor does the amount of daylight vary much over the course of a year. Summing up all values of the demand curve, one nds that the estimated daily electricity demand for a single house is 1287 Wh. The estimated daily electricity demand for all of the 16 000 residents in Miraor is 4118 kWh. Peak demand occurs at 6 to 8 PM.
encontrar en la gura 4.1. Teniendo en cuenta que hay 3200 viviendas, la curva de demanda de energa para una casa unifamiliar pueden extrapolarse para estimar la curva de demanda de la energa para los 16 000 habitantes de Miraor. Por favor, vea la gura 4.2 para la curva de demanda de energa estimada para toda la poblacin de Miraor. Esto se debe a que se puede suponer con seguridad que no hay variacin estacional en la curva de demanda. Debido al hecho de que de Nicaragua no cuenta con un invierno fro ni tampoco la cantidad de luz varan mucho en el transcurso de un ao. Resumiendo todos los valores de la curva demanda, se observa que el diario estimado la demanda de electricidad para una casa unifamiliar es 1287 Wh. La demanda diaria de electricidad estimada de los 16 000 habitantes de Miraor es 4118 kWh. La demanda mxima se produce a las 6 a las 8 PM.
21
4 Energy demand
Demanda energtica
Estimated hourly energy demand of the Miraflor National Reserve 400 350 300 Energy demand [kW] 250 200 150 100 50 0
1 AM 2
9 10 11 121 PM 2 Time [hours]
9 10 11 12
Figure 4.2: Energy demand curve for the Miraor National Reserve.
22
5 Matching of supply and demand Adecuacin de la oferta y la demanda

5.1 The concept of the plant factor El concepto de factor de la planta
This section presents the reader with a short description of the concept of the plant factor. The plant factor is calculated by dividing the used energy by the available energy. See equation 5.1. Plant factor = En esta seccin se presenta al lector una breve descripcin del concepto del factor de planta. El factor de planta se calcula dividiendo la energa utilizada por la energa disponible. Vase la ecuacin 5.2. (5.1)
power used time power used energy used = energy available power installed period considered energa utilizada uso de energa tiempo de uso = energa disponible capacidad periodo considerado
Factor de plant =
(5.2)
So what is the practical meaning of the plant factor? The plant factor will be low if little energy is used of a given installed capacity. A plant factor of one implies that all the generated energy is used. A plant factor of zero means that none of the generated energy is used. A key design role for micro-hydro is to design for the highest possible plant factor [1]. Good designs aim for plant factors above 0.6. A low plant factor implies expensive power and that some other sort of power might well be better [1].
Entonces, cul es el signicado prctico del factor de planta? El factor de planta ser bajo si se utiliza poca energa de una determinada capacidad instalada. Un factor de planta de uno implica que toda la energa generada se utiliza. Un factor de planta de cero signica que nada de la energa generada se utiliza. Un papel clave en el diseo de micro-hidro es disear para la planta un factor lo ms alto posible [1]. Los buenos diseos apuntan a factores de planta superiores 0.6. Un factor de planta baja implica ser caro y que algn otro tipo de energa podra ser mejor [1].
5.2 Plant factors Factores de la planta

There is a variation of energy demand during the day (see gure 4.2 on the previous page), while the capacity installed should be sucient to cover demand durHay una variacin de la demanda de energa durante el da (ver gura 4.2), mientras que la capacidad instalada debe ser suciente para cubrir la demanda du-
23
5 Matching of supply and demand
Adecuacin de la oferta y la demanda
ing peak hours. Imagine there was a single hydropower plant that could cover the complete energy demand of the residents of Miraor. The maximum demand is 384 kW between 6 and 8 PM. Such an imaginary hydropower plant with a capacity of 384 kW would result in a low power factor because a large part of the capacity is not utilized. A solution to this problem is to incorporate a reservoir into the design. Water is saved up in a reservoir during the hours when demand is lower than the peak demand. The reservoir will be emptied during the peak hours to temporarily increase the ow rate and thus the energy output. A hydropower plant with a capacity of 200 kW during normal hours and a temporarily increased capacity of 400 kW during peak hours would have a far higher plant factor than a plant with a continuous capacity of 400 kW. See gure 5.1 on the following page.
See gure 5.2 on the next page for an overview of the resulting plant factors for all installed capacities in the range from 100 kW to 400 kW. One line depicts the case where a reservoir is used and the energy output is raised to 400 kW during peak hours and the other line depicts the case without such reservoir. Calculations were made with a MATLAB script. It might come as a surprise that the lines are very close to each other. At rst sight, it appears that whether a reservoir is used or not does not make a dierence. This is incorrect. Take an imaginary plant with a capacity of 200 kW. The plant factors for this case may indeed be almost identical, but without a reservoir, the plant cannot cope with peak demand. Part of the energy demand cannot be covered. See gure 5.3 on page 27 for a di-
rante horas pico. Imagina que una sola planta de energa hidroelctrica podra cubrir la energa total demanda de los residentes de Miraor. La demanda mxima es de 384 kW entre 6 y 8 PM. Tal energa hidroelctrica con una capacidad de 384 kW volvera ocasionar una bajo factor de potencia debido a que un gran parte de la capacidad no se utiliza. Una solucin a este problema es la incorporacin de un depsito en el diseo. Agua se guarda en el depsito durante las horas, cuando la demanda es menor que el pico demanda. El depsito se vaca durante las horas pico para aumentar temporalmente la velocidad de ujo y por lo tanto la energa de salida. Una planta hidroelctrica con una capacidad desde 200 kW durante las horas normales y un capacidad aument temporalmente de 400 kW durante las horas pico tendra un mucho ms alto factor de una planta con un continuo capacidad de 400 kW. Vase la gura 5.1. Vase la gura 5.2 para una visin general de los factores resultantes de plantas para todas las capacidades instaladas en el rango de 100 kW a 400 kW. Una lnea representa el caso en el que se utiliza un depsito de energa y la energa de salida he elevado a 400 kW pico durante las horas picas y la otra lnea representa el caso sin yacimiento. El clculo se hizo con una secuencia de comandos de MATLAB. Puede ser sorprendente que las lneas estn muy cerca uno del otro. Al principio parece que si un yacimiento se utiliza o no, no hace una diferencia. Esto es incorrecto. Tome una planta imaginaria con una capacidad de 200 kW. Los factores de planta para este caso, de hecho puede ser casi idntica, pero sin un depsito, la planta no puede hacer frente a la demanda mxima durante las horas picas. Una parte de la demanda de energa no puede ser cubier-
24
Estimated hourly energy demand for the Miraflor National Reserve 400 350 300 Energy demand [kW] 250 200 150 100 50 0 Energy demand Capacity installed
1 AM 2
9 10 11 121 PM 2 Time [hours]
9 10 11 12
Figure 5.1: The case of using a reservoir to increase energy output during peak hours.
Plant factor for different installed capacities 1 Without reservoir With reservoir 0.9
0.8 Plant factor []
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4 100
150
200
250 Installed capacity [kW]
300
350
400
Figure 5.2: Plant factors for installed capacities in the range from 100 kW to 400 kW.
25
agram of the energy demand that is not covered when installing a certain capacity. For the plant with a capacity of 200 kW, not using a reservoir means that 13.54% of the total energy demand, mostly energy demand in peak hours, cannot be covered. When using a reservoir this number drops to 0% and the hydropower plant can cover all of the energy demand, including the energy demand in peak hours. The requirement that all demand must be covered forces you to install 400 kW, while with a reservoir 200 kW would be sucient. The plant factors for these cases are 0.7427 and 0.4290, respectively. With a reservoir, double the ow rate is available during peak hours. The cost is that 16.67% of the ow rate during the others hours is not used but saved for use during peak demand times. Since the plant is designed to cover peak demand, the plant with a reservoir can supply 1.67 times the amount of people as a plant without a reservoir.
ta. En la Figura 5.3 encontrar un diagrama de la demanda de energa que no est cubierto cuando se instala una cierta capacidad. Para la planta con una capacidad de 200 kW, no utilizar un medio de depsito signica que 13.54 % de la demanda total de energa, principalmente energa demandada en horas pico, no se puede cubrir. Cuando se utiliza un depsito, este nmero se reduce a 0 % y la central hidroelctrica puede cubrir todo de la demanda de energa, incluyendo la energa demandada en horas picas. El requisito que toda la demanda debe ser cubierta te obliga a instalar 400 kW, mientras que un depsito de 200 kW sera suciente. Los factores de planta para estos casos son 0.7427 y 0.4290, respectivamente. Con un depsito, el doble de la velocidad de ujo est disponible durante las horas picas. El costo es que 16.67 % de la velocidad de ujo durante las otras horas no se utiliza, pero se guarda para ser usado durante las horas de mxima demanda. Puesto que la planta est diseada para cubrir la demanda mxima, la planta con un depsito puede suministrar 1.67 veces la cantidad de personas como una planta sin un reservorio.
5.3 Conclusions Conclusiones

An imaginary hydropower plant with a capacity of 200 kW in normal hours and 400 kW in peak hours using a reservoir is clearly the best option. It results in a high plant factor of 0.7427 while missing 0% of the demand and still leaving some headroom for uctuations. Since this is the best theoretical case, these numbers will be scaled down and used with real-world data. Using a reservoir has a a couple of beneUna planta hidroelctrica imaginaria con una capacidad de 200 kW en horas normales y 400 kW en hora picas utilizando un depsito est claramente la mejor opcin. Resulta en un alto factor de planta de 0.7427, mientras que falta 0 % de la demanda de energa y deja un poco de espacio libre para las uctuaciones. Dado que este es el mejor de los casos tericos, estos nmeros sern reducidos para ser utilizado in el mundo real. El uso de un embalse tiene una parte
26
Daily demand not fulfilled for a certain capacity 45 40 35 Percentage of demand [%] 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 100 Without reservoir With reservoir
150
200
250 Installed capacity [kW]
300
350
400
Figure 5.3: Daily demand not covered with a certain installed capacity.
ts and drawbacks. Amongst the benets of using a reservoir are: A much higher power factor of 0.7427 as opposed to 0.4290 67% more people can be supplied with energy
de benecios e inconvenientes. Entre los benecios de la utilizacin de un depsito son: Un poder mucho mayor factor de 0.7427 en contraposicin a 0.4290 67 % ms de personas pueden ser suministrados con energa Los inconvenientes de utilizar un depsito son: Costos adicionales de construccin Los benecios de la construccin de un reservorio superan los inconvenientes. El tamao del reservorio ser relativamente pequeo. Esta disminuye la carga y los costes para la construccin de tal cuenca. Por consiguiente, se recomienda la construccin de una planta hidroelctrica en combinacin con un depsito.
The drawbacks of using a reservoir are: Added costs of construction
The benets of constructing a reservoir outweigh the drawbacks. The size of the reservoirs will be relatively small. This lowers the burden and costs to construct such a basin. It is therefore highly recommended to construct a hydropower plant in combination with a reservoir.
27
6 Hydrology study Estudia de hidrologa

This chapter describes the process of calculating the potential of several selected sites. Evapotranspiration is deducted from precipitation to obtain runo. Runo is then multiplied by the area of interest to calculate discharge. Knowing the dierence in elevation and the ow rate of the river makes it possible to calculate power output. Then this number is used to estimate the amount of people that can be supplied with electricity. Este captulo describe el proceso de clculo del potencial de varios sitios seleccionados. La evapotranspiracin se deduce de precipitacin para obtener la escorrenta; despus esta escorrenta se multiplica por el rea de inters pare calcular la descarga. Conociendo la diferencia de elevacin y la velocidad de ujo del ro hace que sea posible calcular la potencia de salida. A continuacin, este nmero se utiliza para estimar la cantidad de personas que pueden ser alimentadas con energa elctrica.
6.1 Precipitation Precipitacin

FORO miraor has been collecting precipitation data starting from may 2010 until present. Please see gure 6.1, gure 6.2, and gure 6.3. The average of the monthly precipitation results in the estimated precipitation of a typical annual cycle. See gure 6.4 on page 30. El Foro Miraor ha estado recogiendo datos de precipitacin a partir de mayo de 2010 hasta el presente. En la gura 6.1, gura 6.2 y en la gura 6.3 estos datos se pueden ver. El promedio de los resultados mensual es de precipitacin resultan en una precipitacin estimada por un ciclo anual tpico. Ver gura 6.4.
6.2 Evapotranspiration Evapotranspiracin

Evapotranspiration is the conversion of liquid water at the earth-atmosphere boundary to vapor and the subsequent mixing of this vapor with the atmosphere [2]. To compute the evapotranspiration an empirical temperature based method was used. The reason for choosing Evapotranspiracin es la conversin de agua lquida en el lmite tierra-atmsfera de vapor y la mezcla posterior de este vapor con la atmsfera [2]. Para calcular la evapotranspiracin se utiliz un mtodo basado en la temperatura emprica. La razn de elegir este mtodo es que los datos
28
6 Hydrology study
Estudia de hidrologa
Precipitation in 2010 500 450 400 Precipitation [mm/month] 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug Month [] sep oct nov dec
Figure 6.1: Precipitation in 2010.
Precipitation in 2011 500 450 400 Precipitation [mm/month] 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug Month [] sep oct nov dec
29
6 Hydrology study
Precipitation in 2012 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
Precipitation [mm/month]
jan
feb
mar
apr
may
jun
jul aug Month []
sep
oct
nov
dec
Precipitation 350 300 Precipitation [mm/month] 250 200 150 100 50 0
jan
feb
mar
apr
may
jun
jul aug Month []
sep
oct
nov
dec
Figure 6.4: Average precipitation over a typical annual cycle.
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6 Hydrology study
Evapotranspiration 60
50 Evapotranspiration [mm/month]
40
30
20
10
jan
feb
mar
apr
may
jun
jul aug Month []
sep
oct
nov
dec
Figure 6.5: Evapotranspiration over a typical annual cycle.
this method is that data for more sophisticated methods is not available. The Hargreaves equation [3] is such a method, see equation 6.1. It is based on, RA , the mean extra-terrestrial radiation [mm/day], T , the mean monthly maximum temperature minus the mean monthly minimum temperature [ C], and T , the mean air temperature [ C].
para los mtodos ms sosticados no estn disponibles. La ecuacin de Hargreaves [3] es un mtodo, vase la ecuacin 6.1. Se basa en la media extra-terrestres radiacin [mm/day], T , la media mensual de la temperatura mxima menos la temperatura mnima media mensual [ C], y T , la temperatura media del aire [ C].
E = 0.0022 RA T 0.5 (T + 17.8) There is a weather station in Managua that keeps track of the extra-terrestrial radiation [4]. Because of the short distance to Managua, the assumption was made that the radiation in Miraor is identical. The other required temperature data was obtained from FORO Miraor. Please see gure 6.5 for the resulting monthly evapotranspiration.
(6.1)
Hay una estacin meteorolgica en Managua que realiza un seguimiento de la radiacin extraterrestre [4]; debido a la corta distancia a Managua, se supuso que la radiacin en Miraor es idntica. Los dems datos requeridos de temperatura se obtuvieron a partir FORO Miraor. Por favor, vea la gura 6.5 para la evapotranspiracin mensual resultante.
6.3 Runo
31
6 Hydrology study
Runoff 300
250
Runoff [mm/month]
200
150
100
50
jan
feb
mar
apr
may
jun
jul aug Month []
sep
oct
nov
dec
Figure 6.6: Runo over a typical annual cycle.
Escorrenta
Runo is precipitation that is not absorbed by the soil or lost by evapotranspiration [5]. Runo is calculated by subtracting evapotranspiration from the precipitation. See gure 6.6 for the resulting runo. Escurrimiento es precipitacin que no es absorbida por el suelo o que es perdida por evapotranspiracin [5]. Escorrenta se calcula restando la evapotranspiracin de la precipitacin. Vase en la gura 6.6la escorrenta resultante.
6.4 River discharge Cuadal

The so-called rainfall-area method [1] was used to compute the resulting annual river discharge. The method is straightforward. Runo is multiplied by the respective drainage basin area. Drainage basin area is the area in which the runo streams to a specic point, usually a point in a river. A requirement to calculate the drainage basin area is a detailed terrain map. There is no publicly available detailed terrain map of the Miraor National El llamado mtodo lluvia-rea se utiliz para calcular la resultante anual de descarga de los ros. El mtodo es sencillo. La escorrenta se multiplica por el rea de drenaje de la cuenca respectiva. Drenaje rea de la cuenca es el rea en la que la segunda vuelta corrientes a un punto especco, generalmente un punto en un ro. Un requisito para calcular el rea de la cuenca de drenaje es un mapa del terreno detallado. No existe un mapa deta-
32
6 Hydrology study
Reserve. That made it necessary to create a new terrain map by using public data from the NASA Shuttle Radar Topography Mission [6]. The drainage basin area was carefully examined for each point of interest. Graphics editing software was used to calculate the area in pixels, which was then converted to meters because the pixel size is known. For the results see gure 6.7, gure 6.8, gure 6.9, gure 6.10, gure 6.11, and gure 6.12.
llado del terreno a disposicin del pblico de la Comisin de la Reserva Miraor. Esto hizo necesaria la creacin de un mapa de terreno nuevo usando datos pblicos de la Misin de NASA Shuttle Radar Topography . El rea de la cuenca de drenaje se examin cuidadosamente para cada punto de inters. Un Software de edicin de grcos era utilizado para calcular el rea en pxeles, que se convirti despus en metros porque el tamao de pxel es conocido. Para ver los resultados de la gura 6.7, gura 6.8, gura 6.9, gura 6.10, gura 6.11 y gura 6.12. .
Figure 6.7: Drainage basin area for Salto Angelica.
33
6 Hydrology study
Figure 6.8: Drainage basin area for La Estancia.
Figure 6.9: Drainage basin area for San Jos.
34
6 Hydrology study
Figure 6.10: Drainage basin area for La Laguna.
Figure 6.11: Drainage basin area for La Piscina.
35
6 Hydrology study
Figure 6.12: Drainage basin area for Posa el Caf.
The yearly river discharge is now known but that is not the parameter of interest. There will be large variations in the river discharge within an annual cycle. In and after months with high precipitation the river discharge will logically be higher than after months of drought. To estimate the monthly river discharge it is necessary to use a ow duration curve. Flow duration curves are models of ow distribution in a river or stream over a typical annual cycle. There is no ow duration curve available for the Miraor National Reserve. To estimate the ow duration curve for the Miraor National Reserve, three independent people very familiar with the area and the country were asked for an estimate. Their estimates are based on their personal knowledge and observations in Miraor as well as a reference river with similar conditions in Nigeria [7]. The three estimates were then combined to a resulting estimate of the ow duration curve for Miraor, see gure 6.13 on the following page. Now that the ow duration curve is
La descarga del ro anualmente ahora se conoce pero no es el parmetro de inters. Habr grandes variaciones en la descarga de los ros dentro de un ciclo anual. Durante y despus de los meses con alta precipitacin la descarga de los ros lgicamente ser mayor que despus de meses de sequa. Para calcular el caudal de los ros mensual es necesario utilizar una curva de duracin de ujo. Curvas de duracin del caudal son los modelos de distribucin de ujo en un ro o un arroyo en un tpico anual ciclo. No hay curva de duracin del caudal disponible para la Reserva de Miraor. Al estimar la curva de duracin de ujo para la Reserva Miraor, tres personas independientes muy familiarizados con el rea y el pas se pidi una estimacin. Sus estimaciones se basan en su conocimiento personal y observaciones en Miraor, as como un ro referencia con condiciones similares en Nigeria [7], los tres estimaciones se combinaron luego a una estimacin resultante de la curva de duracin de ujo para Miraor, vase la gura 6.13. Ahora que la curva de caudales es co-
36
6 Hydrology study
Flow duration curve Percentage of annual discharge per month [%/month] 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug Month [] sep oct nov dec
Figure 6.13: Estimated ow duration curve for the Miraor National Reserve.
known, the annual discharge of each point of interest can be scaled to the ow duration curve to obtain monthly discharge.
nocido, la descarga anual de cada punto de inters puede ser escalada a la curva de duracin de caudal para obtener la descarga mensual.
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6 Hydrology study
Salto Angelica: average discharge per month 45 40 35 Discharge [kg/s] 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug Month [] sep oct nov dec
Figure 6.14: Monthly river discharge for Salto Angelica.
La Estancia: average discharge per month 80 70 60 Discharge [kg/s] 50 40 30 20 10 0
jan
feb
mar
apr
may
jun
jul aug Month []
sep
oct
nov
dec
Figure 6.15: Monthly river discharge for La Estancia.
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6 Hydrology study
San Jos: average discharge per month 180 160 140 Discharge [kg/s] 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug Month [] sep oct nov dec
Figure 6.16: Monthly river discharge for San Jos.
La Laguna: average discharge per month 70 60 50 Discharge [kg/s] 40 30 20 10 0
jan
feb
mar
apr
may
jun
jul aug Month []
sep
oct
nov
dec
Figure 6.17: Monthly river discharge for La Laguna.
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6 Hydrology study
La Piscina: average discharge per month 250
200
Discharge [kg/s]
150
100
50
jan
feb
mar
apr
may
jun
jul aug Month []
sep
oct
nov
dec
Figure 6.18: Monthly river discharge for La Piscina.
Posa el caf: average discharge per month 900 800 700 Discharge [kg/s] 600 500 400 300 200 100 0
jan
feb
mar
apr
may
jun
jul aug Month []
sep
oct
nov
dec
Figure 6.19: Monthly river discharge for Posa el Caf.
40
7 Results and recommendations Resultados y recomendaciones
41
7 Results and recommendations
Resultados y recomendaciones
7.1 Salto Angelica

The geographic position of Salto Angelica is: Posicin geogrca del salto angelica:
13 14 7.5" N 86 15 22.6" W The capacity of the reservoir should be: 231.8 m3 Salto Angelica is located on a relatively high elevation. The site features a small river and a steep slope. The size of the reservoir would be small and that makes it easy to realize a reservoir. The site is accessible by a small jungle trail which a length of about 500 meters from a larger road. Three viable layouts were identied. The rst layout features 110 meters of head with a tube measuring 700 meters. The second layout has 80 meters of head with a 450 meter long tube. Layout number three has 40 meters of head with a tube bridging 225 meters. For an overview of the three layouts see gure 7.2 on the next page. Table 7.1 summarizes the results. For detailed diagrams of the monthly values please see gure 7.3, gure 7.4, gure 7.5, gure 7.4, gure 7.7, and gure 7.8. Salto Anglico se encuentra en una relativamente alta elevacin. El sitio cuenta con un pequeo ro y una pendiente empinada. El tamao del depsito sera pequeo y hace que sea fcil de realizar lo. El sitio est accesible por una selva de una longitud de unos 500 metros que empieza despus de una mayor carretera. Tres diseos viables se identicaron. El primer diseo cuenta con 110 metros de diferencia en altura con un tubo de medicin de 700 metros. La segunda disposicin tiene 80 metros deferencia de altura con un tubo de 450 metros de largo. Disposicin nmero tres tiene 40 metros de deferencia de altura con un tubo puente de 225 metros. Una visin general de estos diseos se puede encontrar en la gura7.2. La Tabla 7.1 resume los resultados. Para diagramas detallados de los valores mensuales por favor vea la gura 7.3, gura 7.4, gura 7.5, gura 7.4, gura 7.7 y gura 7.8. Individuals supplied [-] Mean Maximum Minimum 922 1338 236 671 973 172 335 486 86 Capacidad del reservorio:
Layout 1 Layout 2 Layout 3
Power output [kW] Mean Maximum Minimum 11.53 16.72 2.95 8.39 12.16 2.15 4.19 6.08 1.07
Table 7.1: Overview of the possible layouts for Salto Angelica.
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Figure 7.1: Salto Angelica.
Figure 7.2: The three recommended layouts for Salto Angelica.
43
7.1.1 Layout 1: 110 m head and 700 m tube length

Salto Angelica: 700 m tube lenght and 110 m head 18 16 Estimated net power output [kW] 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug Month [] sep oct nov dec
Salto Angelica: 700 m tube lenght and 110 m head 1400 1200 Individuals supplied with electricity 1000 800 600 400 200 0
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Figure 7.4: Individuals supplied with electricity: 110 m head and 700 m tube length.
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Salto Angelica: 450 m tube lenght and 80 m head 14 12 Estimated net power output [kW] 10 8 6 4 2 0
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Salto Angelica: 450 m tube lenght and 80 m head 1000 900 Individuals supplied with electricity 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug Month [] sep oct nov dec
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Salto Angelica: 225 m tube lenght and 40 m head 7 6 Estimated net power output [kW] 5 4 3 2 1 0
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Salto Angelica: 225 m tube lenght and 40 m head 500 450 Individuals supplied with electricity 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug Month [] sep oct nov dec
46
7.2 La Laguna
The geographic position of La Laguna is: La posicin geogrca de La Laguna es la siguiente:
13 15 35.6" N 86 15 13.1" W The capacity of the reservoir will be: 339.2 m3 This site is located at a small stream originating from a large lagune, hence the name La Laguna. The site is similar to Salto Angelica because La Laguna features a small river and a steep slope as well. With a volume of only 339.2 m3 , the reservoir would be small (about one tenth of an olympic swimming pool) and that makes it easy to realize such a reservoir. The laguna is near to a major road and thus easy to access. The stream leading down from the laguna is inside a patch of jungle and accessible through a short trail. Two viable layouts were identied. The rst layout features 100 meters of head with a tube measuring 500 meters. The second layout has 50 meters of head with a 300 meter long tube. An overview of these layouts can be found in gure 7.2 on page 43. Table 7.2 summarizes the results. For detailed diagrams of the monthly values please see gure 7.11, gure 7.12, gure 7.13, and gure 7.12. Este sitio est situado en una pequea corriente procedente de una laguna grande, por lo tanto, el nombre de La Laguna. El sitio tiene caractersticas similares al Salto Angelica porque La Laguna tiene un pequeo ro y una pendiente pronunciada tambin. Con un volumen de apenas 339.2 m3 , el depsito sera pequeo (alrededor de un dcimo de una piscina olmpica) y hace que sea fcil darse cuenta de tal depsito. La laguna est cerca de una carretera principal y por lo tanto de fcil acceso. El arroyo que baja de la laguna se encuentra dentro de una parcela de selva y accesible a travs de un sendero corto. Dos diseos viables fueron identicados. El primer diseo cuenta con 100 metros de carga con un tubo de medicin de 500 metros. El segundo diseo tiene 50 metros de la cabeza con un tubo de 300 metros de largo. Una visin general de estos diseos se pueden encontrar en la gura 7.2. La Tabla 7.2 resume los resultados. Para los diagramas detallados de los valores mensuales por favor vea la gura 7.11, gura 7.12, gura 7.13, y la gura 7.12. Individuals supplied [-] Mean Maximum Minimum 1227 1780 314 614 890 157 Capacidad del reservorio:
Layout 1 Layout 2
Mean 15.34 7.67
Power output [kW] Maximum Minimum 22.24 3.93 11.12 1.96
Table 7.2: Overview of the possible layouts for La Laguna.
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Figure 7.9: La Laguna.
Figure 7.10: The three recommended layouts for La Laguna.
48

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La Laguna: 550 m tube lenght and 100 m head 1800 1600 Individuals supplied with electricity 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0
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La Laguna: 300 m tube lenght and 50 m head 900 800 Individuals supplied with electricity 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0
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7.3 La Estancia
The geographic position of La Estancia is: La posicin geogrca de La Laguna es la siguiente:
13 12 30.9" N 86 20 19.8" W The capacity of the reservoir will be: 380.2 m3 The site is relatively close to Estel. The site is accessible through a small 2 km long trail from the main road. A very steep path leads to the pool beneath the waterfall. The site features a waterfall of about 25 meters in height but apart from the waterfall the slope is relatively at. With a volume of only 380.2 m3 , the reservoir would be small (about one eighth of an olympic swimming pool) and that makes it easy to realize such a reservoir. Two viable layouts were identied. The rst layout features 60 meters of head with a tube measuring 350 meters. The second layout has 45 meters of head with a 250 meter long tube. An overview of these layouts can be found in gure 7.16 on the next page. Table 7.3 summarizes the results. For detailed diagrams of the monthly values please see gure 7.17, gure 7.18, gure 7.19, and gure 7.20. El sitio est relativamente cerca de Estel. El sitio es accesible a travs de un pequeo camino de 2 km de largo desde la carretera principal. Un muy empinado sendero conduce a la poza por debajo de la cascada. El sitio cuenta con una cascada de unos 25 metros de altura, pero aparte de la cascada la pendiente es relativamente plana. Con un volumen de slo 380.2 m3 , la depsito sera pequeo (aproximadamente un octavo de una piscina olmpica) y que hace que sea de fcil realizar tal depsito. Dos diseos viables fueron identicados. El primer diseo cuenta con 60 metros de la altura con un tubo de 350 metros. El segundo diseo tiene 45 metros de la altura con una 250 metros de la manguera. Una visin general de estos diseos se pueden encontrar en la gura 7.16. La tabla 7.3 resume los resultados. Para diagramas detallados de los valores mensuales por favor vea la gura 7.17, gura 7.18, gura 7.19 y la gura 7.20. Individuals supplied [-] Mean Maximum Minimum 826 1197 211 619 898 158 Capacidad del reservorio:
Layout 1 Layout 2
Mean 10.32 7.74
Table 7.3: Overview of the possible layouts for La Estancia.
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Figure 7.15: La Estancia.
Figure 7.16: The three recommended layouts for La Estancia.
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Individuals supplied with electricity
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La Estancia: 250 m tube lenght and 45 m head 900 800 Individuals supplied with electricity 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0
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7.4 San Jos

The geographic position of San Jos is: La posicin geogrca de La Laguna es la siguiente:
13 13 35.0" N 86 17 50.1" W The capacity of the reservoir will be: 956.6 m3 The site is located approximately 50 meters from a major road. If the river is followed upstream the slope starts to increase. The ow rate is relatively small. The volume of the reservoir will be 956.6 m3 . This is about a quarter of the size of an olympic swimming pool. This is still a reasonable size which does not require a dam that is very large. One viable layout was identied. The layout features 45 meters of head with a tube measuring 350 meters. An overview of this layout can be found in gure 7.22 on the next page. Table 7.4 summarizes the results. For detailed diagrams of the monthly values please see gure 7.23 and gure 7.24. El sitio se encuentra a unos 50 metros de una carretera principal. Si se sigue ro arriba la pendiente de agua comienza a aumentar. La velocidad de ujo es relativamente pequeo. El volumen del depsito ser 956.6 m3 . Se trata de la cuarta parte del tamao de una piscina olmpica. Esto es todava un tamao razonable, que no requiere una presa muy grande. Un diseo viable fue identicado. El diseo cuenta con 45 metros de la cabeza con un tubo de 350 metros. Una visin general de este diseo se puede encontrar en la gura 7.22. Tabla 7.4 resume los resultados. Para los diagramas detallados de los valores mensuales por favor vea la gura 7.23 y gura 7.24. Individuals supplied [-] Mean Maximum Minimum 1558 2257 399 Capacidad del reservorio:
Layout 1
Power output [kW] Mean Maximum Minimum 19.47 28.23 4.98
Table 7.4: Overview of the possible layout for San Jos.
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Figure 7.21: San Jos.
Figure 7.22: The three recommended layouts for San Jos.
56

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7.5 La Piscina
The geographic position of La Piscina is: La posicin geogrca de La Laguna es la siguiente:
13 13 10.2" N 86 15 47.8" W The capacity of the reservoir will be: La posicin geogrca de La Laguna es la siguiente:
1188.3 m3 The site is located upstream of a natural swimming pool used as a tourist attraction. The site is located approximately 200 meters from the main road. The volume of the reservoir will be 1188.3 m3 . Similar to San Jos, this is about a quarter of the size of an olympic swimming pool. This is still a reasonable size which does not require a dam that is very large. Two viable layouts were identied. The rst layout features 50 meters of head with a tube measuring 500 meters. The second layout has 35 meters of head with a 300 meter long tube. An overview of these layouts can be found in gure 7.26 on the next page. Table 7.5 summarizes the results. For detailed diagrams of the monthly values please see gure 7.27, gure 7.28, gure 7.29, and gure 7.30. El sitio est ubicado ro arriba de una piscina natural que se utiliza como una atraccin turstica. El sitio est ubicado aproximadamente a 200 metros de la carretera principal. El volumen del depsito ser 1188.3 m3 . Al igual que en San Jos, se trata de un cuarto del tamao de una piscina olmpica. Esto es todava un tamao razonable, que no requiere una presa que es muy grande. Dos diseos viables fueron identicados. El primer diseo cuenta con 50 metros de altura con un tubo de 500 metros. El segundo diseo tiene 35 metros de altura con un tubo de 300 metros de largo. Una visin general de estos diseos se pueden encontrar en la gura 7.26. La Tabla 7.5 resume los resultados. Para los diagramas detallados de los valores mensuales por favor vea la gura 7.27, gura 7.28, gura 7.29 y la gura 7.30. Individuals supplied [-] Mean Maximum Minimum 2150 3118 550 1505 2182 385
Layout 1 Layout 2
Mean 26.88 18.81
Table 7.5: Overview of the possible layouts for La Piscina.
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Figure 7.25: La Piscina.
Figure 7.26: The three recommended layouts for La Piscina.
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La Piscina: 500 m tube lenght and 50 m head 40 35 Estimated net power output [kW] 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
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La Piscina: 500 m tube lenght and 50 m head 3500 3000 Individuals supplied with electricity 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0
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La Piscina: 300 m tube lenght and 35 m head 30
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La Piscina: 300 m tube lenght and 35 m head 2500
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7.6 Posa el Caf

The geographic position of Posa el Caf is: La posicin geogrca de Posa el Caf es la siguiente:
13 13 41.1" N 86 18 18.1" W The capacity of the reservoir will be: 4526.0 m3 Posa el Caf site is located approximately 300 meters from the main road. A small and steep trail leads to the site. The volume of the reservoir would be 4526.0 m3 . This would be quite a large reservoir, about the size of one and a half olympic swimming pools. Two viable layouts were identied. The rst layout features 50 meters of head with a tube measuring 450 meters. The second layout has 30 meters of head with a 250 meter long tube. An overview of these layouts can be found in gure 7.32 on the next page. Table 7.6 summarizes the results. For detailed diagrams of the monthly values please see gure 7.33, gure 7.34, gure 7.35, and gure 7.36. Posa Caf se encuentra a unos 300 metros de la carretera principal. Un pequeo sendero empinado lleva al sitio el volumen del depsito sera 4526.0 m3 . Esto sera un gran depsito, como el tamao de una piscina y media Olmpica. Dos diseos viables fueron identicados, el primer diseo cuenta con 50 metros de altura con un tubo de medicin de 450 metros. El segundo diseo tiene 30 metros de la altura con una 250 metros de la manguera. Una visin general de estos diseos se pueden encontrar en la gura 7.32. La tabla 7.6 resume los resultados. Para diagramas detallados de los valores mensuales por favor vea la gura 7.33, gura 7.34, gura 7.35, y gura 7.36. La capacidad del depsito ser:
Layout 1 Layout 2
Power output [kW] Mean Maximum Minimum 102.37 148.42 26.19 61.42 89.05 15.72
Individuals supplied [-] Mean Maximum Minimum 8189 11874 2095 4914 7124 1257
Table 7.6: Overview of the possible layouts for Posa el Caf.
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Figure 7.31: Posa el Caf.
Figure 7.32: The three recommended layouts for Posa el Caf.
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Posa el caf: 450 m tube lenght and 50 m head 150
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Posa el caf: 250 m tube lenght and 30 m head 90 80 Estimated net power output [kW] 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
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Posa el Caf: 250 m tube lenght and 30 m head 8000 7000 Individuals supplied with electricity 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
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7.7 Comparison; best value for money Comparacin

7.7.1 A grade for each layout at each site La calicacin de cada diseo en cada sitio
This section contains a comparison between the dierent all the dierent locations and their respective optional layouts. A fair comparison is made by giving each layout at each site a grade. Intuitively, layouts with a high power output while having a small turbine and a short tube are most favorable because that gives a high power output at a relatively low price. Having a smaller turbine and a shorter tube mean less costs for construction and maintenance. The grade is obtained by summing the annual power and dividing that by the tube length times the sum of the discharge (turbine size). The grades are then scaled such that the best performing layout has a grade of 100. For an overview of the grades please see gure 7.37 on the next page. For a ranking of the dierent locations from best to worst please see table 7.7 on page 68. Please note the tube length and turbine size have an equal weight in this comparison. The MATLAB script containing the calculation of the grades can be found in section 17.9 on page 144 free to be modied. Esta seccin contiene una comparacin entre los diferentes lugares y diferentes diseos respectivamente. Una comparacin equitativa se hace dando a cada disposicin en cada sitio una calicacin. Intuitivamente, diseos con una gran potencia de salida, mientras que los que tienen una pequea turbina y un tubo corto son ms favorables debido a que da una salida de alta potencia a un precio relativamente bajo. Tener una turbina ms pequea y menor un tubo signicar menos costos para la construccin y mantenimiento. El grado se obtiene sumando el anual de energa y dividiendo por el tubo longitud por la suma de la descarga (tamao de la turbina). Los grados se ubican a escala de tal manera que el mejor diseo realizando hay una calicacin de 100. Para una visin general de los grados por favor vea la gura 7.37. Para una clasicacin de los diferentes lugares de mejor a peor, por favor vase la tabla 7.7. Al hacer una comparacin de la longitud del tubo y el tamao de la turbina tienen un peso igual en esta comparacin. La script de MATLAB que contiene el clculo de los grados se puede encontrar en seccin 17.9 libre para ser modicado.
7.7.2 Conclusion of the comparison Conclusin de la comparacin

The conclusion is quite straightforward. Layout one of La Estancia has the highest grade of 100 while layout one of La Piscina has the lowest grade of 45. From the previous section we know that Posa el Caf has potential to supply a lot of people with electricity but at the same time Posa el Caf has a low grade of 51 and 55. The La conclusin es muy sencilla. Un diseo de La Estancia cuenta con la ms alta grado de 100, mientras que uno de diseo La Piscina tiene el grado ms bajo de 45. En la seccin anterior sabemos que la Poza del caf tiene potencial de proveer una gran cantidad de personas con electricidad, pero al mismo tiempo la Posa Caf
66
conclusion is that it is more economical to build multiple smaller plants with a high grade instead of one larger plant with a low grade to supply the same amount of people with electricity.
tiene un grado bajo de 51 y 55. La conclusin es que es ms econmico construir varias plantas ms pequeas con un alto grado en lugar de una planta ms grande con una de grado bajo para suministrar la misma cantidad de personas con electricidad.
Score of every location 100 90 80 70 Score [] 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Angelica ...2 ...3 Laguna ...2 Estancia ...2 Jose Piscina ...2 Location [] Posa ...2
Figure 7.37: Scores for each location and layout.
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7 Results and recommendations Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Resultados y recomendaciones Score 100 98 83 81 81 76 71 58 55 53 51 45
Location La Estancia; layout 1 La Estancia; layout 2 La Laguna; layout 2 Salto Angelica; layout 2 Salto Angelica; layout 3 La Laguna; layout 1 Salto Angelica; layout 1 San Jos Posa el Caf; layout 2 La Piscina; layout 2 Posa el Caf; layout 1 La Piscina; layout 1
Table 7.7: Ranking list of the most economically viable layouts.
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8 Hydro design
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9 The velocity-area method Uso de molinos en la mediciones de caudales

9.1 The theory La teora
To determine whether hydropower is applicable, a lot of data is needed on the relevant area. Some data was already known and could be looked up and used; such as data on precipitation of the past three years, dierences in elevation and the location of the points of interest in the reserve. The remaining information had to be obtained through research and experiments. The most important variable needed to calculate the power output is the ow rate. One way to obtain the ow rate is through the velocity-area method. The equation to calculate the ow rate is: Es un instrumento de medicin de velocidad en cauces naturales o en canales y se compone de dos partes principalmente. Contiene un elemento giratorio (hlice) que debe ser colocado en el punto donde deseamos conocer la velocidad de frente a la corriente. Las revoluciones de la hlice son proporcionales a la velocidad del ujo. El nmero de giros se transmite mecnicamente a un registrador de vueltas y con ello determinamos la velocidad angular. Por medio de una ecuacin de calibracin, podemos determinar la velocidad lineal a partir de la velocidad angular del punto de inters. (9.1)
Q=Aq Q is the ow rate in kg per second, A is the surface area of the cross section of the river in meters square and q is the specic ow rate in meter per second, q is also called velocity. The velocity-area method is a simple but reliable way to determine the ow rate. In this method the two unknowns, the area A and the velocity q in the above equation, are mechanically determined.
9.2 The execution La ejecucin
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9 The velocity-area method
Uso de molinos en la mediciones de caudales
Because the relevant rivers fall under streams or brooks, the area A can be measured manually. With the aid of a large protractor, a tapeline and a measuring stick of one meter it was possible to determine the areas of the selected locations. The measurement of the velocity of the water is less simple. Methods that are used in the Netherlands are less obvious to use in Nicaragua. Measurement equipment is not present here and there are no funds to purchase equipment. This required a custom design. Through sketches and the construction of a prototype a nal design was achieved. It consists of three parts: Adjustable frame Adjustable arm A mill (propeller) The frame was designed in a way such that it could be applied everywhere, regardless of the size of the river, the steepness of the riverbed or other site-specic conditions. Due to the simple structure, extra pipes or connections are easily added. The most important part is the adjustable arm that can be moved in both horizontal and vertical direction. This had to be done in order to ensure that the radar could turn perfectly. In practice the blades of the radar were always put 1,5 cm bellow the water surface. Tests done before the actual eldwork revealed that in that position the radar had the best turning performance, without hitches and with a constant speed. After placing the frame in position and setting the radar appropriately, the setup was lmed for approximately 15 seconds. One of the blades of the radar was painted black and the other ones were painted orange in other to easily recognize when the
Las medidas del caudal se basaban en medidores mecnicos de velocidad, que empleaban la fuerza del agua para hacer girar una hlice; mtodo que se haba empleado desde principios del siglo pasado. Los instrumentos que utilizan el empuje dinmico del agua para determinar el caudal del ujo son denominados medidores de velocidad: Hlice Turbina Molinete Este mtodo se utilizo de manera sencilla el instrumento fue creado manualmente consta de dos partes; la pequea turbina de plstico donde sus aspas se encontraba marcada en color negro y el mango donde se sujetaba se construyo con tubo pvc por ser liviano para ser trasladada al lugar donde se realizaron las medidas. Materiales: Turbina Cmara de video Procedimiento: Ubicar el rea donde se realizaran las medidas Ubicar adecuadamente la turbina para que no hallan interferencias de ningn tipo Tomar un video donde se observe claramente la marca negra de la turbina porque en ello est la clave para realizar los clculos
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9 The velocity-area method
Uso de molinos en la mediciones de caudales
radar has made one revolution. With help of movie editing software it was possible to reexamine each movie frame by frame in order to count the number of revolutions the radar had made. Afterwards the outcomes were converted to rounds per minute. The average rpm over 10 seconds was used for the calculations. Suitable locations to apply this method are locations with a narrow stream. Two things are essential at such a location, an easily measurable cross sectional area and a uniform ow.
9.3 The results Los resultados

Please note that these results are obtained in the month of december and may show a signicant error. Location La Piscina Posa el Cafe La Laguna La Estanzia Flowrate [kg per second] 31.80 72.17 28.02 68.18
Table 9.1: Results of the velocity-area method.
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10 The salt-delution method El mtodo de solucin de sal

10.1 The theory La teora
The salt-delution method is a method to calculate ow rate. The method is easy to use and quite precise. Well performed measurements generally have errors of less than 5%. This method is based on the change in conductivity of water when the concentration of salt is changing. Assume a certain amount of salt has been dissolved in the ow. The total mass of salt is equal to the sum of the ow rate, Q, multiplied with the conductivity, , times the correction factor k , multiplied with the elapsed time. See equation 10.1. This can be rewritten as an integral, taking the constants out of the integral. See equation 10.2. The equation can be rearranged to equation 10.3 to solve for ow rate. The conversion factor is dependent on temperature and is obtained from a conversion factor graph. El mtodo de solucin de sal es un mtodo para calcular ujo de caudal. El mtodo es fcil de usar y bastante preciso. Bien realizado mediciones generalmente tienen errores de menos al 5 %. Este mtodo se basa en el cambio en la conductividad del agua cuando la concentracin de la sal est cambiando. Asumir una cierta cantidad de sal se ha disuelto en el ujo. La masa total de sal es igual a la suma de la velocidad de ujo, Q, multiplicado con la conductividad, , veces el correccin de factor k, multiplicado con el tiempo transcurrido. Vase la ecuacin 10.1 como una parte integral, teniendo la constantes fuera de la integral. Vase la ecuacin 10.2. La ecuacin se puede reordenar a la ecuacin 10.3 a resolver para el caudal. El factor de conversin depende de la temperatura y se obtiene a partir de una conversin factor de grco. k Q dt dt (10.1) (10.2) (10.3)
MSalt =
MSalt = k Q Q= Unfortunately there was no available device to measure conductivity or resistivity. Only a multimeter could be used to measure resistance. Therefore the method had to be altered slightly. The total mass
MSalt k dt
Por desgracia, no haba dispositivo para medir la conductividad o la resistividad. Slo un multmetro podra ser utilizado para medir la resistencia. Por lo tanto el mtodo tuvo que ser modica-
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10 The salt-delution method
El mtodo de solucin de sal
of salt is equal to the sum of the concentration times the ow rate multiplied with the elapsed time, see equation 10.4. The equation can be rewritten and rearranged to obtain 10.6. This altered method eliminates the need of a conversion factor. Instead of a conversion factor, a curve showing the relationship between concentration and resistance is required. This relationship is linear, therefore only two data points are required to create the curve. It is obtained by measuring the resistance in a bucket with two known concentrations.
do ligeramente. La masa total de sal es igual a la suma de los tiempos de concentracin la velocidad de ujo multiplicado con el tiempo transcurrido, vase la ecuacin 10.4. La ecuacin puede ser reescrito y reorganizado para obtener 10.6. Este mtodo elimina la necesidad alterada de un factor de conversin. En lugar de un factor de conversin, una curva que muestra la relacin entre la concentracin y la resistencia se requiere. Esta relacin es lineal, por lo tanto, solamente dos puntos de datos son necesarios para crear la curva. Se obtiene mediante la medicin de la resistencia en un cubo con dos concentraciones conocidas. (10.4) (10.5) (10.6)
MSalt = MSalt = Q Q=
Concentration Q dt Concentration dt
MSalt Concentration dt
10.2 The execution La ejecucin

A certain, known mass of salt is dissolved in a bucket. The bucket is then emptied 20 to 70 meters upstream of the measurement point, giving it time to mixture. At the measurement point, the conductivity of the water is measured with a conductivity meter. The conductivity can also be obtained by measuring resistivity and taking the inverse. The conductivity will have to be measured over a long time interval to obtain a curve of conductivity as a function of time. These curves are the ones in equation 10.3 and 10.6. A major assumption here is that the mixture is 100% uniform at the measurement point. Required equipment: Bucket Una cierta masa, conocida de sal se disuelve en un recipiente. El recipiente luego es vaciado de 20 a 70 metros arriba de la punto de medicin, dndole tiempo a la mezcla. En el punto de medicin, la conductividad del agua se mide conductividad/metros. La conductividad puede tambin obtenerse por medicin de la resistividad y tomando el inverso. La conductividad tendr que ser medido durante un tiempo prolongado intervalo para obtener una curva de conductividad como una funcin del tiempo. Estas curvas son los que estn en la ecuacin 10.3 y 10.6. Un punto importante aqu es que la mezcla es 100 % uniforme de sal en el punto de medicin. Required equipment:
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10 The salt-delution method Salt Multimeter Timer Procedure for the altered method:
El mtodo de solucin de sal
Recipiente (balde) Sal Multmetro Cronometro
Procedure for the altered method: Take two conductivity measurements of two known salt concentrations to obtain the relationship between conductivity and salt concentration Dissolve a known mass of salt in the water in the bucket Empty the bucket 20 to 70 meters upstream of the measurement point Take measurements every 5 seconds until the reading returns to the initial level To perform these steps each group member has a function to get the best results. This method is a good one considering the available material and devises. Tomar dos mediciones de conductividad de dos concentraciones de sal conocidos al obtener la relacin entre la conductividad y la concentracin de sal Disolver una masa conocida de la sal en el agua en el recipiente Vaciar el recipiente de 20 a 70 metros arriba del punto de medicin Realizar mediciones cada 5 segundos hasta que la lectura vuelve al nivel inicial Para realizar estos pasos cada miembro del grupo tiene una funcin para obtener los mejores resultados Este mtodo es bueno teniendo en cuenta el material disponible y la idea
10.3 The results Los resultados

The results are still work in progress and will be added to this report at a later time. The results will serve as a conrmation of the hydrology study and are not crucial at this time. Los resultados son todava un trabajo en progreso y ser agregado a este informe en una fecha posterior tiempo. Los resultados sirven como una conrmacin del estudio de la hidrologa y no es crucial en este momento.
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11 Future demand trends Demanda futura

In present time the energy network is only installed in the south of Miraor and reaches up until La Pita. This means that the grid covers one fourth of the territory. The present grid is the result of a project that started in 2009, with the aim of creating a grid from the south of the reserve until El Sontule. Unfortunately this project has never been nalized because it was too expensive. This is why the grid only extends until La Pita. The future demand can be evaluated by knowledge of the annual population growth of Miraor. This annual growth has been estimated as 2.8%. This means that in 10 years time from now the population will have increased from 16 000 to 20 500 people. To cover future demand, more hydropower plants could be build. See gure 11.1 on the following page for an diagram of the population growth. En la actualidad la red de energa est instalada en el sur de Miraor y naliza hasta la comunidad de La Pita, esto signica que la red cubre un cuarto del territorio. Este proyecto se inici en 2009 con el objetivo de instalar una red desde el sur de la Reserva hasta la comunidad El Sontule. Desafortunadamente este proyecto no concluyo por su alto costo; esta es la razn por la red slo llega hasta La Pita. La demanda futura puede ser evaluada con el uso del crecimiento anual de la poblacin de Miraor. Este crecimiento anual se ha estimado en un 2.8 %. Esto signica que dentro de 10 aos la poblacin se ha incrementado desde 16 000 hasta 20 500 habitantes. Vea gura 11.1.
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11 Future demand trends
Demanda futura
2.3 2.2 2.1 2 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6
x 10
Population of Miraflor
Population of Miraflor
12
13
14
15
16
17
18 19 Year []
20
21
22
23
24
25
Figure 11.1: Population growth of Miraor.
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12 Water demand Demanda de agua

The water used to power the turbines is the same water used for by farms for production. This was taken into account during the study in order to assure that farmers will have enough water to perform their activities. Likewise, the same water is utilized by the population for drinking and domestic use. There are very few people in Miraor who have a water pipe connected to their property. Only 6% of the 16 000 inhabitants if the natural reserve have access to running water in their homes. This is due to a lack of a water distribution infrastructure. The remaining 15 000 inhabitants have to walk or use a horse to get to a water source. The distance can be up to 15 kilometers. Furthermore, water is used for coee plants, plantations, and for cattle. Miraor is known for its agricultural production. There is no industrial activity in the region and therefore no demand of water for that sector. El agua que se utilizar en las turbinas es tambin el agua utilizada para la produccin de los agricultores, se debe tener en cuenta durante el estudio que al n se puede garantizar que los agricultores tengan agua suciente para cubrir sus necesidades. Adems, es importante aclarar que el agua que se encuentra en Miraor se origina en las montaas y de la lluvia. Esto signica que la misma agua es utilizada por la poblacin para beber y para uso domstico. En la reserva natural slo 6 % de las 16 000 personas tienen acceso a agua potable en sus hogares. Prcticamente nadie tiene una tubera de agua conectada a su propiedad. Los otros 15 000 habitantes tienen que caminar o utilizar un caballo si pueden para ir al punto ms cercano de agua, la distancia puede variar de 5 a 15 kilmetros. Asimismo se usa agua para las plantas de caf y otras plantaciones y tambin para la alimentacin de los animales que se cran. Miraor es conocida por su produccin. No hay ninguna actividad industrial en la regin entonces para ello no hay necesidad de agua en ese sector.
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13 Energy supply options Opciones de suministro de energa

This section discusses the various sustainable energy supply options in the Miraor National Reserve. At this time of writing, 2 persons in the Miraor National Reserve make use of wind-energy and there are 500 solar panels installed with a capacity of 80 to 100 W each. There was also research made to work with biogas energy but the outcome was poor and due to lack of maintenance the project was left unnished. The source of these numbers is FORO Miraor. There are factors that make hydropower a favorable energy supply option in the Miraor National Reserve. Geography The geography of Miraor is favorable because it features many hills and mountains. Large dierences in elevation translate into high gravitational potential energy for a certain water ow. The Miraor National Reserve features many rivers and streams of water. Such type of terrain is most suitable for hydropower. Climate Nicaragua is located in the tropics and therefore features seasons with plenty of rainfall. Water is a prerequisite for hydropower so this is another favorable condition. Day and night Hydropower plants work independently from the time of day. Energy demand typically peaks at night when it is dark. En esta seccin discutiremos varias opciones del suministro de energa en la reserva de Miraor. En la Reserva Nacional de Miraor se hace muy poco uso de la energa elica y hay 500 paneles solares instalados con una capacidad de 80 a 100 W cada uno. En la reserva se trabaj con produccin de biogs, pero los resultados no fueron los esperados por falta de mantenimiento, por lo que se abandon esta opcin de energa. La fuente de estas cifras es FORO Miraor. Hay muchos factores que hacen que la energa hidroelctrica sea una opcin de suministro de energa favorable en la Reserva de Miraor. Geografa La geografa de Miraor es conveniente ya que cuenta con numerosas colinas y montaas. Las grandes diferencias de altura se traducen en alta energa potencial gravitatoria de un caudal de agua determinado. La Reserva Miraor cuenta con numerosos ros y quebradas de agua; tambin el tipo de terreno es adecuado para la energa hidrulica. Clima Nicaragua es un pas tropical y por lo tanto cuenta con estaciones de abundante lluvia. El agua es un requisito previo para la energa hidroelctrica por lo que esta es otra condicin favorable. Da y noche Las centrales hidroelctricas
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13 Energy supply options
Opciones de suministro de energa
Reliability The availability of water is ensured most of the time. Even during the dry season rainfall is enough to supply the rivers with water. Failure rates are low and the maintenance required is low. This makes it a reliable system. Durability Hydropower plants last up to 50 years with minimal maintenance and wear of components.
funcionan independientemente de la hora del da. La demanda de energa por lo generales ms grande durante las primeras horas de noche, este se llama las horas picas. Conabilidad La disponibilidad de agua se asegura la mayor parte del tiempo. Incluso durante la estacin seca la lluvia es suciente para abastecer a los ros con agua. Las tasas de fracaso son bajas y el mantenimiento requerido es bajo. Esto hace que sea un sistema conable. Durabilidad Las centrales hidroelctricas duran hasta 50 aos con un mantenimiento mnimo y el desgaste de los componentes.
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14 Management, Finance, and O+M Administracin, Finanzas y O+M

No conclusions have been reached as yet on management, nance, and operations and maintenance. No hay conclusiones se han alcanzado hasta ahora en la gestin, las nanzas y operaciones y mantenimiento.
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15 Welfare Bienestar
In addition to electrifying the zones in need, the micro hydropower project has other advantages. In the past years knowledge of the importance of dealing with nature in a sustainable has increased. Miraor is classied as a Natural Reserve. This means that it is covered by the 7 millennium development goals which aim to ensure environmental sustainability. For example, by reducing biodiversity losses and by improving living condition of the inhabitants in a sustainable way. It is benecial to a hydropower project that the inhabitants already know how to valorize the use of water because of their awareness of its favorable actions and in addition to that the forest in the reserve naturally protects the rivers. Hydropower oers an alternative to using fossil fuel to generate electricity. This change would permit inhabitants to satisfy their energy demand without producing carbon emissions, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, volatile organic compounds and radioactive waste. In addition it will not produce hot water which is believed to have a negative eect on the biodiversity of the nature of the reserve. The water that would be used to drive the turbines will in no way aect the water need and use of the population. This same water is used for drinking, irrigation, tourism and possibly industry which at the moment do not exist in the reserve. In addition to the new jobs the plant will create, which includes the installation of the turbines, the transport of the energy Adems de la electricacin, el proyecto tiene tambin otras ventajas. El conocimiento y el aprecio de la importancia del uso sostenible de los recursos naturales son ahora ms altos, considerando que Miraor es una reserva natural estara cumpliendo el 7 mo reto del milenio, donde se garantiza que se conserva la biodiversidad de la reserva a la vez que se mejora las condiciones de vida de los pobladores de una manera sustentable. La poblacin local sab valorar el agua porque con el agua vienen muchas ventajas. Tambin el manejo forestal se considera importante porque protege la fuente del ro. La generacin de la energa hidroelctrica proporciona una alternativa para la quema de los combustibles fsiles, que permite satisfacer la demanda de energa sin producir agua caliente, emisiones atmosfricas, ceniza, desechos radioactivos ni emisiones de CO2. El proyecto no afectara al uso que se le da al agua en riego, consumo, turismo y posible industria, debido a que la misma agua puede ser utilizada para todas las actividades. Otro benecio para la comunidad es la capacitacin tcnica directa para el mantenimiento de la planta, adems de los nuevos trabajos que trae consigo la obra civil de la planta, y el transporte de la energa. Los caminos y otras infraestructuras pueden dar a los pobladores mayor acceso a los mercados para sus productos, escuelas para sus hijos, cuidado de salud y otros
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15 Welfare
Bienestar
and the management of the plant ones installed, the community will also benet of a new technical education program that will cover a training on the eld of hydropower and the turbines. Thanks to the life and work improvements that hydropower will bring, it can be expected that in the future, roads and other infrastructure will be improved and that will give the population improved access markets to buy food, improved access to schools for the children, hospitals and other social services. The turbine is ecient, secure and easy to build. Additionally, once installed it will require little maintenance and therefor the costs after construction will be low. During execution of the project disadvantages can also be encountered. One disadvantages is the high cost of investment for the plant. This is by the low maintenance costs once the plant has been installed. If there is overproduction of electricity, the surplus energy could be sold and this could return the investment costs. Another negative point is the dierence in ow rate between summer and winter. During the summer period precipitation is less and therefor there is less water owing in the rivers. This means that the hydropower plant has to be designed in such a way that the minimum energy that can be produced during summer corresponds to the maximum energy demand. As mentioned above the surplus of energy can be sold in the winter period. When energy production is provided by hydropower plants, besides being an improvement compared to alternative energies it also helps the community to become self-sustained. The electrication brings development of life conditions. In addition it could make the creation of sustainable industries possible and improve the exploitation of tourism.
servicios sociales. Durante la ejecucin del proyecto haba tambin desafos. La planta hidroelctrica puede actuar interconectada a la Red Elctrica Nacional as como aislada a la red. Esto es posible por los equipos de control automatizado de planta, medicin, protecciones. La turbina hidrulica es una mquina sencilla, eciente y segura, que puede ponerse en marcha y detenerse con rapidez y requiere poca vigilancia siendo sus costos de mantenimiento, por lo general, reducidos. No obstante la construccin y puesta en marcha del proyecto trae consigo ciertas desventajas como el costo de la inversin es alta, pero este se retribuye al costo reducido del mantenimiento luego de puesta en marcha, y en caso de tener una sobre produccin e interconectarse a la red se vendera la energa a la empresa distribuidora de energa, con esto se costeara una parte de la inversin inicial. Otra que se podra mencionar es el cambio de caudal en las estaciones del ao, ya que se sabe que en verano las fuentes de agua tienen menor caudal que en invierno, entonces tendramos que tomar en cuenta que en verano la produccin mnima tiene que ser mayor a la demanda mxima, y como se menciono anteriormente si en invierno hay uno sobre produccin, la energa se puede vender.
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16 Creating the terrain map Crear el mapa del terreno

This chapter guides the reader through the process of creating a highly detailed terrain map of the Miraor National Reserve. The rst prerequisite to create the terrain map is a so-called Digital Elevation Model (DEM). NASA created a digital elevation model of near-global scale with data from the Shuttle Radio Topography Mission [6] (SRTM) in february of the year 2000. The resolution of the data is three arc seconds, which corresponds to approximately 90 meters. One degree by one degree tiles of the SRTM DEM are downloadable from NASAs servers, free for anyone to use. Apart from the DEM, the "Mapnik" toolkit and the "GDAL" framework both need to be downloaded and installed. In addition to that the Python programming language needs to be installed in order to run Mapnik. Mapnik is a piece of software that is all about "making beautiful maps. It uses the AGG library and oers world class antialiasing rendering with subpixel accuracy for geographic data." [8]. GDAL is "a translator library for raster geospatial data formats" [9] and is run inside the command line. GDAL is a opensource library on which many popular Geographical Information System (GIS) software packages are based, such as ArcGIS. This guide only contains the necessary commands to render the maps used in this report. Please consult the ocial documentation of Mapnik and GDAL if more explanation or information is desired. Este captulo gua al lector a travs del proceso de crear un mapa de terreno muy detallado de la Reserva de Miraor Nacional. El primer requisito para crear el mapa del terreno es un llamado Modelo de Elevacin Digital (DEM). La NASA ha creado un modelo de elevacin digital de escala casi mundial con datos de la Misin Topogrca Radio [6] (SRTM) en febrero del ao 2000. La resolucin de los datos es de tres segundos de arco, lo que corresponde a aproximadamente 90 metros. Un grado por un grado azulejos del SRTM DEM se pueden descargar desde los servidores de la NASA, gratis para que cualquiera lo use. Aparte de la DEM, el "Mapnikaja de herramientas y el "GDAL"marco tanto la necesidad para ser descargado e instalado. Adems de que el lenguaje de programacin Python necesita ser instalado para poder ejecutar Mapnik. Mapnik es una pieza de software que tiene que ver con "hacer buenos mapas. Utiliza el AGG biblioteca y ofrece una representacin de precisin subpixel para datos geogrcos-[8]. GDAL es na biblioteca traductor para formatos de datos geoespaciales-[9] y se ejecuta dentro la lnea de comandos. GDAL es una biblioteca de cdigo abierto en el que muchos de los datos geogrcos como el Sistema de Informacin Geogrca (SIG) y el paquetes de software se basa, como ArcGIS. Esta gua slo contiene los comandos necesarios para hacer los mapas utilizados en
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16 Creating the terrain map
Crear el mapa del terreno
GDAL will be used to create color relief map, a hill shade map, a slope shade map, and a set of contour lines. Mapnik will combine these individual maps and render a sophisticated terrain map of the area. Make sure that GDAL has been installed correctly by running the following command in the command line:
el presente informe. Por favor, consulte la documentacin ocial de Mapnik GDAL y si hay ms explicacin o informacin que se desea. GDAL se utiliza para crear el mapa de color de alivio, un mapa de sombra colina, un mapa de sombra pendiente, y un conjunto de lneas de contorno. Mapnik combinar estos mapas individuales y hacer un mapa del terreno sosticado de la zona. Asegrese de que GDAL se ha instalado correctamente ejecutando el siguiente comando en la lnea de comandos:
gdaldem -- version
yeah this is stupid but idk The response should be a version number and a release date followed by a large amount of information on how to use the various features of GDAL.
La respuesta debe ser un nmero de versin y una fecha de lanzamiento seguido de una cantidad grande de informacin sobre el uso de las diversas caractersticas de GDAL.
16.1 The color relief map El color de mapa en relieve

Color relief maps depict elevation by bands of color. This enables readers to easily recognize dierences in elevation. To create a color relief map, rst create a support le with the following contents and call it "color_relief.txt": Mapas a color de alivio de representar elevacin por bandas de color. Esto permite a los lectores reconocer con facilidad las diferencias en la elevacin. Para crear un mapa en relieve de color, primero debe crear un archivo de ayuda con el siguiente contenido y lo llaman color_relief.txt:
1 2 3 4 5
800 110 220 110 1250 240 250 160 1400 230 220 170 1500 220 220 220 1600 250 250 250
yeah this is stupid but idk The above le denes a gradient that will blend ve colors over 800 meters of elevation. Feel free to modify it to your likes. Run the command below to apply the color ramp to the DEM. GDAL will
El archivo anterior dene un degradado que se mezcla cinco colores a ms de 800 metros de altitud. Sintase libre de modicar a sus gustos. Ejecute el comando siguiente para aplicar la rampa de colores
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create a color relief map of the area. Modify the le names to match yours.
al DEM. GDAL va a crear un mapa en relieve de color de la zona. Modicar los nombres de archivo que coinciden con el suyo.
gdaldem color - relief SRTM_DEM . tif color_relief . txt colour_relief . tif
yeah this is stupid but idk The result is the map that can be seen in gure 16.1 on the next page.
El resultado es el mapa que se puede ver en la gura 16.1.
16.2 The hill shade map Sombra de la colina

Hill shade is a technique for visualizing terrain by simulating light and shadows of the terrain. Run the command below to create the shaded relief image. Again, modify the le names to match your le names. Sombra Hill es una tcnica de visualizacin de terreno por la luz y las sombras de la simulacin del terreno. Ejecute el comando siguiente para crear la imagen de relieve sombreado. De nuevo, modicar los nombres de los archivos para que coincida con los nombres de archivo.
gdaldem hillshade SRTM_DEM . tif hill_shade . tif
yeah this is stupid but idk GDAL will create the hill shade map shown in gure 16.2 on page 88.
GDAL crear el mapa sombra colina se muestra en la gura 16.2.
16.3 The slope shade map La sombra pendiente

A color conguration can also be assigned to a certain slope instead of elevation. Perfectly at terrain with a slope of 0 will be displayed as white and a slope of 90 will be displayed as black. The result is a slope shade map. Create the color conguration le below and call it "color_slope.txt". Una conguracin de color tambin se puede asignar a una cierta pendiente en lugar de elevacin. Terreno perfectamente plano con una pendiente de 0 se mostrar como blanco y una pendiente de 90 se mostrara en negro. El resultado es un mapa de sombra pendiente. Cree el archivo de conguracin de color abajo y lo llaman color_slope.txt.
1 2
0 255 255 255 90 0 0 0
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Figure 16.1: Color relief map.
87
Figure 16.2: Hill shade map.
88
yeah this is stupid but idk Run the command below to apply to color conguration to the slope and to create the slope shade map:
Ejecute el comando siguiente para aplicar a la conguracin de color a la pendiente y para crear el mapa de pendiente sombra:
gdaldem color - relief SRTM_DEM . tif color_slope . txt slope_shade . tif
yeah this is stupid but idk The result is the map in gure 16.3 on the next page.
El resultado es el mapa de la gura 16.3.
16.4 Contour lines Curvas de nivel

Contour lines are another common method to visualize the shape of the terrain. The advantage of contour lines is that they allow the reader to easily quantify dierences in elevation. Use the following GDAL command to create vector contour lines in a 25 meter elevation interval:
1
Las lneas de contorno son otro mtodo comn para visualizar la forma del terreno. La ventaja de lneas de contorno es que es fcil de cuanticar las diferencias en la elevacin. Utilice el siguiendo el mandato GDAL para crear lneas vectoriales contorno en un intervalo de elevacin 25 metros:
gdal_contour -a height SRTM_DEM . tif contour_5m . shp -i 25.0
16.5 Rendering the terrain map Dibujar el mapa del terreno

This is where Mapnik comes into play. Mapnik works with two les; one with general commands written in Python and another le containing the style of the map, the so-called stylesheet. Create a le called "map.py", with the following contents:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 #!/ usr / bin / env python import mapnik mapfile = " stylesheet . xml " mapnik . _mapnik . scaling_method . LANCZOS m = mapnik . Map (1000 , 1000) mapnik . load_map (m , mapfile )
Aqu es donde entra en juego Mapnik. Mapnik trabaja con dos archivos: uno con el general comandos escritos en Python y otro archivo que contiene el estilo de la hoja de la hoja de estilo. Crear un archivo llamado map.py, con el siguiente contenido:
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Figure 16.3: Slope shade map.
90
8 9 10
bbox = mapnik . Envelope ( mapnik . Coord ( -86.35 , 13.3) , mapnik . Coord ( -86.23 , 13.18) ) m . zoom_to_box ( bbox ) mapnik . render_to_file (m , map . png , png )
yeah this is stupid but idk These commands tell Mapnik to render a map with a resolution of 1000 pixels in height and 1000 pixels in width. The code on line 8 tells Mapnik to zoom the map to -86.35 W to -86.23 W in width and 13.18 N to 13.3 N in height. Now create the stylesheet called "stylesheet.xml", containing the following code:
Estos comandos indican Mapnik para hacer un mapa con una resolucin de 1000 pxeles de altura y 1000 pxeles de ancho. El cdigo en la lnea 8 dice Mapnik para acercar el mapa a -86.35 W a -86.23 W de ancho y 13.18 N a 13.3 N en altura. Ahora cree la hoja de estilo llamado stylesheet.xml, que contenga el siguiente cdigo:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
< Map background - color =" white " srs ="+ proj = longlat + ellps = WGS84 + datum = WGS84 + no_defs " > < Style name =" color relief style " > < Rule > < RasterSymbolizer scaling =" lanczos " opacity ="1.0" mode =" normal " / > </ Rule > </ Style > < Style name =" hillshade style " > < Rule > < RasterSymbolizer scaling =" lanczos " opacity ="0.5" mode =" multiply " / > </ Rule > </ Style > < Style name =" slopeshade style " > < Rule > < RasterSymbolizer scaling =" lanczos " opacity ="0.5" mode =" multiply " / > </ Rule > </ Style > < Style name =" contours 25 m style " > < Rule > <! - - zoom 1 --> < MaxScaleDenominator >800000 </ MaxScaleDenominator > < MinScaleDenominator >400000 </ MinScaleDenominator > < LineSymbolizer stroke ="#6 E6E6E " stroke - width ="0.1" / > </ Rule > < Rule > <! - - zoom 2 --> < MaxScaleDenominator >400000 </ MaxScaleDenominator >
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31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82
< MinScaleDenominator >200000 </ MinScaleDenominator > < LineSymbolizer stroke ="#6 E6E6E " stroke - width ="0.2" / > </ Rule > < Rule > <! - - zoom 3+ --> < MaxScaleDenominator >200000 </ MaxScaleDenominator > < LineSymbolizer stroke ="#6 E6E6E " stroke - width ="0.3" / > </ Rule > </ Style > < Style name =" contours 100 m style " > < Rule > <! - - zoom 0 --> < MinScaleDenominator >800000 </ MinScaleDenominator > < LineSymbolizer stroke ="#585858" stroke - width ="0.1" </ Rule > < Rule > <! - - zoom 1 --> < MaxScaleDenominator >800000 </ MaxScaleDenominator > < MinScaleDenominator >400000 </ MinScaleDenominator > < LineSymbolizer stroke ="#585858" stroke - width ="0.2" </ Rule > < Rule > <! - - zoom 2 --> < MaxScaleDenominator >400000 </ MaxScaleDenominator > < MinScaleDenominator >200000 </ MinScaleDenominator > < LineSymbolizer stroke ="#585858" stroke - width ="0.3" </ Rule > < Rule > <! - - zoom 3+ --> < MaxScaleDenominator >200000 </ MaxScaleDenominator > < LineSymbolizer stroke ="#585858" stroke - width ="0.4" </ Rule > </ Style > < Layer name =" color relief " > < StyleName > color relief style </ StyleName > < Datasource > < Parameter name =" type " > gdal </ Parameter > < Parameter name =" file " > colour_relief . tif </ Parameter > </ Datasource > </ Layer > < Layer name =" hillshade " > < StyleName > hillshade style </ StyleName > < Datasource > < Parameter name =" type " > gdal </ Parameter > < Parameter name =" file " > hill_shade . tif </ Parameter > </ Datasource > </ Layer > < Layer name =" slopeshade " >
/>
/>
/>
/>
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< StyleName > slopeshade style </ StyleName > < Datasource > < Parameter name =" type " > gdal </ Parameter > < Parameter name =" file " > slope_shade . tif </ Parameter > </ Datasource > </ Layer > < Layer name =" contours 25 m " > < StyleName > contours 25 m style </ StyleName > < Datasource > < Parameter name =" type " > shape </ Parameter > < Parameter name =" file " > contour . shp </ Parameter > </ Datasource > </ Layer > < Layer name =" contours 100 m " > < StyleName > contours 100 m style </ StyleName > < Datasource > < Parameter name =" type " > shape </ Parameter > < Parameter name =" file " > contour . shp </ Parameter > </ Datasource > </ Layer > </ Map >
yeah this is stupid but idk Simply type "map.py" in the command line to run Mapnik, render the map, and save the result to the specied directory. The result should be same map as the one in gure 16.4 on the following page. The map shown in gure 16.4 on the next page is rendered in a resolution of 1000 pixels in width and 1000 pixels in height. The true power of Mapnik is that the detail can be vastly improved just by changing a few numbers. The maps shown in chapter 7 are taken from a map rendered at 10 000 pixels in width and 10 000 pixels in height, with contour lines in a ve meter elevation interval.
Simplemente escriba map.py en la lnea de comandos para ejecutar Mapnik, hacer el mapa, y guardar el resultado en el directorio especicado. El resultado debe ser mismo mapa como el de gura 16.4. El mapa que se muestra en la gura 16.4 se representa en una resolucin de 1000 pxeles de ancho y 1000 pxeles de altura. El verdadero poder de Mapnik es que el detalle puede ser ampliamente mejorado con slo cambiar algunos nmeros. Los mapas que se muestran en el captulo 7 se han tomado de un mapa obtengan a 10 000 pxeles de ancho y 10 000 pxeles de altura, con lneas de contorno en un intervalo de cinco metros elevacin.
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Figure 16.4: The resulting map rendered by Mapnik.
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17 MATLAB scripts containing the calculations Los clculos en MATLAB

17.1 Hydrology study Estudia de hidrologa
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 % ---- CALCULATE MONTHLY EVAPORATION ---% Daily extra - terrestial energy radiance ( per month ) Ra = [4.83 , 5.46 , 6.23 , 6.19 , 5.48 , 5.14 , 4.93 , 5.07 , 4.97 , 4.79 , 4.60 ,... 4.70]; % [ kWh / m ^2/ day ] Ra = Ra .*(3.6) ; % [ MJ / m2 / day ] Ra = Ra ./2.45; % convert to [ mm / day ] , based on an assumption % Other data Tmax = 24; % Average maximum temperature in the area Tmin = 18; % Average minimum temperature in the area dT = Tmax - Tmin ; T = 21; % Average temperature in the area % Compute evaporation Evap = 0.0022.* Ra * dT ^0.5*( T +17.8) ; % Temperature formula based on article days = [31 ,28 ,31 ,30 ,31 ,30 ,31 ,31 ,30 ,31 ,30 ,31]; % Days of each month Evap = Evap .* days ; % by month t = 1:12; % time vector , 1 is january , 12 is december % Make chart figure (1) one = bar (t , Evap , cyan ) ; % mm / month set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Eva po tr an spi ra ti on ) ; ylabel ( E vap ot ra nsp ir at ion [ mm / month ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % set ( one , width , 3) ; saveas ( one , Images / Miraflor / M i r a f l o r _ e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n . eps ) ;
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17 MATLAB scripts containing the calculations
Los clculos en MATLAB
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set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Miraflor / M i r a f l o r _ e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n
% ---- CALCULATE MONTHLY PRECIPITATION ---% Based on FORO Miraflor data , first entry is january , last december % Except 2010 , only data available from may to december pre_2010 = [309.1 , 234.5 , 296.1 , 378.9 , 495.2 , 174.0 , 44.3 , 13.0]; pre_2011 = [23.6 , 13.3 , 12.2 , 13.7 , 277.1 , 150.5 , 239.3 , 185.1 , 232.0 ,... 462.9 , 46.4 , 79.6]; pre_2012 = [73.3 , 62.3 , 16.9 , 87.8 , 383.5 , 292.2 , 94.0 , 202.3 , 72.2 ,... 138.6 , 55.8 , 9.6]; % time vectors % t_2010 = 5:12; t = 1:12; % plot ( t_2010 , pre_2010 ) ; % plot (t , pre_2011 ) ; % plot (t , pre_2012 ) ; pre_2010_2 = [0 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,309.1 , 234.5 , 296.1 , 378.9 , 495.2 , 174.0 , 44.3 ,... 13.0]; % Make chart figure (5) five = bar (t , pre_2010_2 , cyan ) ; % mm / month set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Precipitation in 2010 ) ; ylabel ( Precipitation [ mm / month ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( five , Images / Miraflor / M i r a f l o r _ p r e c i p i t a t i o n 2 0 1 0 . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Miraflor / M i r a f l o r _ p r e c i p i t a t i o n 2 0 1 0 % Make chart figure (6) six = bar (t , pre_2011 , cyan ) ; % mm / month set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,...
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sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Precipitation in 2011 ) ; ylabel ( Precipitation [ mm / month ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( six , Images / Miraflor / M i r a f l o r _ p r e c i p i t a t i o n 2 0 1 1 . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Miraflor / M i r a f l o r _ p r e c i p i t a t i o n 2 0 1 1 % Make chart figure (7) seven = bar (t , pre_2012 , cyan ) ; % mm / month set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Precipitation in 2012 ) ; ylabel ( Precipitation [ mm / month ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( seven , Images / Miraflor / M i r a f l o r _ p r e c i p i t a t i o n 2 0 1 2 . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Miraflor / M i r a f l o r _ p r e c i p i t a t i o n 2 0 1 2 pre_average = [... ( pre_2011 (1) + pre_2012 (1) ) /2 ,... ( pre_2011 (2) + pre_2012 (2) ) /2 ,... ( pre_2011 (3) + pre_2012 (3) ) /2 ,... ( pre_2011 (4) + pre_2012 (4) ) /2 ,... ( pre_2010 (1) + pre_2011 (5) + pre_2012 (5) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (2) + pre_2011 (6) + pre_2012 (6) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (3) + pre_2011 (7) + pre_2012 (7) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (4) + pre_2011 (8) + pre_2012 (8) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (5) + pre_2011 (9) + pre_2012 (9) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (6) + pre_2011 (10) + pre_2012 (10) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (7) + pre_2011 (11) + pre_2012 (11) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (8) + pre_2011 (12) + pre_2012 (12) ) /3]; % Make chart figure (2) two = bar (t , pre_average , cyan ) ; % mm / month set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Precipitation ) ; ylabel ( Precipitation [ mm / month ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( two , Images / Miraflor / M i r a f l o r _ p r e c i p i t a t i o n . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Miraflor / M i r a f l o r _ p r e c i p i t a t i o n
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% ---- CALCULATE RUNOFF ---runoff = pre_average - Evap ; % [ mm / month ] % Remove negative values for i = 1:12 if runoff ( i ) <= 0 runoff ( i ) = 0; end end % clear some variables clear i ; clear pre_average , clear Erc , clear pre_2010 , clear t_2010 ,... clear pre_2011 , clear pre_2012 , clear Ra , clear Tmax , clear Tmin ,... clear dt , clear T , clear days ; % Make chart figure (3) three = bar (t , runoff , cyan ) ; % mm / month set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Runoff ) ; ylabel ( Runoff [ mm / month ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( three , Images / Miraflor / Miraflor_runoff . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Miraflor / Miraflor_runoff % Convert to meters per month runoff = runoff ./1000;
% ---- CALCULATION OF WATERSHED AREA ---% Area of different watershed areas [ pixels ] , see map total = 1936773; area1 = 409346; area2 = 99175; area3 = 346653; area4 = 604466; other = total - area1 - area2 - area3 - area4 ; waterfall = 162708; laguna = 145134;
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% Create vector with all areas areas = [ total , area1 , area2 , area3 , area4 , other , waterfall , laguna ]; % Size of each pixels in meters based on map size pixelsize = (60*1852*0.12) /3000; % Convert vector to square meters areas = areas .* pixelsize ; % [ m ^2]
% ---- GUESSTIMATE OF FLOW DURATION CURVE ---perc_month = [0.06 ,0.04 ,0.03 ,0.02 ,0.06 ,0.08 ,0.12 ,0.20 ,0.15 ,0.09 ,0.08 ,0.07]; flow_curve = perc_month .*100; % Make chart figure (4) four = bar (t , flow_curve , magenta ) ; % %/ month set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Flow duration curve ) ; ylabel ( Percentage of annual discharge per month [%/ month ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( four , Images / Miraflor / Miraflor_FDC . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Miraflor / Miraflor_FDC
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17.2 Demand study and plant factors Estudio de demanda y los factores de planta
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 % ---- CALCULATION OF DEMAND CURVE ----
% Time vector ; 24 hours t = 1:24; example_demand = [16 ,16 ,16 ,16 ,16 ,20 ,14 ,12 ,11 ,12 ,13 ,14 ,13 ,11 ,10 ,10 ,13 ,17 ,... 40 ,40 ,35 ,26 ,20 ,18]; % Energy demand in Watt for each hour of a daily % cycle , from an example in Peru with similar conditions to Miraflor % Assumption from Rebecca : 120 W of use per HOUSE in peak hours % Number from FORO Miraflor : 3200 houses in Miraflor demand_house = example_demand .*3; % Because peak demand is 120 , not 40 [ W ] % such as in Peru . % Extrapolate this for the complete Miraflor National Reserve (3200) % houeses and converting from W to kW demand_mira = demand_house .*3.2; % [ kW ] % Make chart of hourly demand of one house figure (1) one = bar (t , demand_house , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:24) ; % Use these x - axis labels for larger renders % set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ 1 AM , 2 AM , 3 AM , 4 AM , 5 AM , 6 AM , 7 AM ,... % 8 AM , 9 AM , 10 AM , 11 AM , 12 AM , 1 PM , 2 PM , 3 PM , 4 PM ,... % 5 PM , 6 PM , 7 PM , 8 PM , 9 PM , 10 PM , 11 PM , 12 PM }) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ 1 AM , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ,... 12 , 1 PM , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 }) ; title ( Estimated hourly energy demand of one house ) ; ylabel ( Energy demand [ W ] ) ; xlabel ( Time [ hours ] ) ; % saveas ( one , Images / Demand / Demand_perhouse . eps ) ; % Print func . is better % Change aspect ratio of rendered diagram set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Demand / Demand_perhouse
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% Make chart of hourly demand of Miraflor figure (2) two = bar (t , demand_mira , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:24) ; % set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ 1 AM , 2 AM , 3 AM , 4 AM , 5 AM , 6 AM , 7 AM ,... % 8 AM , 9 AM , 10 AM , 11 AM , 12 AM , 1 PM , 2 PM , 3 PM , 4 PM ,... % 5 PM , 6 PM , 7 PM , 8 PM , 9 PM , 10 PM , 11 PM , 12 PM }) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ 1 AM , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ,... 12 , 1 PM , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 }) ; title ( Estimated hourly energy demand of the Miraflor National Reserve ) ; ylabel ( Energy demand [ kW ] ) ; xlabel ( Time [ hours ] ) ; % saveas ( two , Images / Demand / Demand_total . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Demand / Demand_total % Create placeholder variable placeholder = demand_mira ;
% ---- CALCULATE PLANT FACTORS FOR DIFFERRENT INSTALLED CAPACITIES ----
plant = 100:400; power = 100:400; for i = 100:400 % Restore initial value demand_mira = placeholder ; for j = 1:24 if demand_mira ( j ) >= i demand_mira ( j ) = i ; end end plant (i -99) = sum ( demand_mira ) /( i *24) ; end % Make chart showing the for different istalled capacities with and without % a reservoir figure (4)
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set (0 , D e f a u l t A x e s C o l o r O r d e r ,[0 0 1] ,... D e f a u l t A x e s L i n e S t y l e O r d e r , -| - -| -.|: ) four = plot ( power , plant ) ; title ( Plant factor for different installed capacities ) ; ylabel ( Plant factor [ -] ) ; xlabel ( Installed capacity [ kW ] ) ; hold all ; % Hold to draw the next plot in the same figure % ---- Check for " not fulfilled " demand demand_mira = placeholder ; n o t _ f u l f i l l e d_ d e m a n d = 100:400; % Placeholder for i = 100:400 total = 0; for j = 1:24 toofew = demand_mira ( j ) - i ; if toofew >= 0 total = total + toofew ; end end n o t _ f u l f i l l e d_ d e m a n d (i -99) = ( total / sum ( demand_mira ) ) *100; end % Now with the dam toofew = 0; n o t _ f u l f i l l e d _ d e m a n d _ d a m = 100:400; for i = 100:400 total = 0; for j = 1:18 toofew = demand_mira ( j ) - i ; if toofew >= 0 total = total + toofew ; end end for j = 23:24 toofew = demand_mira ( j ) - i ; if toofew >= 0 total = total + toofew ; end end n o t _ f u l f i l l e d _ d e m a n d _ d a m (i -99) = ( total / sum ( demand_mira ) ) *100;
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end
% ---- CALCULATE PLANT FACTORS W / DAM ----
plant = 100:400; power = 100:400; cappeak = 400; for i = 100:400 % Restore initial value demand_mira = placeholder ; for j = 1:24 if demand_mira ( j ) >= i demand_mira ( j ) = i ; end end demand_mira (19:22) = placeholder (19:22) ; plant (i -99) = sum ( demand_mira ) /( i *20+4* cappeak ) ; end % figure (5) plot ( power , plant ) ; title ( Plant factor for different installed capacities ) ; ylabel ( Plant factor [ -] ) ; xlabel ( Installed capacity [ kW ] ) ; legend ( Without reservoir , With reservoir ) ; % saveas ( four , Images / Demand / D em a n d_ p ow e rf a c to r s . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Demand / D em a nd _ po w e rf a ct o r s
% ---- SELECTED CASE OF 200 kW WITH A DAM ----
% Restore initial value demand_mira = placeholder ; cap = 200; % Normal capacity cappeak = 400; % Peak capacity peak = 19:22; % Peak hours design_flow = 1:24; % Placeholder vector
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for j = 1:24 design_flow ( j ) = cap - demand_mira ( j ) ; if demand_mira ( j ) >= cap design_flow ( j ) = 0; end end for j = peak design_flow ( j ) = cappeak - demand_mira ( j ) ; if demand_mira ( j ) >= cappeak design_flow ( j ) = 0; end end demand_mira = demand_mira ; design_flow = design_flow ; A = [ demand_mira , design_flow ]; % Make chart figure (6) ten = bar (A , stacked ) ; set ( ten ,{ FaceColor } ,{ magenta ; yellow }) ; % bar (t , demand_mira , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:24) ; % set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ 1 AM , 2 AM , 3 AM , 4 AM , 5 AM , 6 AM , 7 AM ,... % 8 AM , 9 AM , 10 AM , 11 AM , 12 AM , 1 PM , 2 PM , 3 PM , 4 PM ,... % 5 PM , 6 PM , 7 PM , 8 PM , 9 PM , 10 PM , 11 PM , 12 PM }) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ 1 AM , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ,... 12 , 1 PM , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 }) ; title ( Estimated hourly energy demand for the Miraflor National Reserve ) ; ylabel ( Energy demand [ kW ] ) ; xlabel ( Time [ hours ] ) ; legend ( Energy demand , Capacity installed ) ; % saveas ( six , Images / Demand / D e m a n d _ d e m a n d a n d i n s t a l l e d . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Demand / D e m a n d _ d e m a n d a n d i n s t a l l e d plant_factor = sum ( demand_mira ) /( cap *20+ cappeak *4) ; % Required discharge scales linearly with power output % Estimated 85% efficiency of pelton turbines accross the range of % 0.3 to 1.0 of design flow and 75% from 0.2 to 0.3 % In case of a dam 1.2 times the flow rate for the normal capacity isneeded
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% in order to save up water for the 4 hours of peak capacity % So a site with flow rate sufficient for 200 * 1.2 = 240 kW will meet % the total demand % In this situation the minimum flow rate must allow for 80 kW because that % is 0.2 * 400 , which is the lowest end of the usable efficiency range
% ---- ENERGY POTENTIAL PER MONTH ----
% The percentage of annual energy potential scales with this graph as well perc_month = [0.06 ,0.04 ,0.03 ,0.02 ,0.06 ,0.08 ,0.12 ,0.20 ,0.15 ,0.09 ,0.08 ,0.07]; flow_curve = perc_month .*100; t = 1:12; % Time vector of twelve months % Make chart figure (8) eight = bar (t , flow_curve , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Flow duration curve ) ; ylabel ( Percentage of annual energy potential per month [%/ month ] ); xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( eight , Images / Demand / Demand_FDC1 . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Demand / Demand_FDC1 FDC = sort ( flow_curve , descend ) ; % Make chart figure (9) nine = bar (t , FDC , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ 8.33 , 16.66 , 25 , 33.33 , 41.66 , 50 , 58.33 ,... 66.66 , 75 , 83.33 , 91.66 , 100 }) ; title ( Flow duration curve ) ;
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ylabel ( Percentage of annual energy potential per month [%/ month ] ); xlabel ( Percentage of year flow exceeded [%] ) ; % saveas ( nine , Images / Demand / Demand_FDC2 . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Demand / Demand_FDC2 % MAJOR ASSUMPTION : THE TURBINE MUST BE ABLE TO OPERATE WITHIN A USABLE % EFFICIENCY RANGE IN EVERY SINGLE MONTH OF THE YEAR % This implies that the turbine design flow is 10% of the annual yearly % flow per month because the minimum is 2% which occurs in april . 2% of the % annual river discharge flows through the river in april . So the design % flow of the turbine will be five (5) times the flow rate in the month of % april . % Another concequence of this is that in some months of the year there will % be overflow , water will bypass the hydropower system . design_flow = 1:12; % Placeholder design = 10; for j = 1:12 design_flow ( j ) = design - flow_curve ( j ) ; if flow_curve ( j ) >= design design_flow ( j ) = 0; end end B = [ flow_curve , design_flow ]; % Make chart figure (10) ten = bar (B , stacked ) ; set ( ten ,{ FaceColor } ,{ magenta ; yellow }) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Flow duration curve ) ; ylabel ( Percentage of annual energy potential per month [%/ month ] ); xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; legend ( Available flow , Maximum allowable flow ) ;
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% saveas ( ten , Images / Demand / D em a n d_ m ax a l lo w ab l e . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Demand / D em a nd _ ma x a ll o wa b l e
% ---- CHART FOR UNFULFILLED DEMAND ----
% Make chart figure (11) set (0 , D e f a u l t A x e s C o l o r O r d e r ,[0 0 1] ,... D e f a u l t A x e s L i n e S t y l e O r d e r , -| - -| -.|: ) eleven = plot (100:400 , n o t _ f u lf i l l e d _ d e m a n d ) ; title ( Daily demand not fulfilled for a certain capacity ) ; ylabel ( Percentage of demand [%] ) ; xlabel ( Installed capacity [ kW ] ) ; hold all ; plot (100:400 , n o t _ f u l f i l l e d _ d e m a n d _ d a m ) ; legend ( Without reservoir , With reservoir ) ; % saveas ( eleven , Images / Demand / D em a nd _ n ot f ul f il l e d . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Demand / D em a nd _ no t f ul f il l e d
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17.3 Salto Angelica

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 % ---- CALCULATE MONTHLY EVAPORATION ---% Daily extra - terrestial energy radiance ( per month ) Ra = [4.83 , 5.46 , 6.23 , 6.19 , 5.48 , 5.14 , 4.93 , 5.07 , 4.97 , 4.79 , 4.60 ,... 4.70]; % [ kWh / m ^2/ day ] Ra = Ra .*(3.6) ; % [ MJ / m2 / day ] Ra = Ra ./2.45; % convert to [ mm / day ] , based on an assumption % Other data Tmax = 24; % Average maximum temperature in the area Tmin = 18; % Average minimum temperature in the area dT = Tmax - Tmin ; T = 21; % Average temperature in the area % Compute evaporation Evap = 0.0022.* Ra * dT ^0.5*( T +17.8) ; % Temperature formula based on article days = [31 ,28 ,31 ,30 ,31 ,30 ,31 ,31 ,30 ,31 ,30 ,31]; % Days of each month Evap = Evap .* days ; % by month
% ---- CALCULATE MONTHLY PRECIPITATION ---% Based on FORO Miraflor data , first entry is january , last december % Except 2010 , only data available from may to december pre_2010 = [309.1 , 234.5 , 296.1 , 378.9 , 495.2 , 174.0 , 44.3 , 13.0]; pre_2011 = [23.6 , 13.3 , 12.2 , 13.7 , 277.1 , 150.5 , 239.3 , 185.1 , 232.0 ,... 462.9 , 46.4 , 79.6]; pre_2012 = [73.3 , 62.3 , 16.9 , 87.8 , 383.5 , 292.2 , 94.0 , 202.3 , 72.2 ,... 138.6 , 55.8 , 9.6]; pre_average = [... ( pre_2011 (1) + pre_2012 (1) ) /2 ,... ( pre_2011 (2) + pre_2012 (2) ) /2 ,... ( pre_2011 (3) + pre_2012 (3) ) /2 ,... ( pre_2011 (4) + pre_2012 (4) ) /2 ,... ( pre_2010 (1) + pre_2011 (5) + pre_2012 (5) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (2) + pre_2011 (6) + pre_2012 (6) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (3) + pre_2011 (7) + pre_2012 (7) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (4) + pre_2011 (8) + pre_2012 (8) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (5) + pre_2011 (9) + pre_2012 (9) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (6) + pre_2011 (10) + pre_2012 (10) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (7) + pre_2011 (11) + pre_2012 (11) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (8) + pre_2011 (12) + pre_2012 (12) ) /3];
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% ---- CALCULATE RUNOFF ---runoff = pre_average - Evap ; % [ mm / month ] % Remove negative values for i = 1:12 if runoff ( i ) <= 0 runoff ( i ) = 0; end end % clear some variables clear i ; clear pre_average , clear Erc , clear pre_2010 , clear t_2010 ,... clear pre_2011 , clear pre_2012 , clear Ra , clear Tmax , clear Tmin ,... clear dt , clear T , clear days ; % Convert to meters per month runoff = runoff ./1000;
% ---- CALCULATION OF WATERSHED AREA ---% Area of different watershed areas [ pixels ] , see map total = 1936773; area1 = 409346; area2 = 99175; area3 = 346653; area4 = 604466; other = total - area1 - area2 - area3 - area4 ; waterfall = 162708; laguna = 145134; % Create vector with all areas areas = [ total , area1 , area2 , area3 , area4 , other , waterfall , laguna ]; % Size of each pixels in meters based on map size pixelsize = (60*1852*0.12) /3000; % Convert vector to square meters areas = areas .* pixelsize ; % [ m ^2]
% ---- GUESSTIMATE OF FLOW DURATION CURVE ---perc_month = [0.06 ,0.04 ,0.03 ,0.02 ,0.06 ,0.08 ,0.12 ,0.20 ,0.15 ,0.09 ,0.08 ,0.07];
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flow_curve = perc_month .*100; t = 1:12;
% ---- TURBINE EFFICIENCY ---eff = [0.85 ,0.85 ,0.85 ,0.75 ,0.85 ,0.85 ,0.85 ,0.85 ,0.85 ,0.85 ,0.85 ,0.85];
% ---- LOCATION : SALTO ANGELICA ---volume = areas (3) * sum ( runoff ) ; discharge = perc_month .* volume ; % in m ^3 % convert to kg / s discharge = discharge ./2592; % caudal % Make chart figure (1) one = bar (t , discharge , cyan ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Salto Angelica : average discharge per month ) ; ylabel ( Discharge [ kg / s ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( one , Images / Angelica / An gel ic a_ dis ch ar ge . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Angelica / A ng el ica _d is cha rg e % Design flow design_flow = 5* min ( discharge ) ; str = num2str ( design_flow ) ; disp ( The design flow of Salto Angelica is : ) ; disp ( str ) ;
rest = 1:12; % Placeholder for j = 1:12 rest ( j ) = design_flow - discharge ( j ) ; if discharge ( j ) >= design_flow rest ( j ) = 0; discharge ( j ) = design_flow ; end end
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C = [ discharge , rest ]; % Make chart figure (2) two = bar (C , stacked ) ; set ( two ,{ FaceColor } ,{ cyan ; white }) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Salto Angelica : turbine design flow and available flow ) ; ylabel ( Flow rate [ kg / s ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; legend ( Available flow , Design flow rate ) ; % saveas ( two , Images / Angelica / Angelica_flow . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Angelica / Angelica_flow
% OPTION 1 ---- largo : 700 m , salto : 110 m % largo = 700; salto = 110; P = 1.00*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Pnet = P .* eff ; Pnet = Pnet ./1.2; % Make chart figure (3) three = bar (t , Pnet , yellow ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Salto Angelica : 700 m tube lenght and 110 m head ) ; ylabel ( Estimated net power output [ kW ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( three , Images / Angelica / Angelica_1_Pnet . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Angelica / Angelica_1_Pnet % PEOPLE ( Based on 12.5 W per person average ) people = Pnet ./0.0125; % Make chart figure (4) four = bar (t , people , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ;
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set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Salto Angelica : 700 m tube lenght and 110 m head ) ; ylabel ( Individuals supplied with electricity ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( four , Images / Angelica / An gelica_1 _people . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Angelica / Ange lica_1_p eople
% OPTION 2 ---- largo : 450 m , salto : 80 m % largo = 450; salto = 80; P = 1.00*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Pnet = P .* eff ; Pnet = Pnet ./1.2; % Make chart figure (5) five = bar (t , Pnet , yellow ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Salto Angelica : 450 m tube lenght and 80 m head ) ; ylabel ( Estimated net power output [ kW ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( five , Images / Angelica / Angelica_2_Pnet . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Angelica / Angelica_2_Pnet % PEOPLE ( Based on 12.5 W per person average ) people = Pnet ./0.0125; % Make chart figure (6) six = bar (t , people , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Salto Angelica : 450 m tube lenght and 80 m head ) ; ylabel ( Individuals supplied with electricity ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( six , Images / Angelica / An gelica_2 _people . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height .
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print - depsc Images / Angelica / Ange lica_2_p eople
% OPTION 3 ---- largo : 225 m , salto : 40 m % largo = 225; salto = 40; P = 1.00*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Pnet = P .* eff ; Pnet = Pnet ./1.2; % Make chart figure (7) seven = bar (t , Pnet , yellow ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Salto Angelica : 225 m tube lenght and 40 m head ) ; ylabel ( Estimated net power output [ kW ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( three , Images / Angelica / Angelica_3_Pnet . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Angelica / Angelica_3_Pnet % PEOPLE ( Based on 12.5 W per person average ) people = Pnet ./0.0125; % Make chart figure (8) eight = bar (t , people , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Salto Angelica : 225 m tube lenght and 40 m head ) ; ylabel ( Individuals supplied with electricity ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( eight , Images / Angelica / An gelica_3_ people . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Angelica / Ange lica_3_p eople
% Calculate reservoir size % The reservoir has to be sized for october because in october the largest
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% flow rate occurs while there is no overflow , in july to september no % reservoir is needed reservoir = discharge (10) *(0.6*20) ; % [ m ^3] disp ( The size of the reservoir is cubic meters is : ) ; disp ( num2str ( reservoir ) ) ;
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17.4 La Laguna
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% ---- LOCATION : LA LAGUNA ---volume = areas (8) * sum ( runoff ) ; discharge = perc_month .* volume ; % in m ^3 % convert to kg / s discharge = discharge ./2592; % caudal % Make chart figure (1) one = bar (t , discharge , cyan ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Laguna : average discharge per month ) ; ylabel ( Discharge [ kg / s ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( one , Images / Laguna / Laguna_discharge . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Laguna / Laguna_discharge % Design flow design_flow = 5* min ( discharge ) ; str = num2str ( design_flow ) ; disp ( The design flow of La Laguna is : ) ; disp ( str ) ;
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C = [ discharge , rest ]; % Make chart figure (2) two = bar (C , stacked ) ; set ( two ,{ FaceColor } ,{ cyan ; white }) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Laguna : turbine design flow and available flow ) ; ylabel ( Flow rate [ kg / s ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; legend ( Available flow , Design flow rate ) ; % saveas ( two , Images / Laguna / Laguna_flow . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Laguna / Laguna_flow
% OPTION 1 ---- largo : 300 m , salto : 50 m % largo = 300; salto = 50; P = 1.00*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Pnet = P .* eff ; Pnet = Pnet ./1.2; % Make chart figure (3) three = bar (t , Pnet , yellow ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Laguna : 300 m tube lenght and 50 m head ) ; ylabel ( Estimated net power output [ kW ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( three , Images / Laguna / Laguna_1_Pnet . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Laguna / Laguna_1_Pnet % PEOPLE ( Based on 12.5 W per person average ) people = Pnet ./0.0125; % Make chart figure (4) four = bar (t , people , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ;
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set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Laguna : 300 m tube lenght and 50 m head ) ; ylabel ( Individuals supplied with electricity ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( four , Images / Laguna / Laguna_1_people . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Laguna / Laguna_1_people
% OPTION 2 ---- largo : 550 m , salto : 100 m % largo = 550; salto = 100; P = 1.00*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Pnet = P .* eff ; Pnet = Pnet ./1.2; % Make chart figure (5) five = bar (t , Pnet , yellow ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Laguna : 550 m tube lenght and 100 m head ) ; ylabel ( Estimated net power output [ kW ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( five , Images / Laguna / Laguna_2_Pnet . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Laguna / Laguna_2_Pnet % PEOPLE ( Based on 12.5 W per person average ) people = Pnet ./0.0125; % Make chart figure (6) six = bar (t , people , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Laguna : 550 m tube lenght and 100 m head ) ; ylabel ( Individuals supplied with electricity ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( six , Images / Laguna / Laguna_2_people . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height .
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print - depsc Images / Laguna / Laguna_2_people
% Calculate reservoir size % The reservoir has to be sized for october because in october the largest % flow rate occurs while there is no overflow , in july to september no % reservoir is needed reservoir = discharge (10) *(0.6*20) ; % [ m ^3] disp ( The size of the reservoir is cubic meters is : ) ; disp ( num2str ( reservoir ) ) ;
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17.5 La Estancia
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% ---- LOCATION : WATERFALL / LA ESTANCIA ---volume = areas (7) * sum ( runoff ) ; discharge = perc_month .* volume ; % in m ^3 % convert to kg / s discharge = discharge ./2592; % caudal % Make chart figure (1) one = bar (t , discharge , cyan ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Estancia : average discharge per month ) ; ylabel ( Discharge [ kg / s ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( one , Images / Estancia / Es tan ci a_ dis ch ar ge . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Estancia / E st an cia _d is cha rg e % Design flow design_flow = 5* min ( discharge ) ; str = num2str ( design_flow ) ; disp ( The design flow of La Estancia is : ) ; disp ( str ) ;
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C = [ discharge , rest ]; % Make chart figure (2) two = bar (C , stacked ) ; set ( two ,{ FaceColor } ,{ cyan ; white }) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Piscina : turbine design flow and available flow ) ; ylabel ( Flow rate [ kg / s ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; legend ( Available flow , Design flow rate ) ; % saveas ( two , Images / Estancia / Estancia_flow . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Estancia / Estancia_flow
% OPTION 1 ---- largo : 325 m , salto : 70 m % largo = 325; salto = 60; P = 1.00*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Pnet = P .* eff ; Pnet = Pnet ./1.2; % Make chart figure (3) three = bar (t , Pnet , yellow ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Estancia : 325 m tube lenght and 60 m head ) ; ylabel ( Estimated net power output [ kW ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( three , Images / Estancia / Estancia_1_Pnet . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Estancia / Estancia_1_Pnet % PEOPLE ( Based on 12.5 W per person average ) people = Pnet ./0.0125; % Make chart figure (4) four = bar (t , people , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ;
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set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Estancia : 325 m tube lenght and 60 m head ) ; ylabel ( Individuals supplied with electricity ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( four , Images / Estancia / Es tancia_1 _people . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Estancia / Esta ncia_1_p eople
% OPTION 2 ---- largo : 250 m , salto : 55 m % largo = 250; salto = 45; P = 1.00*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Pnet = P .* eff ; Pnet = Pnet ./1.2; % Make chart figure (5) five = bar (t , Pnet , yellow ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Estancia : 250 m tube lenght and 45 m head ) ; ylabel ( Estimated net power output [ kW ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( five , Images / Estancia / Estancia_2_Pnet . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Estancia / Estancia_2_Pnet % PEOPLE ( Based on 12.5 W per person average ) people = Pnet ./0.0125; % Make chart figure (6) six = bar (t , people , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Estancia : 250 m tube lenght and 45 m head ) ; ylabel ( Individuals supplied with electricity ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( six , Images / Estancia / Es tancia_2 _people . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height .
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print - depsc Images / Estancia / Esta ncia_2_p eople
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17.6 San Jos

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% ---- LOCATION : JONGETJE / SAN JOS ---volume = areas (2) * sum ( runoff ) ; discharge = perc_month .* volume ; % in m ^3 % convert to kg / s discharge = discharge ./2592; % caudal % Make chart figure (1) one = bar (t , discharge , cyan ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( San Jos : average discharge per month ) ; ylabel ( Discharge [ kg / s ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( one , Images / Jose / Jose_discharge . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Jose / Jose_discharge % Design flow design_flow = 5* min ( discharge ) ; str = num2str ( design_flow ) ; disp ( The design flow of San Jos is : ) ; disp ( str ) ;
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C = [ discharge , rest ]; % Make chart figure (2) two = bar (C , stacked ) ; set ( two ,{ FaceColor } ,{ cyan ; white }) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Piscina : turbine design flow and available flow ) ; ylabel ( Flow rate [ kg / s ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; legend ( Available flow , Design flow rate ) ; % saveas ( two , Images / Jose / Jose_flow . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Jose / Jose_flow
% OPTION 1 ---- largo : 350 m , salto : 45 m % largo = 350; salto = 45; P = 1.00*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Pnet = P .* eff ; Pnet = Pnet ./1.2; % Make chart figure (3) three = bar (t , Pnet , yellow ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( San Jos : 350 m tube lenght and 45 m head ) ; ylabel ( Estimated net power output [ kW ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( three , Images / Jose / Jose_1_Pnet . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Jose / Jose_1_Pnet % PEOPLE ( Based on 12.5 W per person average ) people = Pnet ./0.0125; % Make chart figure (4) four = bar (t , people , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ;
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set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( San Jos : 350 m tube lenght and 45 m head ) ; ylabel ( Individuals supplied with electricity ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( four , Images / Jose / Jose_1_people . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Jose / Jose_1_people
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17.7 La Piscina
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% ---- LOCATION : LA PISCINA ---volume = ( areas (2) + areas (3) ) * sum ( runoff ) ; discharge = perc_month .* volume ; % in m ^3 % convert to kg / s discharge = discharge ./2592; % caudal % Make chart figure (1) one = bar (t , discharge , cyan ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Piscina : average discharge per month ) ; ylabel ( Discharge [ kg / s ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( one , Images / Piscina / P iscina_d ischarge . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Piscina / Pis cina_dis charge % Design flow design_flow = 5* min ( discharge ) ; str = num2str ( design_flow ) ; disp ( The design flow of La Piscina is : ) ; disp ( str ) ;
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144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193
C = [ discharge , rest ]; % Make chart figure (2) two = bar (C , stacked ) ; set ( two ,{ FaceColor } ,{ cyan ; white }) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Piscina : turbine design flow and available flow ) ; ylabel ( Flow rate [ kg / s ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; legend ( Available flow , Design flow rate ) ; % saveas ( two , Images / Piscina / Piscina_flow . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Piscina / Piscina_flow
% OPTION 1 ---- largo : 500 m , salto : 50 m % largo = 500; salto = 50; P = 1.00*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Pnet = P .* eff ; Pnet = Pnet ./1.2; % Make chart figure (3) three = bar (t , Pnet , yellow ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Piscina : 500 m tube lenght and 50 m head ) ; ylabel ( Estimated net power output [ kW ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( three , Images / Piscina / Piscina_1_Pnet . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Piscina / Piscina_1_Pnet % PEOPLE ( Based on 12.5 W per person average ) people = Pnet ./0.0125; % Make chart figure (4) four = bar (t , people , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ;
135
194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242
set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Piscina : 500 m tube lenght and 50 m head ) ; ylabel ( Individuals supplied with electricity ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( four , Images / Piscina / Piscina_1_people . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Piscina / Piscina_1_people
% OPTION 2 ---- largo : 300 m , salto : 35 m % largo = 300; salto = 35; P = 1.00*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Pnet = P .* eff ; Pnet = Pnet ./1.2; % Make chart figure (5) five = bar (t , Pnet , yellow ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Piscina : 300 m tube lenght and 35 m head ) ; ylabel ( Estimated net power output [ kW ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( five , Images / Piscina / Piscina_2_Pnet . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Piscina / Piscina_2_Pnet % PEOPLE ( Based on 12.5 W per person average ) people = Pnet ./0.0125; % Make chart figure (6) six = bar (t , people , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Piscina : 300 m tube lenght and 35 m head ) ; ylabel ( Individuals supplied with electricity ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( six , Images / Piscina / Piscina_2_people . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height .
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print - depsc Images / Piscina / Piscina_2_people
137
17.8 Posa el Caf

138
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
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94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143
% ---- LOCATION : GUEL / POSA EL CAF ---volume = areas (1) * sum ( runoff ) ; discharge = perc_month .* volume ; % in m ^3 % convert to kg / s discharge = discharge ./2592; % caudal % Make chart figure (1) one = bar (t , discharge , cyan ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Posa el caf : average discharge per month ) ; ylabel ( Discharge [ kg / s ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( one , Images / Posa / Posa_discharge . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Posa / Posa_discharge % Design flow design_flow = 5* min ( discharge ) ; str = num2str ( design_flow ) ; disp ( The design flow of Posa el Caf is : ) ; disp ( str ) ;
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144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193
C = [ discharge , rest ]; % Make chart figure (2) two = bar (C , stacked ) ; set ( two ,{ FaceColor } ,{ cyan ; white }) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( La Piscina : turbine design flow and available flow ) ; ylabel ( Flow rate [ kg / s ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; legend ( Available flow , Design flow rate ) ; % saveas ( two , Images / Posa / Posa_flow . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Posa / Posa_flow
% OPTION 1 ---- largo : 450 m , salto : 50 m % largo = 450; salto = 50; P = 1.00*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Pnet = P .* eff ; Pnet = Pnet ./1.2; % Make chart figure (3) three = bar (t , Pnet , yellow ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Posa el caf : 450 m tube lenght and 50 m head ) ; ylabel ( Estimated net power output [ kW ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( three , Images / Posa / Posa_1_Pnet . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Posa / Posa_1_Pnet % PEOPLE ( Based on 12.5 W per person average ) people = Pnet ./0.0125; % Make chart figure (4) four = bar (t , people , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ;
141
194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242
set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Posa el Caf : 450 m tube lenght and 50 m head ) ; ylabel ( Individuals supplied with electricity ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( four , Images / Posa / Posa_1_people . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Posa / Posa_1_people
% OPTION 2 ---- largo : 250 m , salto : 30 m % largo = 250; salto = 30; P = 1.00*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Pnet = P .* eff ; Pnet = Pnet ./1.2; % Make chart figure (5) five = bar (t , Pnet , yellow ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Posa el caf : 250 m tube lenght and 30 m head ) ; ylabel ( Estimated net power output [ kW ] ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( three , Images / Posa / Posa_2_Pnet . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Posa / Posa_2_Pnet % PEOPLE ( Based on 12.5 W per person average ) people = Pnet ./0.0125; % Make chart figure (6) six = bar (t , people , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ jan , feb , mar , apr , may , jun , jul , aug ,... sep , oct , nov , dec }) ; title ( Posa el Caf : 250 m tube lenght and 30 m head ) ; ylabel ( Individuals supplied with electricity ) ; xlabel ( Month [ -] ) ; % saveas ( three , Images / Posa / Posa_2_people . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height .
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print - depsc Images / Posa / Posa_2_people
143
17.9 Grading Clasicacin

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 % ---- CALCULATE MONTHLY EVAPORATION ---% Daily extra - terrestial energy radiance ( per month ) Ra = [4.83 , 5.46 , 6.23 , 6.19 , 5.48 , 5.14 , 4.93 , 5.07 , 4.97 , 4.79 , 4.60 ,... 4.70]; % [ kWh / m ^2/ day ] Ra = Ra .*(3.6) ; % [ MJ / m2 / day ] Ra = Ra ./2.45; % convert to [ mm / day ] , based on an assumption % Other data Tmax = 24; % Average maximum temperature in the area Tmin = 18; % Average minimum temperature in the area dT = Tmax - Tmin ; T = 21; % Average temperature in the area % Compute evaporation Evap = 0.0022.* Ra * dT ^0.5*( T +17.8) ; % Temperature formula based on article days = [31 ,28 ,31 ,30 ,31 ,30 ,31 ,31 ,30 ,31 ,30 ,31]; % Days of each month Evap = Evap .* days ; % by month % t = 1:12; % time vector , 1 is january , 12 is december
% ---- CALCULATE MONTHLY PRECIPITATION ---% Based on FORO Miraflor data , first entry is january , last december % Except 2010 , only data available from may to december pre_2010 = [309.1 , 234.5 , 296.1 , 378.9 , 495.2 , 174.0 , 44.3 , 13.0]; pre_2011 = [23.6 , 13.3 , 12.2 , 13.7 , 277.1 , 150.5 , 239.3 , 185.1 , 232.0 ,... 462.9 , 46.4 , 79.6]; pre_2012 = [73.3 , 62.3 , 16.9 , 87.8 , 383.5 , 292.2 , 94.0 , 202.3 , 72.2 ,... 138.6 , 55.8 , 9.6]; % time vectors % t_2010 = 5:12; t = 1:12; % plot ( t_2010 , pre_2010 ) ; % plot (t , pre_2011 ) ; % plot (t , pre_2012 ) ;
144
43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91
pre_2010_2 = [0 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,309.1 , 234.5 , 296.1 , 378.9 , 495.2 , 174.0 , 44.3 ,... 13.0]; pre_average = [... ( pre_2011 (1) + pre_2012 (1) ) /2 ,... ( pre_2011 (2) + pre_2012 (2) ) /2 ,... ( pre_2011 (3) + pre_2012 (3) ) /2 ,... ( pre_2011 (4) + pre_2012 (4) ) /2 ,... ( pre_2010 (1) + pre_2011 (5) + pre_2012 (5) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (2) + pre_2011 (6) + pre_2012 (6) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (3) + pre_2011 (7) + pre_2012 (7) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (4) + pre_2011 (8) + pre_2012 (8) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (5) + pre_2011 (9) + pre_2012 (9) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (6) + pre_2011 (10) + pre_2012 (10) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (7) + pre_2011 (11) + pre_2012 (11) ) /3 ,... ( pre_2010 (8) + pre_2011 (12) + pre_2012 (12) ) /3];
% ---- CALCULATION OF WATERSHED AREA ---% Area of different watershed areas [ pixels ] , see map total = 1936773; area1 = 409346; area2 = 99175; area3 = 346653; area4 = 604466; other = total - area1 - area2 - area3 - area4 ;
145
92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141
waterfall = 162708; laguna = 145134; % Create vector with all areas areas = [ total , area1 , area2 , area3 , area4 , other , waterfall , laguna ]; % Size of each pixels in meters based on map size pixelsize = (60*1852*0.12) /3000; % Convert vector to square meters areas = areas .* pixelsize ; % [ m ^2]
% ---- GUESSTIMATE OF FLOW DURATION CURVE ---perc_month = [0.06 ,0.04 ,0.03 ,0.02 ,0.06 ,0.08 ,0.12 ,0.20 ,0.15 ,0.09 ,0.08 ,0.07]; flow_curve = perc_month .*100;
% ---- LOCATION : WATERFALL / LA ESTANCIA ---volume = areas (7) * sum ( runoff ) ; discharge = perc_month .* volume ; % in m ^3 % convert to kg / s discharge = discharge ./2592; % caudal
% OPTION 1 ---- largo : 325 m , salto : 70 m largo = 325; salto = 70; Pnet = 0.85*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Estancia1 = sum ( Pnet ) /( sum ( discharge ) * largo ) *100; % score
% OPTION 2 ---- largo : 250 m , salto : 55 m largo = 250; salto = 55; Pnet = 0.85*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Estancia2 = sum ( Pnet ) /( sum ( discharge ) * largo ) *100; % score
% ---- LOCATION : GUEL / POSA EL CAFE ---volume = areas (1) * sum ( runoff ) ; discharge = perc_month .* volume ; % in m ^3 % convert to kg / s discharge = discharge ./2592; % caudal
146
142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193
% OPTION 1 ---- largo : 450 m , salto : 50 m largo = 450; salto = 50; Pnet = 0.85*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Posa1 = sum ( Pnet ) /( sum ( discharge ) * largo ) *100; % score
% OPTION 2 ---- largo : 250 m , salto : 30 m largo = 250; salto = 30; Pnet = 0.85*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Posa2 = sum ( Pnet ) /( sum ( discharge ) * largo ) *100; % score
% ---- LOCATION : JONGETJE / SAN JOS ---volume = areas (2) * sum ( runoff ) ; discharge = perc_month .* volume ; % in m ^3 % convert to kg / s discharge = discharge ./2592; % caudal
% OPTION 1 ---- largo : 350 m , salto : 45 m largo = 350; salto = 45; Pnet = 0.85*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Jose = sum ( Pnet ) /( sum ( discharge ) * largo ) *100; % score
% ---- LOCATION : LA PISCINA ---volume = ( areas (2) + areas (3) ) * sum ( runoff ) ; discharge = perc_month .* volume ; % in m ^3 % convert to kg / s discharge = discharge ./2592; % caudal
% OPTION 1 ---- largo : 500 m , salto : 50 m largo = 500; salto = 50; Pnet = 0.85*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Piscina1 = sum ( Pnet ) /( sum ( discharge ) * largo ) *100; % score
% OPTION 2 ---- largo : 300 m , salto : 35 m largo = 300; salto = 35; Pnet = 0.85*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Piscina2 = sum ( Pnet ) /( sum ( discharge ) * largo ) *100; % score
147
194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245
% ---- LOCATION : SALTO ANGELICA ---volume = areas (3) * sum ( runoff ) ; discharge = perc_month .* volume ; % in m ^3 % convert to kg / s discharge = discharge ./2592; % caudal
% OPTION 1 ---- largo : 700 m , salto : 110 m largo = 700; salto = 110; Pnet = 0.85*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Angelica1 = sum ( Pnet ) /( sum ( discharge ) * largo ) *100; % score
% ---- LOCATION : LA LAGUNA ---volume = areas (8) * sum ( runoff ) ; discharge = perc_month .* volume ; % in m ^3 % convert to kg / s discharge = discharge ./2592; % caudal
% OPTION 1 ---- largo : 300 m , salto : 50 m largo = 300; salto = 50; Pnet = 0.85*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW Laguna1 = sum ( Pnet ) /( sum ( discharge ) * largo ) *100; % score
% OPTION 2 ---- largo : 550 m , salto : 100 m largo = 550; salto = 100; Pnet = 0.85*10*0.001* salto .* discharge ; % kW
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246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279
Laguna2 = sum ( Pnet ) /( sum ( discharge ) * largo ) *100; % score
% ---- RANKING ---% Give every option a score by summing the annual power , and deviding by % the tube lenght times the sum of the discharge . Because high power for a % low tube lenght ( low cost ) and a low discharge ( small turbine ) is most % favorable . ranks = [ Angelica1 , Angelica2 , Angelica3 , Laguna1 , Laguna2 , Estancia1 , ... Estancia2 , Jose , Piscina1 , Piscina2 , Posa1 , Posa2 ]; ranksnames = [ Angelica 1 ; Angelica 2 ; Angelica 3 ; Laguna 1 ... ; Laguna 2 ; Estancia 1 ; Estancia 2 ; Jose ;... Piscina 1 ; Piscina 2 ; Posa 1 ; Posa 2 ]; ranks = ranks .*(1/ max ( ranks *0.01) ) ; A = [ ranksnames , num2str ( ranks ) ]; % Make chart figure (1) one = bar (t , ranks , magenta ) ; set ( gca , XTick ,1:12) ; set ( gca , XTickLabel ,{ Angelica , ...2 , ...3 , Laguna , ...2 ... , Estancia , ...2 , Jose , Piscina , ...2 , Posa , ...2 }) ; title ( Score of every location ) ; ylabel ( Score [ -] ) ; xlabel ( Location [ -] ) ; % saveas ( one , Images / Jose / Jose_1_people . eps ) ; set ( gcf , Paper Position Mode , manual ) set ( gcf , PaperPosition , [1 1 8 4]) ; % last 2 are width / height . print - depsc Images / Ranks
149
18 Bibliography
[1] Adam Harvey, Andy Brown, Priyantha Hettiarachi, and Allen Inversin. Micro-Hydro Design Manual: A Guide to Small-Scale Water Power Schemes. Intermediate Technology Publications, 1993. [2] R. Hagan, H. Haise, and T. Edrninster. Irrigation of Agricultural Lands. Number 11. American Society of Agronomy Inc., 1967. [3] G. H. Hargraves and Z. Z. Samani. Reference crop evapotranspiration from temperature. Appl. Eng. Agric., 1(2):9699, 1985. [4] "Managua, Nicaragua Solar energy and surface meteorology". http://www.gaisma.com/en/location/managua.html, Retreived january 19, 2013. [5] "Runo". http://geography.about.com/od/geographyglossaryr/g/ggruno.htm, Retreived january 19, 2013. [6] "Shuttle Radar Topography Mission". http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/, Retreived january 20, 2013. [7] Y. Y. Obadaki. Examination of the relationships amongst rainfall, discharge and suspended sediment discharge of a tributary of the kubanni river, zaria, kaduna state, nigeria. [8] "Mapnik: a free Toolkit for developing mapping applications". www.mapnik.org, Retreived january 24, 2013. [9] "GDAL - Geospatial Data Abstraction Library". http://www.gdal.org, Retreived january 24, 2013.
150

Small-Scale Hydropower in The Miraflor National Reserve

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Small-scale hydropower in the Miraor National Reserve Micro centrales hidroelctricas en la Reserva Nacional de Miraor

Feasibility report Informe de viabilidad

Delft University of Technology

11.1 Population growth of Miraor. 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4

Results of the velocity-area method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

2 Key illustrations Grcos principales

2 Key illustrations Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Grcos principales Score 100 98 83 81 81 76 71 58 55 53 51 45

Table 2.1: Ranking list of the most economically viable layouts.

2.2 Overview Vista general

Figure 2.1: Overview of all points of interest.

2.3 Salto Angelica

Figure 2.2: The three recommended layouts for Salto Angelica.

Figure 2.4: The three recommended layouts for La Laguna.

La Laguna: 550 m tube lenght and 100 m head 25

Estimated net power output [kW]

jul aug Month []

Figure 2.6: The three recommended layouts for La Estancia.

La Estancia: 325 m tube lenght and 60 m head 15

Estimated net power output [kW]

jul aug Month []

2.6 San Jos

Figure 2.8: The three recommended layouts for San Jos.

San Jos: 350 m tube lenght and 45 m head 30

25 Estimated net power output [kW]

jul aug Month []

Figure 2.10: The three recommended layouts for La Piscina.

jul aug Month []

2.8 Posa el Caf

Figure 2.12: The three recommended layouts for Posa el Caf.

Posa el caf: 450 m tube lenght and 50 m head 150

Estimated net power output [kW]

jul aug Month []

3 Key data Datos principales

3.1 Salto Angelica

Layout 1 Layout 2 Layout 3

Mean 11.53 8.39 4.19

Table 3.1: Overview of the possible layouts for Salto Angelica.

Table 3.2: Overview of the possible layouts for La Laguna.

Mean 10.32 7.74

Table 3.3: Overview of the possible layouts for La Estancia.

3.4 San Jos

Table 3.4: Overview of the possible layout for San Jos.

Mean 26.88 18.81

Table 3.5: Overview of the possible layouts for La Piscina.

3.6 Posa el Caf

Table 3.6: Overview of the possible layouts Posa el Caf.

4 Energy demand Demanda energtica

Estimated hourly energy demand of one house 120

Energy demand [W]

9 10 11 121 PM 2 Time [hours]

Figure 4.1: Energy demand curve for a single house.

9 10 11 121 PM 2 Time [hours]

5 Matching of supply and demand Adecuacin de la oferta y la demanda

5.2 Plant factors Factores de la planta

5 Matching of supply and demand

Adecuacin de la oferta y la demanda

5 Matching of supply and demand

Adecuacin de la oferta y la demanda

9 10 11 121 PM 2 Time [hours]

0.8 Plant factor []

250 Installed capacity [kW]

5 Matching of supply and demand