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1.1 CELL THEORY
**Describe the cells as the smallest independent unit of life and form the basis of living organisms.
1.2 PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
CELL THEORY.
THEORY;
All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. Cells- basic units of structure and function in an organism. cells have the same chemical composition. Cells come only from reproduction of existing cells- mitosis Genetic materials- pass to daughter cells during cell division. P/S virus/chloroplast/mitochondria have their own DNA
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Prokaryotes
Pro = before; karyon = nucleus Single celled organism relatively small 0.5 to 10 um lack membrane-bound organelles earliest cell type No nucleus/ no nuclear envelope E.g.; bacteria/yanobacteria(blue green algae) Surrounded by cell wall
Eukaryotes
Eu = true; karyon = nucleus 10-100 micrometer contain membrane-bound organelles Evolved from prokaryotes by endosymbiotic association of two or more prokaryotes Include Protists, Fungi, Animals, and Plants ( cell wall made of cellulose) E.g.; Protist/fungi/animal and plant
Ribosome.
The smaller (70 S) type.
Nucleoid
region where naked DNA is found
Plasmid.
Small circles of DNA, used to exchange DNA between bacterial cells, and very useful for genetic engineering.
Cell membrane.
made of phospholipids and proteins, like eukaryotic membranes- separates the cell from the environment
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Cell Wall.
Made of murein (not cellulose), which is a glycoprotein (i.e. a protein/carbohydrate complex, also called peptidoglycan). There are two kinds of cell wall, which can be distinguished by a Gram stain: Gram positive bacteria have a thick cell wall and stain purple, while Gram negative bacteria have a thin cell wall with an outer lipid layer and stain pink.
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Flagellum.
A rigid rotating helical-shaped tail used for propulsion(movement) The motor is embedded in the cell membrane and is driven by a H+ gradient across the membrane. Clockwise rotation drives the cell forwards, while anticlockwise rotation causes a chaotic spin. This is the only known example of a rotating motor in nature.
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Small ( 70 s) Present- made up from peptidolican Present- movement Simple fission No sexual systems
PLANT CELL
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The FOUR Plant Organs are ROOTS, STEMS, LEAVES AND FLOWERS.
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Collenchyma
- thicker primary walls. - Polygonal shape - f(x) : mechanical support
Form bundles underneath epidermis.
Flexible support to immature regions of the plant. 34
Sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma cells have thick secondary walls impregnated with lignin. Most are non living. More rigid than collenchyma cells Most cells death at functional maturity Can be divided into 2 types: a) fibres- elongated b) scelereids( stone cells ) - spherical - can be found in the cortex, pith and phloem * Function supporting element of the plant
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Xylem Xylem transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves.
Tracheids
elongated, with tapered ends and have lignified walls Matured cells death with empty lumen
Pits in end walls. Vascular rays Fibers
Vessel Elements
Larger, with perforated plates in their end walls. Long ,narrow tube formed
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Xylem
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Phloem
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COLLENCHYMA CELLS Characteristic : > Living , unevenly thickened (extra cellulose at corners of he cells) > Polygonal and elongated with tapering ends > Composition: cellulose , pectins and hemicelluloses > small intercellular air spaces@ non exist Function: > support And mechanical strength Distribution : Outer region of cortex: below epidermis
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SCLERENCHYMA CELLS Characteristic : > Polygonal and elongated with tapering ends, tightly packed with no intercellular air spaces > Deposits of lignin on 1st cell wall resulting in death matured cells ; incapable of elongation at maturity Function : > support and mechanical strength :provided great tensile and compressional strength as a result of deposits of lignin at cellulose cell wall
2 types of sclerenchyma cells : fibre and sclereids Sclerenchyma fibre : elongated, polygonal with tapering ends, death at maturity, no protoplasm ,narrow empty lumen, pit present, tapering ends overlapping and interlocked with one another thus provided mechanical strength Scelereids(stone cells): shorter than fibres , dead cells with thicker lignified cell wall, simple pit present , found in stems,leaves, fruits and provide strength and support plant structures and organs
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Cells are flattened. Disc- shape nucleus The sheet of cell is delicate, thin and leaky.
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Distribution: linings of small intestine( stomach) oviduct/ ventricles of brain nasal cavity.
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Types of Neurons: 1) Motor Neurons take nerve impulses from the CNS to muscles or glands. 2) Sensory Neurons take impulses from sensory receptors to CNS. 3) Interneuron convey nerve impulses between various parts of the CNS.
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Neurons
The pathway of communication between the brain and the body. Electrical impulses pass along the neurons from stimuli receivers to the effectors . Neurons differ considerably in structure but all neurons have three things in common;
Cell body Fine cytoplasmic fibre dendron or dendrite Axon.
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Neurons
The cytoplasm of neurons cell body is densely packed with mitochondria, ribosomes, golgi body and rough endoplasmic reticulum. Neurons can be classified by their function. On the basic, there are three types of neuron;
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Types of Neurons
Sensory neuron
Motor neuron
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Neuroglia
Supporting cells in the central nervous system. There are several types of glial cell in the brain and spinal cord. As a group, they do far more than simply glue neurons together.
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Skeletal muscle
Attached to the bones by tendons. Responsible for voluntary movement. Also called striated muscle.
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Smooth muscle
Found in the walls of internal organs digestive tract, urinary bladder etc. Spindel shaped. Responsible in involuntary activities. Contract more slowly than skeletal muscle.
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Cardiac muscle
Form the contraction wall of the heart. Striated like skeletal muscle but have branched. The ends of the cells are joined by intercalated disc.
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Connective tissues
The major types of connective tissues in vertebrates are: a) Bone b) Cartilage c) Blood
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Bone Tissue
The skeleton supporting the body of most vertebrates. Bone is a mineralized connective tissues. Bone-forming cells called osteoblasts; deposit a matrix of collagen.
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Bone Tissue
The combination of hard mineral and flexible collagen makes bone harder than cartilage. Hard mamalian bone consists repeating units called Harvesian systems. Each system has concentrate layers of the mineralized matrix, deposited around a central canal containing blood vessels and nerves that service the bone. Once osteoblast become trapped in their own secretion , called osteocytes. The osteocytes are located in lacunae, space surrounded by the hard matrix and connected to each other by long thin extensions.
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Cartilage Tissue
Has an abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in a rubbery matrix called chondroitin sulphate. Chondroitin sulphate and collagen are secreted by chondrocytes
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Cartilage Tissue
Cells confined to scattered spaces called lacunae in the matrix. The composite of collagenous fibers and chondroitin sulphate make cartilage a strong yet somewhat flexible support material. Main locations ; nose, ears, the rings that reinforce the windpipe,caps on the ends of some bones.
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Blood
Although blood functions differently from other connective tissues, it does meet the criterion of having an extracellular matrix called plasma.
The plasma consists of water, salts and a variety of dissolved proteins
Suspended in plasma are two classes of blood cells, erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells) and cell fragments called platelets.
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Erythrocytes
o the most numerous blood cells (5 to 6 million per cubic millimeter) o the structure of the red blood cell is another excellent of structure fitting function. o a human erythrocytes is a biconcave disk, thinner in the center than at its edges. o mammalian erythrocytes lack nuclei an unusual characteristic for living cells
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Erythrocytes
the major function of erythrocytes is to carry oxygen. the small size of erythrocytes also suits their function the smaller the cells, the greeter the total area of plasma membrane in a given volume of blood. the biconcave shape also adds to its surface area. erythrocytes production occurs in the red marrow of bone 74
Leukocytes
5 major types:
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Leukocytes
their collective function is to fight infections in various ways monocytes and neutrophils are phagocytes which engulf and digest bacteria and debris from our own dead cells. lymphocytes become specialized as B cells and T cells which produce the immune response against foreign substances
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Platelets
the third cellular element of blood, platelets are fragments of cells about 2 3 m in diameter. they have no nuclei. originate as pinched off cytoplasmic fragments of large cells in the bone marrow. the function of platelets is in the important process of blood clotting.
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