Power Engineer's Valve Manual

Plug Valves
By Paul A. Manor Chief Engineer Central Valve Research Rockwell Mfg Co

Because of its compactness and simplicity, the lubricated plug valve is gaining fast acceptance by power plant engineers. It is easy to operate, offers positive closure, and lends itself to automatic control - a popular trend in power plant operation. Already well established in petroleum, chemical process and related fields, the lubricated plug valve now is proving its worth in power plants, within a wide range of temperatures and pressures. It can safely and efficiently handle gas and liquid fuel, boiler feedwater, condensate, and similar elements. Several basic features make the lubricated plug valve ideal for power plant application. Unlike many common types of valves, it has no high projecting yokes or bonnets, no exposed threads, no underhanging body to waste vital space. In complex piping systems, valves may be easily operated by centralized control. And there's no danger of leaks, even in gas piping systems, because of the valve's unique method of sealing.

Valve Design The lubricated plug valve is of the "block" or complete shut-off type. It may be used for throttling where accurate adjustment is not necessary. But the primary service is positive openclose operation. Three basic parts comprise the lubricated plug valve: body, cover and plug. The plug is the only movable member. The valve is opened by rotation only, the plug turning on a lubricated seat. While the plug is available in cylindrical and tapered form, the latter is generally preferred, because the tapered rotary principle results in quick and simple valve operation. The conical shape of the plug combines the tight fit advantage of wedge action with the sliding action of rotary movement. Rotation eliminates the need for raising and lowering a movable valve member, and protects seating surfaces from exposure to corrosive elements. A lubricated gland-joint shoulder is used, rather than conventional stuffing boxes which operate by gripping around a stem or rod. The shoulder joint is compact, produces a minimum of friction, and combines the functions of stem seal and thrust bearing. Application of the shoulder

seal principle involves either the two-bolt cover (which combines cover and gland in one piece), screwed gland, or bolted gland. Thrust against the upper shoulder of the tapered plug is transmitted through a resilient cushion packing and a sealing diaphragm gasket. The sealing member is a thin flexible metal diaphragm. The diaphragm assembly is clamped firmly together and does not rotate. As the valve is turned between open and closed positions, the ground surface at the top of the plug slides freely against the metal diaphragm. Leakage is prevented by the lubricated close fit between the two parts and the narrow area of contact through which the plug-sealing thrust is applied.

Pressure Lubrication Pressure lubrication performs three important functions in this valve: 1 provides "jacking" action; 2, seals the valve; 3, minimizes friction. Lubricant pressure exerts powerful jacking action against the smaller end of the valve plug, momentarily unseating it. This action overcomes any adhesion and, because of the taper, creates a small space for the confined lubricant film between the plug and body. As a result, no matter how long the valve remains closed, the plug may be unseated without using a hammer or wrench. Further, the jacking not only puts a valve into the operation after long disuse, but provides lubrication at the same time. The usual means of obtaining lubricant pressure is an elongated screw, plug shank. Because of its small diameter and the use of a fine-pitched thread, the lubricant screw develops ample pressure on the lubricant, yet turns freely. These screws are often provided drilled and fitted with a little giant "button-head" fitting for grease-gun lubrication. Lubricant is distributed between the plug and valve body by means of lubricant grooves, divided between the body and plug. The grooves are so located that when the valve is in the closed position, valve ports are completely sealed by a lubricant film between the ground seating surfaces. Placement of grooves is such that groove sections exposed during operation are disconnected from the lubricant supply before they are brought in contact with the line-fluid. The grooves are automatically reconnected when the plug is brought to the fully open or closed position. Thus the valve can be partly opened without blowing out the lubricant. One of the outstanding features of the plug valve is its quick opening-and-closing operation. A quarter turn fully opens or closes the valve. With the help of a stop collar on the valve, the operator does not have to rely on the feel of a wheel's resistance to tell if the valve is closed. Valves are wrench, or gear, operated. Most all plug valves have a flat or a square wrench head on the plug stem and a stop-andindicating collar which also serves as a weather shield for the stem clearance space.

Because of the tapered plug and lubricant sealed design of these valves, they are not restricted to one-way flow, i.e., the valve can be installed in either direction because it holds pressure in either direction. Flow can be reversed any time without the danger of leakage or jamming. This feature means a constantly renewable valve seat. Instead of expensive repairs on seat and closing members, simple lubrication renews the sealing surfaces without necessity of dismantling the valve or even removing it from the line. A common hazard to the life of valve seats is the abrasion caused by dust, dirt, and debris in the line. This hazard is entirely eliminated in the lubricated plug valve if proper gland adjustment is maintained. Critical seat areas are fully lubricant sealed, and the lubricant is under pressure so that abrasive material cannot intrude. Any dirt or material that may reach the plug is scraped off when plug is turned back to open position. Regardless of line pressure, the plug valve can be relubricated as effectively as with no pressure. Lubricant pressure builds hydraulic pressure within the valve to the required degree. In this way the plug can always be effectively lubricated and the jacking chamber under the plug adequately pressurized to permit easy turning. As a result, even if a lubricated plug valve is unopened for extended periods, it can be easily opened without the difficulties of galling or freezing. Lubricated plug valves are available in a variety of patterns, metals, and sizes, depending on their application. To handle the wide range of temperatures, pressures, and services, valves are made from a number of metals and alloys including bronze, carbon steel, alloy steel, semi-steel, and stainless steel - hard faced or chrome plated. They are obtainable in sizes to 30 in., and to 15,000 psi. Valves can be equipped with every type of standard or special flanges, including Dresser ends. For jacketed service, valves are available with complete flange-to-flange jacketing in standard sizes. Plug valves are also made in patterns interchangeable with standard gate valves. Another unique characteristic of plug valves is the ease with which they can be adapted for multi-port construction. In the three-way form a single L-shaped passage connects any of two ports; with a T-shaped opening any of three ports are connected; and the four-way type has two cut-outs on opposite sides which connect any two adjacent parts of four ports with a quarter turn. An important adaptation in a number of plants is use of the valve in mechanical blinding. Two straight-way lubricated plug valves may be butted together in series and operated in unison through a common linkage. A bleeder valve located between them is operated through the same linkage in such a way that when the two block valves are closed the bleeder is automatically opened. This arrangement avoids drainage losses and prevents pressure build-up and the resulting hazards. At gas-fired power plants, a special plug valve is available for positive prevention of fuel explosions. Approved by Factory Mutual Laboratories, the method assures closure of all individual burner cocks before the main burner gas safety shutoff valve can be opened. The valve is similar to a conventional lubricating unit, except that it incorporates two side outlets connected

in series with copper tubing to adjacent valves so that when the gas passages of all valves are closed a new continuous passageway is provided through all closed valves in the system.

Valve Accessories A wide variety of devices is available for special operation of the lubricated plug valve. Locking accessories, for instance, are obtainable for sealing a valve in either open or closed position, preventing removal of the valve or tampering with its parts. For hard-to-get-at places, chain wheels, double end chain wrenches, and a variety of extensions are available. Simple quarter-turn operation makes the lubricated plug valve ideal for an automated power plant. Remote power operation extends the sphere of valve control because line flow can be manipulated from a centralized panel board. It can save many man-hours in normal operations, and preserve a large investment in case of emergency. Valves may be operated pneumatically, hydraulically or electrically, in connection with automatic time clock, level, temperature, flow, or differential control systems. In all such systems, valve controls may be interconnected to give "chain reaction" control for sequence operations of all types. Power is applied by various types of operators, which can be either semiautomatic or fully automatic. And sometimes the valve may be powered by fluid energy drawn directly from the line. Because of the wide range of conditions for which plug valves are designed, a number of lubricants are available. And the use of the proper lubricant is important because the valve structure and plastic sealing film are an integral unit, each component dependent on the other for best performance. Obtainable in sticks, tubes, and bulk form, lubricant can be added to the valve by hand, hand gun, or bucket pump. It takes a minimum of time, yet a simple program of periodic lubrication will keep valves in service for the life of the piping. To simplify lubricant selection, valve manufacturers continue to reduce the number of choices by developing basic, multi-purpose lubricants. An idea of their progress may be gained by considering the properties of the recently developed 555, which replaced four other lubricants in the Rockwell-Nordstrom line. The new lubricant has an efficient temperature range of 40F below zero t 500 above and is recommended for use with a variety of piping elements.

Maintenance Tips To help operators get maximum life from lubricated plug valves, the following tips are offered: Plug adjustments should be snug tight enough to keep the plug from becoming unseated, but not to a degree requiring excessive force to operate the valve.

Lubrication should be periodic, systematic, and with the proper grade of lubricant. If the vale system is filled, fresh supply of lubricant can easily be forced between the seating surfaces by giving the lubricant screw a few turns. Depletion of lubricant in the system will require the addition of several sticks before lubricant can be forced into the seat. In this instance, lubricant should be added until resistance is felt in turning the screw. Turn the plug slightly when lubricating to assist in the distribution of lubricant and to determine if the adjustment is correct. If the valve is lubricated with the adjustment too loose, it can be corrected by alternately tightening the adjustment and turning the plug. This will work out excess lubricant and permit the plug to return to its proper position in the seat. At the time of adding new lubricant, care should be taken to prevent any solid foreign material from entering into the lubricant space of the valve.

Lubricated plug valves are usually worth reclaiming if their condition is such as to require only cleaning, inspection and reassembly with new packing and gaskets. Sometimes, a light relapping operation may be required to eliminate scaly deposits and superficial scoring or pitting. Judgment must be exercised in cases where the valve body needs reboring and fitting with an oversize plug, or building up of surfaces by welding. This type of work is not economically justified for low-and medium-pressure valves. As a general rule, complete rebuilding of 4-in., and smaller 175 lb WOG; or 2-in., and smaller 200, 400, 500, and 800 lb WOG semi-steel valves should not be undertaken. A decision should be based on the actual cost in equipment, labor and overhead. Valves with a heavy accumulation of dirt, paint and other foreign matter should be cleaned before disassembly. After complete disassembly of the valve, parts should be cleaned by using any suitable alkaline or solvent solution. Corroded areas may require wire brushing or abrasive blasting. Repair procedures are determined by the extent and depth of blemishes in seating surfaces of both plug and body. Tapered seats of both body and plug should be carefully examined for corrosion, pitting, scoring, galling or erosion. For plugs with integral shanks, the machined shank diameter and the adjacent shoulder on the plug should be similarly examined.

Future Developments Manufacturers continue to work toward increasing the scope of the lubricated plug valve. Not only are new alloys under test, but improved coatings may soon be available to help extend the life of the plug valve.

Probably the greatest challenge to today's manufacturer is the field of nuclear power plants. Radiation introduces unique factors in the design of piping systems, especially in the primary loops. Here, new types of corrosion resistant cladding will have to be developed before the plug valve can be applied. But outside the primary loops, piping in a nuclear power plant probably will not differ much from that in conventional plants. And the plug valve's inherent characteristics of safety, simplicity, and positive closure should make it an ideal component.

Check Valves
By Theodore H. Pyle Sales Engineer The Lunkenheimer Co

In the functional grouping of the entire valve family, the check valve will be found in the group defined as valves designed to control the direction of flow. Check valves differ considerably in their construction and operation from the other groups of valves, designed either to stop the flow entirely (gate, plug, and quick-opening valves), or throttle the flow to a desired degree (globe, angle, needle, Y, diaphragm, and butterfly valves).Check valves are entirely automatic in their operation, and are activated internally by the flow of fluid or gases which they regulate. Check valves permit the flow of fluids or gases in only one direction; if the flow stops or tries to reverse its direction, the check valve closes immediately and prevents a back-flow. As soon as the pressure in the line is re-established, the check valve opens and the flow is resumed in the same direction as before.

Basic Designs of Check Valves There are three basic designs of the check valve: the swing check valve, the horizontal and vertical lift check valve, and the ball check valve. Swing check valves are the most popular of all check valves since they offer very little resistance to the flow when in wide open position. They are generally used on all piping where the pressure drop is of prime importance. Swing check valves are used for handling liquids, and can be installed in vertical or horizontal position without impairing their performance. However, these check valves are not recommended for such applications where the reversal of flow is frequent, since this causes the valve disk to fluctuate rapidly and result in "valve chatter." Horizontal lift check valves are quite frequently assembled on the same valve bodies as those used for the regular globe valves. They are generally used for such applications where the reversal of flow and pressure fluctuations are very frequent, since they have less tendency to

develop "disk slam" and valve chatter. Horizontal lift check valves are used for handling steam, air, and gases on horizontal piping lines, and they are not recommended for installation on vertical piping systems. Vertical lift check valves are similar in construction to horizontal lift check valves, and are especially designed for installation on vertical piping systems. Another modification of the vertical lift check valve is the angle vertical check valve, which is used on right angle turns in the piping systems. Ball check valves are designed to handle viscous fluids, and for services where scale and sediment are present. These valves, usually made in vertical, horizontal and angle designs, are particularly recommended for rapidly fluctuating lines because of their quiet operation. During the ball check valve operation, the ball rotates constantly, equalizing the wear on the ball and seat; thus prolonging the life of the valve. Some of the swing check valves have external lever and counterweight balance arrangement, to make the valve disk more sensitive to the flow and open under a minimum of fluid pressure. Further design variations of the check valve include the stop check valves and non-return valves. Stop check valves sometimes called "screw-down" check valves, are actually modifications of the globe or angle valves. This modification consists of making a slip stem connection to the valve disk instead of using the disk locknut. In this design, the disk can be closed by hand, but can be opened only by the check valve action; i.e., by the fluid pressure under the disc. Probably the most common application of the stop check valve is in safety non-return valves. The ASME Boiler Code specifies these valves for the boiler nozzle of every boiler, when two or more boilers are connected to the same header. These valves are also called boiler stop check valves, or boiler "screw-down" checks. Size, Temperature, and Pressure Bronze check valves are usually manufactured in sizes from 1/8 to 3 in., with steam working pressure ranges from 125 to 200 psi - for water, oil and gas. The joints are usually screwed or soldered. Some of these valves also have flanged joints. The temperature limit is 550F, by ASTM Standard. Cast iron check valves are available in small sizes from 1/4 to 2 in., and in large sizes from 2 to 12 in. Steam working pressure of these valves ranges from 125 to 250 psi. Small cast iron check valves usually have screwed connections, and large valves flanged connections. However, some of the large cast iron check valves also are available with screwed connections. The temperature limit for these valves is 450F, by ASTM Standard. Cast steel check valves are available in small sizes, from 1/4 to 2 in., and in large sizes, from 2 to 8 in. Steam working pressure range is from 150 to 2500 psi, with the temperature limit from 500F to 1100F, by ASTM Standard, depending on the alloy used.

In addition to these basic materials listed above, check valves are also made of stainless steel, Monel metal, nickel, PVC and other corrosion-resistant materials to withstand the corrosive action of the fluids being handled. However, there are no major deviations in the basic design.

Seat and Disk Angle Design Since the pressure producing the flow in the pipe line must be sufficient to lift the check valve disk from its seat, designers have used various seat angles to aid this lifting action. The most commonly used seat and disk angles are 0, 6, 12 1/2, and 45 deg. In the 125 psi class, the disks of swing check valves usually will be found at an angle of 6 deg. to the vertical. In the 200 psi and up class, the disks are usually placed at 45 deg. angle, since sufficient pressure is available to lift the disk and open the flow in the line. Horizontal disks, placed at 90 deg. angle to the vertical, are found in lift check valves.

Application of Check Valves General surveys have shown that check valves rank third place in actual applications in plants, factories, and industrial use. Gate valves usually rank first, with globe valves second, and check valves following immediately behind globe valves. Since check valves are completely automatic, they require very little attention and are real work-horses of the valve family. In view of the fact that comparatively few check valves are used on one line, it is a good rule to install better quality or higher pressure-rated check valves than the more numerous gate and globe valves on the same line. This policy will result in better service, with less attention and repairs in the future.

Inspection Practice While on the line, check valves can be visually inspected for external leaks. If leaks are present around the pipe connections, cap or plugs, the check valve must be removed from the line and repaired. When there is no pressure in the line, some of the check valves can be inspected and repaired without removing them from the line. On some lift-check valves the entire valve mechanism is accessible by removing the valve cap. If the disk, seat, and body are covered with sludge, dirt, foreign matter, or if the operation of the disk is sluggish or binding, the check valve should be removed from the line, thoroughly cleaned and repaired. The seat and disk contacting surfaces can be inspected easily by lifting the disk and checking for pitting, scoring, wire drawing, and erosion. Valves with damaged or pitted seats and disks will not seat properly and must be removed from the line for regrinding or replacement of the seats and disks. On spring-loaded check valves the spring should be checked for twisting, cracking and metal fatigue. Weak or damaged springs

must be replaced. All threaded surfaces must be inspected for damaged, galled, or stripped threads.

Check Valve Repair Methods Most check vales have replaceable seats, disks, plugs and caps. Special tools are available from valve manufacturers for valve seat removal. The use of improper tools, when removing the valve seat, may distort the valve body and ruin the valve completely. Before any repair work is done, each valve must be thoroughly washed in cleaning solvent and blown dry with clean compressed air. All gaskets found on the valve flanges or caps should be discarded. The use of old gaskets may result in serious leaks after the valve is put back on the line. Valve disks are removed by unscrewing the plugs on both sides of the valve and lifting out the disk from the valve body. Metallic disks should be inspected for pitting, etching, scoring, wiredrawing and cracking, and all defective disks should be replaced. Non-metallic disks should be checked for wear, distortion, swelling, and fraying. The valve seat should be inspected in the same manner as the valve disk. If the pitting and scoring is slight, the valve seat can be repaired by regrinding. However, if the damage is extensive or if the seat is cracked, cocked or extensively worn, it must be replaced. It is exceedingly important to use manufacturer's recommended tool for the valve seat removal. The tool must fit snugly in the provided lugs on the valve seat body and must be held straight during the removal procedure. After the valve seat is unscrewed from the valve body, the mounting threads in the valve body should be thoroughly cleaned with a stiff brush and cleaning solvent until all foreign matter is removed, then blown dry with air. Valve plugs should be cleaned with a stiff wire brush and cleaning solvent, and inspected for damaged, corroded, stripped, or galled threads. All defective plugs must be replaced. If the regrinding of the seat and disk is necessary, the valve should be mounted in a suitable vise, making sure that it is as level as possible. A moderate amount of grinding compound should be used. Some check valves can be ground without removing them from the line, but a much better job can be done if the valve is overhauled in the shop. When grinding the seat, the disk should be pressed with a slight pressure against the valve seat, using a screwdriver or other suitable tool. The disk should be rotated back and forth at about a one-quarter turn and then raised and rotated to a new position. Continuous rotation of the valve disk all the way around should be avoided, since this may cut grooves in the valve seat. Generally, it will take from 3 to 5 min. to grind the valve seat. To check for proper valve seating, all traces of grinding compound should be removed from the valve seat and disk, and both seating surfaces thoroughly cleaned. Using a chalk or pencil, lines should be drawn across the valve seat face, spacing them about 1/8 in. apart. Then the disk should be pressed against the valve seat and rotated a few times. If the lines are rubbed off, the

grinding job is completed and the valve will seat properly. If some of the lines are not rubbed off, the grinding should be repeated. After grinding the check valve, the entire valve should be thoroughly cleaned, making sure that all traces of the compound are removed. When reassembling the valve, new gaskets should be used. The valve cap bolts and nuts should be pulled up evenly, on diametrically-opposite positions, to prevent warpage of the valve cap. All valve plugs must be tight and the valve disk should swing freely on its pivot. After the valve is reassembled, all openings should be covered with a clean cloth or suitable plugs to prevent entrance of dirt and foreign matter. The check valve, the real work-horse of the valve family, is known for its dependability and performance. If properly installed, it will require practically no maintenance and will outlast all other valves in the piping system. While simple, it is vital to power piping.

Blow-off Valves
By Edward E. Finsel Section Leader, Valve Engineering Yarnall-Waring Co

Boiler blow-off valves are generally used as prescribed by the ASME Power Boiler Code, Section I. The code indicates the basic requirements as well as specific limitations; and generally blow-off valves are designed, selected and applied in accordance with these requirements. The code states: Each boiler shall have a bottom blow-off pipe fitted with a valve or cock in direct connection with the lowest water space practicable.

1. The minimum size of pipe and fittings shall be 1 in. and the maximum size shall be 2 1/2 in. except that for boilers with 100 sq. ft. of heating surface or less, the minimum size of pipe and fittings may be 3/4 in 2. Straight-run globe valves of the ordinary type, or valves of such type that dams or pockets can exist for the collection of sediment, shall not be used on such connections.

3. Straightway Y-type globe valves, or angle valves, may be used in vertical pipes, or they may be used in horizontal runs of piping, provided they are so constructed or installed that the lowest edge of the opening through the seat shall be at least 25 per cent of the inside diameter below the centerline of the valve. 4. Return connections of the same size or larger than herein specified may be used, and the blow-off may be connected to them. In such case the blow-off must be so located that the connection may be completely drained. All water walls and water screens which do not drain back into the boiler and all integral economizing shall be equipped with drains or blow-off valves conforming to this paragraph (P-308), and paragraphs P-309 and P-311.

From the above it can readily be seem that blow-off valves are somewhat different in design and application than ordinary globe or gate valves. Blow-off valves are usually designed and applied in accordance with these requirements and the requirements of paragraphs 299, 309, 310 and 311, of the code.

Purpose of Blow-off Valves Since blow-off valves are installed at low points of the boiler water system, it is obvious that one of their principal uses is to help remove suspended solids or impurities, particularly those that tend toward sedimentation. Secondarily then, it is also obvious that is blowing down, a portion of the boiler water is discharged thereby reducing the water level in the boiler. This function therefore aids as a safety measure, in avoiding carryover of water from the main steam drum in the event of high boiler water-level for whatever reason. A third use of these valves, but far less frequent, is the introduction of boiler cleaning acid to the boiler, and again draining of this acid after the boiler is acid-washed. Many boiler operators choose to pump this fluid through the blow-off valves, since they usually are a handy means of ready access to the boiler.

Pressure Ratings Set By Code The power boiler code also fixes the pressure ratings for blow-off valves. To properly apply blow-off valves one should be familiar with the code requirement for this service. Paragraph P-310 of the code covers valve pressure ratings. Carbon steel fittings and valves designed to American Standards Association (ASA) requirements for 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500 or 2500 psi are limited by the code under this paragraph, in that they may be used for blowoff line service, provided their adjusted pressure-temperature ratings exceed the maximum allowable working pressure of the boiler by 25 per cent, or 225 psi, whichever is less.

To avoid the need for calculations, the Boiler Code Committee has set up a table listing adjusted pressure ratings for saturated steam-temperature conditions, and the allowable values in blow-off service. For convenience, this is shown in Table I.

Table I: Maximum allowable boiler pressures for use with American standard steel pipe and flanges, fittings and valves.

Maximum Allowable Pressure

Primary Pressure Type of Flange Steam Service Blow-off Service

Class A 150 Class B Class A 300 Class B Class A 400 Class B Class A 600 Class B Class A 900 Class B Class A 1500 Class B Class A 2500 Class B

190 180 630 510 820 665 1160 960 1640 1360 2500 2100 3206 3150

160 150 515 415 665 540 970 785 1450 1170 2325 1910 3206 2975

An accurate graphical method for determining the reduced value for blow-off service is shown in Fig. 4. In it the pressure-temperature curve for saturated steam is plotted along with the pressuretemperature curve for a Class "A" steel, 1500 lb. fitting as used in steam service. Another curve is plotted, 225 psi below the valve curve; where this lower curve intersects the steam curve, the blow-off rating is fixed. As graph shows, ASA 1500 psi carbon steel valves have a primary

temperature rating of 850F. They may be used to 2500 psi for saturated-steam service, and to 2325 psi for blow-off service. To save time, valve selection tables usually list the ASA primary pressure rating, such as 1500 psi, and the ASME code pressure for blow-off, such as 2325 psi. Saturated steam rating, in this case 2500 psi, is not ordinarily listed. Table II (yet to come) is a typical example of condensed data on tandem carbon steel blow-off valves. Blow-off valves of cast-iron construction are also permitted for boiler blow-off service. Their rating in this service is limited to 80 per cent of the nominal ASA fitting rating. For instance, a 125 psi fitting is limited to 100 psi blow-off service, and a 250 psi fitting is limited to 200 psi blow-off service. Brass or bronze valves may be used, provided they are at least equal to the strength requirements of the American Standard cast-iron fitting which would otherwise be required. Steel blow-off valves are required for boiler pressures over 200 psi. If boiler pressure is over 100 psi and iron blow-off valves are to be employed, they must be equal at least to the requirements of American Standards for 250 psi. Blow-off vales may be connected as screwed, flanged or welded fittings.

Blow-off Valve Types There are many different types of blow-off valves manufactured. These could be classified as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. Seatless, sliding-plunger type. Sliding disc, or non-wedging gate type. Seat and disc, or hard seat type. Combination of two of the above valves in a common body.

Since the boiler code indicates that on boilers where the pressure exceeds 100 psi, each bottom blow-off pipe should have two slow-opening valves, or one slow-opening and one quick-opening valve, both types are offered by manufacturers. By definition a "slow-opening valve" is one which requires at least five 360-degree turns of the operating mechanism to change from fullclosed to full-open, and vice versa. In the above listing it can readily be seen that without gear operation, the sliding-disc type is generally a quick opening valve. The seatless valve is classified as a slow-opening valve. It has a rotating non-rising stem, which when turned withdraws the plunger so that its ports coincide with the body inlet port. Blow-down flow then is through the lower portion of the plunger and out through the discharge end. This valve is furnished in both the angle, and straightway pattern. In the sliding-disc type of valve the disc seals the opening through the valve when in the closed position. This disc has a through hole on one side, which is swung in line with the bore of the valve, and through which flow takes place when the valve is open. This is known as a quick-

opening valve, and is furnished in a straight-through pattern only. It must always be used in conjunction with a slow-opening valve, for blow-off service. Since the boiler code permits the use of two blow-off valves in a common body, some manufacturers take advantage of this fact. This arrangement eliminates another bolted, or welded, connection between the valves, and provides a relatively compact unit to be used at each blow-off location. An example of this is the combination shown in Fig. 2. This shows a seat-anddisc type of valve used as the blowing-valve installed next to the boiler, and a secondary seatless valve used as the sealing-valve. Between these two valves there is an opening in the body to allow through-flow. As previously mentioned, blow-off valves are frequently used for the introduction and drainage of boiler-cleaning acids. This is severe service and manufacturers select materials that can withstand the corrosive effect of this liquid, as well as the erosive cutting action of the blowdown itself. When acid cleaning is anticipated, purchasers of blow-off valves should so indicate. The seatless valve, for instance, would then employ a type 317 stainless-steel plunger, rather than the Standard "Nitralloy"; and the lower gland would be made of "Ni-resist" rather than of chromium-plated steel.

Methods of Operation Usually, blow-off valves are manually-operated, by handwheel or lever. A handwheel is employed where rotary motion is required to open or close the valve. Normally, clockwise rotation closes the valve. Some manufacturers introduce a gear-reduction for ease of operation. Quick-opening valves are usually direct lever operated, although some use a gear segment or rack arrangement for easier operation. Remote operation has been introduced in some power plants. Electric motor operators, controlled remotely by push-button stations, have been used in some modern plants where the tendency is toward automation. Others have used hydraulic and pneumatic cylinder operation.

Maintenance of Blow-off Valves Materials used in modern blow-off valves tend to minimize maintenance. Packing is generally the only important item necessary to be kept in stock. Every time a valve is disassembled new packing should be installed. Since blow-off valves operate at saturated-steam temperatures, a high-temperature oil is recommended for maintenance lubrication. It is good practice to lubricate a valve just before it is operated, to guarantee clean lubricant in the proper place when it is most needed.

A new development in the blow-off valve field has been the use of hard-seat valves, with integral seats. By depositing the hard-facing material, usually stellite or its equivalent, directly in the body of the valve, the screwed-in-seat connection is eliminated. Formerly valve seats were threaded in, and sometimes sealed by a gasket or seal-weld. Now this is eliminated. Should the integral seat need attention, the manufacturer offers a tool which can recut or regrind the seating surfaces while the valve body remains in place in the pipe line. Blow-off valves are usually furnished with any one of three kinds of end connections; namely, threaded, flanged or welded. Usually, threaded valves are employed on lower pressure installations. Flanged valves are probably the most popular for general usage, and are used in practically all pressure ranges. However, for the higher pressure ranges (nominally 2500 psi), welding ends are most frequently used. Of welding connections, socket-weld is generally the most popular. Butt-welding ends are provided when required, and may be to standard ASA dimensions. End connection dimensions are established by the appropriate ASA Standard. These standards cover iron and steel fittings. They cover screwed, flanged, socket-weld and butt-weld types of connections. Valves are piped, wherever possible, in such a manner as to assure clear drainage to sewer or to blow tank. As was previously stated, the Code places restrictions on the maximum amount of damming allowed in the design of this type of fitting. It is only necessary for the boiler manufacturer to design his piping so as to prevent any trapping action. Blowing hot boiler water, at or near steam temperature, from a boiler into cold residue water (in blow-lines) can cause severe shock to the system. Blow-off valves in some power plants, due to the design of their boilers, are placed in relatively inaccessible locations. In order to bring the handwheels to positions convenient for manual operation, some valves have been equipped with extension stems; and, in some cases, have had their handwheels supported on floor stands. When gratings or other obstructions come in the vicinity of the valve, this method provides ready accessibility for valve operation. Another method which as been successfully employed is the use of a flexible shaft, to transmit the opening and closing load from the handwheel to the valve. The valve can be provided with an adapter, to mount the flexible shaft, and the handwheel can thus be established where it can best be operated. Since blow off service dictates the use of a rugged set of valves, utilities (particularly) tend to specify heavy-duty valves manufactured specifically for this purpose. It is for these reasons that most power engineers and design consultants turn to established manufacturers of this specific equipment, who can contribute their years of experience in valve selections.

Globe Valves
By George W. Hauck Manager Engineering Sales Crane Company

Globe valves have been around for a long time, being one of the earliest types of valves. They have been used consistently in those services for which globe valves are ideally suited. The only changes over the years have been evolutions in materials and designs that have kept pace with changing conditions of service.For a better understanding of the functions of globe valves it is necessary to highlight one essential difference between globe and gate valves. Gate valves are designed to completely open the line to flow, or to completely stop the flow. They are therefore, used wide open or fully closed, and are not intended for throttling service. As opposed to a gate valve, a globe valve provides an additional function - it can be used wide open, fully closed, or with the disk in an intermediate position for regulating the flow. The character of the fluid and the degree of control desired determine the particular design of globe valve that should be used. The predominant usage of globe valves is found in the three, appreciably different, basic types as shown above (ball-type disk, Fig. 1 (composition disk), and Fig. 2 (plug type disk). There are some modifications and variations of these disk and seat constructions, but they do not affect the fundamental differences or the recommended usages of the three basic types. Ball-type disk: This is the earliest type of disk and seat construction for globe valves. A ballshaped disk seats against a tapered, flat-surfaced seat in the body. This type is economical in price, and popular for relatively low-pressure services that are not too demanding in scope. Such a valve preferably should be used wide open or fully shut, but it also can be used for moderate throttling of flow. Composition disk: The composition disk is an improvement over the ball-type disk for many services. The renewable disks are made from compositions that are varied for specific services, such as cold water, hot water, petroleum products, steam and air. The soft composition disk makes this type of valve ideally suited for compressed air and gas services. Small particles of foreign matter which would damage a ball-type disk seating upon closure are not likely to damage a composition disk valve because the foreign particles will imbed themselves in the relatively soft disk. In addition, this valve is easily repairable, which is desirable in valves that are subjected to hard service through frequent operation. The simple replacement of the composition disk usually effects a quick repair, and restores the usefulness of the valve without removing it from the line. The slip-on disk holder and union bonnet supplied in better quality valves of this type expedite such repairs.

Plug-type disk: This is the best of the three types for throttling and hard services. The renewable plug type disks and body seat rings comprise designs and materials which withstand exacting services. The disk is a cone seating into a cone, producing a wide seating surface that is not easily affected by foreign matter or by wiredrawing in throttling services. Needle point disk: One modification of the disk-and-seat construction, used in the three basic designs of globe valves, is found in the needle point valve. Fig. 5. The diameter of the seat opening in this valve is reduced. The stem threads are finer than usual, so that considerable turning of the stem is required to increase or decrease the opening through the seat. This type of valve is especially suitable when very close and delicate regulation of flow is desired. Needle valves have many applications in instrumentation.

Materials of Construction Bronze valves are produced in two bronzes, ASTM Specification B 62 or ASTM Specification B 61. The lower pressure valves are made of the B 62 bronze, whereas the higher pressure valves are made of the B 61 bronze. Iron body valves are made of two cast irons, ASTM Specification A-126, Class A for valves having light sections; and Class B for valves having medium metal thicknesses. Steel valves, (some cast, some forged), are available in a variety of steel compositions to ASTM Specifications. For services of a special nature, we encounter such materials as nickel-bearing irons, nickelbearing steels, several types of stainless steels, Monel, nickel, Hatelloys, plus titanium, and other alloys.

High Pressure and Temperature Small valves range in size from 1/2 in. to 2 in., inclusive, and have socket-welding ends. They are regularly made in several alloys for basic pressure ratings of 1500 psi and 2500 psi. The normal temperature limit is in the order of 1050-1060F, but somewhat higher temperatures can be contemplated for special conditions. Likewise, valves are available on order for pressures beyond the capabilities of the 2500-lb pressure class. Large valve designs that reflect newer concepts for high pressure and high temperature services, are found in pressure-seal bonnet valves.

Internal fluid pressure acting upon the entire underside of the bonnet reacts upon the smaller contacting area of the wedge-shaped ring, sealing the joint. Because of the design, the sealing pressure is always many times greater than the pressure of the fluid in the line; leakage is precluded. The higher the internal pressure, the greater is the sealing pressure. Pressure-seal bonnet valves are made in carbon steel, and several alloy steels, for basic pressure ratings of 900, 1500, and 2500 psi. The normal temperature limit is 1050-1060F, but somewhat higher temperatures may be contemplated for special conditions. Valves are available for pressures beyond the capabilities of the 2500-lb pressure class. The normal range of sizes for pressure-seal globe valves is 1-in. to 8-in.

Materials for Globe Valve Seats The simplest form of seating is a disk of the same material as the valve, mating with a machined surface which is integral with the valve body. Two constructions are used for composition disk valves. The composition disk may seat against an integral seat in the body, or it may seat against a seat ring. These two constructions are found in both bronze and iron valves. In the construction of all iron valves, the all-iron disk may seat against an integral seat in the iron body, or it may seat against a renewable iron seat ring screwed into the body. Renewable seats: Moving into the realm of superior types of valve construction, we encounter many designs with the disks and body seat rings made of materials that are different than the valve proper, whether the valve be bronze, iron, or steel. This finds valves with the seating parts made of much better materials than the partent valve metal, not necessarily for the renewability feature but for getting better wear-resisting qualities and longer life in these vital parts. This type of renewable disk and body seat ring construction is found in bronze, iron, steel, and alloy valves. The more commonly used renewable seating materials are several nickel alloys; a copper-base, nickel-tin alloy, and a nickel-base copper-tin alloy. Also, a chromium-iron, which is specially processed and heat-treated to develop the desired qualities. For special services, these parts are made of Monel, 18-8 stainless steels, Hastelloys, and Stellite.

Bonnet Construction

Scattered references to bonnet construction have appeared previously but not in any comparative vein. With particular reference to bronze and iron valves, attention should be focused on three types of construction used to connect the body and the bonnet of globe valves. Screwed bonnet: This is the earliest type and the simplest form of bonnet-body joint. It is sturdy and practical but obviously presents some limitations in dismantling and reassembling. Its use is generally restricted to the lower pressure bronze valves. Union bonnet: The union bonnet provides a strong, tight joint, yet it can be easily dismantled and reassembled without danger of injury to the valve. The union ring reinforces the bonnet joint, and when the valve is being reground, it centers and guides the valve trimmings, thus simplifying this maintenance operation. Withal, the union bonnet accomplishes its tasks in a minimum of space. Union bonnet construction is applied to bronze and iron valves in sizes 2 in. and smaller. Sizes 2 1/2 in. and larger have bolted bonnets. Bolted bonnet: The bolted bonnet more or less takes over where the union bonnet stops. It is used on bronze and iron valves in the 2 1/2-in. and 3-in. sizes and on all sizes of large bronze or iron valves (Fig. 7). The bolted bonnet assures liberal strength and makes a tight joint. It can be dismantled and reassembled readily and repeatedly without damage to the valve. Small steel valves: Conventional small steel valves (except bar stock) are equipped with union bonnets or bolted bonnets. However, the application of union bonnets is more limited with respect to the range of sizes so equipped. The 600-lb steel globe valves are fitted with union bonnets in sizes 3/4 in. and smaller, whereas most bolted bonnet valves on the market are available in 1/2-in. to 3-in. sizes. The 1500-lb steel globe valves have bolted bonnets on all sizes from 1/2-in. to 2-in., inclusive.

Means for Operation Users can avail themselves of a variety of means for operating globe valves. The conventional means of operation utilizes a hand wheel. Chain wheels can be applied for convenience in operating valves located above a normal reach from the floor or operating levels. Extension stems, with or without floor stands, perform a similar function. Hammer-blow wheels provide the additional power usually needed for the first effort of unseating and to effect tight closure, in larger steel valves. Globe valves are available either with or without gearing. The size and pressure class have an important bearing on whether or not gearing is necessary. (See Fig. 7).

Gearing is recommended in the 300-lb class for 8-in. and large globe valves; in 600-lb for 5-in. and larger; in 900-lb for 4-in. and larger; in 1500-lb for 3-in. and larger sizes, when they are used for differential pressures in the upper range of their service ratings. Motor operation of globe valves finds a wide range of application in piping systems. Its use provides safety in emergencies, saves labor, expedites operation of valves in inaccessible or distant locations, makes possible extreme flexibility in the operation of piping systems. Control of operations can be from one or several stations.

Atomic Energy Valves Valves for atomic energy services are predominantly produced at present in Type 304 stainless steel. It is necessary to achieve a much better than normal interior finish and maintenance of cleanliness also is very important. The bulk of production is in valves that are hermetically sealed against outward leakage of radioactive fluids. At all stages of production, these valves and their components are subjected to a series of very exacting nondestructive tests (See Fig. 6).

Throttling Services Globe valves are installed frequently in services where the sole function is to regulate the volume of flow by throttling. A typical example is the valve in the bypass around a pressure regulator or other type of automatic device. Care should be exercised in sizing such bypass valves; proper sizing is the key to maximum life and better control of flow. If the bypass valve is too large, the disk will only be cracked off its seat for sufficient flow. Under this condition of close throttling, there obviously will be increased velocity and more wear in the form of wire-drawing of the disk and seat. Conversely, a smaller sized valve will pass the same flow but with the disk farther off its seat in a wider open position, resulting in less wear, better regulation of flow, and a minimum tendency to vibrate. In larger, higher-pressure globe valves used in the bypass line around boiler feed-water regulators, it is good practice to design the seat opening in the bypass valve for the conditions of flow. Thus it is not unusual to find a 6-in. valve with a reduced parabolic disc in the order of 2 1/2 or 3-in. seat size. Occasionally, in throttling service, the demand calls for such a wide variation in flow that it is inadvisable to expect one valve to do the job and not suffer from abnormal wear and maintenance shutdowns. The combination of two valves not only reduces wear appreciably but permits closer regulation of flow.

Maintenance Tips Dirt: The greatest enemy of valves is foreign matter - dirt, scale, chips, weld spatter, and the like. Most troubles with valves are attributable to foreign matter. Every effort should be made to thoroughly clean out piping before it is placed in service. It will prevent a lot of subsequent maintenance on valves. There is justification also for the installation of strainers in strategic locations. A small investment in a strainer can pay big dividends in protection against the costly ravages of foreign matter. Closing valves: Never put a wrench on the wheel, or apply any form of leverage; it won't help anything, and you may break the stem or the wheel. If a globe valve starts to leak, brute force will not make it tight. Instead, bring the disk to its seat gently, back it off a turn, and repeat this operation several times. If a piece of foreign matter has lodged on the seat, this action may flush it away. If this fails, take the valve apart and clean it. If the seating surface is cut, you can refinish or replace these parts. When a globe valve has been closed while it is hot, it is good practice to follow up later with an extra nudge on the wheel to assure final tight closure. This is particularly advisable when a valve is subjected to temperature and has pressure under the disk. After such a valve is closed, the upper parts (stem, etc) cool and contract slightly, thus reducing the thrust on the disk. A following application of additional compensating thrust is the answer for this situation. A slight extra pull on the handle does the trick.

Leakage: Usually caused by: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Damage to seating surfaces by foreign matter Wire-drawing of seating surfaces due to throttling Normal wear in seating due to usage Normal wear in stuffing box packing and/or stem Bonnet joint leakage

Small leaks become bigger leaks unless repaired promptly. It is equally axiomatic that a valve is no better than its seat.

Conclusion

Globes and angles comprise quite a family of valves, as evidenced by the range of sizes, pressure classes, materials, and connections, types of disks and seats, and other varied details of construction. Users, therefore, can avail themselves of considerable latitude in selections. The benefits available in great latitude of choice require a degree of forethought in evaluating what a valve is expected to do, how it is to do it, what degree of repairability is wanted, what economies are involved in considering first cost as opposed to final cost. When needed, the background of experience acquired by manufacturers should be used. Haphazard selections usually produce unwarranted trouble in operation and headaches for maintenance crews. Wise choices produce adequate life and good service.

Gate Valves
By Joseph A. Cerow, Jr. Vice-President, Engineering The Chapman Valve Mfg Co. Indian Orchard, Mass.

In the last hundred years, valves have settled down into basic types such as gate valves, globe valves, check valves and others. This article will deal principally with the basic type called gate valves. Gate valves are primarily for open and closed service, and are not particularly adapted for intermediate flow regulation or throttling service. Due to their low head loss, which is only slightly greater than the equivalent length of pipe, they are particularly adapted for those services for isolation of equipment, where for long periods of time they will remain in the open or closed position, and offer little or no obstruction to the flow of fluid in the pipe line.

Characteristics of this Type Gate valves cover a wide range of sizes in common American practice - from 3/8 to 108 in., although in later years the 84 to 108 in. sizes have been supplemented by the butterfly valves, usually due to the space limitations under which they are installed. Gate vales have been used successfully in temperature ranges of minus 300F to 1800F, and at pressures of from a few ounces of gas to thousands of pounds per square inch. Naturally the wide range of pressures and temperatures under which these valves are utilized necessitates a very wide range of materials of construction. Materials that are suitable at minus 300F might not be suitable at 1800F. At the present time gate valves are being manufactured in brass and bronze,

several grades of gray iron, the newer ductile iron and the whole gamut of steel types, together with numerous special alloys for corrosion services. The "trim" materials for the non-corrosive seats are being made from bronzes, stainless steels, Monel and hard facing alloys. Valve stems cover a wide range of materials based on the temperature and pressure at which the valve is to be used. In addition, at elevated temperatures, ingenious means must be provided to keep the valve spindle stiff in order to resist column action occasioned by the operation of the valve. Originally, in this country, valves were made in the smaller sizes with screwed connections and in the larger sizes with flanged connections. With the development of welding techniques in the early 1930's, valves were made with welding ends to be welded to the pipe in which the flow is regulated. Later, other types were developed, namely, pressure seal joint, "O" ring joint, and so on. In their simplest construction, gate valves have a valve stem, or spindle, which projects from the waterway to the outside atmosphere, for controlling the gate. This necessitates some method of retaining the fluid in the pipe line. Rope packing with a gland was the principal means of resisting this leakage. The gland is still the most widely used method. However, the materials used for the packing have been changed and improved. Today gate valves are made in some instances and for special applications with trick glands such as "O"rings or bellows seals; and, for atomic jobs, where any leakage would be disastrous, with canned or hermetically-sealed construction which eliminates the need for a gland. There are a great many variations of gate valve designs. The principal one that comes to mind is the bonnet joint where two halves of the gate valve bodies are fastened together. In the small bronze valves, common practice was to use screwed joints or union bonnet-type joints. However, as the valves became larger, or the pressures or temperatures were increased, other means had to be developed to retain the pressure. On the larger valves the joints were of the flanged type with many variations of gasket types and material. These proved satisfactory for a long period of time, but as pressures and temperatures were increased in central stations and oil refineries in the 20's, it became necessary to find a type of joint that would remain tight for longer periods. The "Sargol" type (or combination joint), which is a flange joint with a seal weld, was at first thought to be the answer. With the development of better bolting materials and gasket materials, the early difficulties with flange joints were eliminated, by the development of the "Houston", or ring joint. Again the central stations did not remain idle but increased the pressures and temperatures up beyond the limit of bolting materials. As a result, designers had to make a design to contain these elevated temperatures and pressures. In 1936 the first all-welded construction with a welded bonnet joint was brought out by The Chapman Valve Manufacturing Company. By 1946, the pressure-seal type joint, developed for feed water heaters and heat-exchangers in Europe, was applied to gate valve bonnets. High

pressure valves for central stations are largely of the welded, or pressure-seal, bonnet type construction. The advent of the atomic energy program, with its necessary extreme tightness of the bonnet joint and ready accessibility for taking apart, has forced the designer to reach back into the 1920's to the "Sargal-Sarlun" joint, with the added advantages of better materials, better welding techniques and better control of joint configuration.

Gate Valve History In the early days of the gate valve, the gate was parallel-sided, and was pushed into place in the main pipe line, to shut off the flow by relying on the pressure on the upstream side. The pressure of the fluid on the upstream side was relied on to create the necessary force to seal off the valve. Elaborate methods were developed in subsequent years so that the gate was pushed tight against both faces by mechanical means, making the action of the valve independent of the pressure in the pipe line. This type of construction had the disadvantage of a large number of delicate parts which were subject to attack by the fluid in the pipe line. In the 1860's, a man named Chapman, while chopping wood one day, looked at the shape of the axe head and invented the solid wedge type gate valve as we know it today. Later, as the tendency to combine the advantages of both the solid wedge and double disk gate valve was tried, a design was evolved known as the split wedge. This type of construction has the advantage, although more expensive than the solid wedge, of being able to adapt itself to small amounts of distortion occasioned by pipe line strain. It also offers the peculiar advantage for those special installations where it is desired to seal the space between the seats with steam or inert gases. Lately, a new variation has come on the market, the so-called "flexible wedge", wherein the wedge is in one piece but cut out between the two seats in such a way as to provide a small degree of flexibility. It offers the added advantage of relieving the valve spindle from excess stress when it is necessary to close the gate valve when subjected to extremely high temperature. In this connection it might be interesting to note that the atomic energy field again has dipped back into the 1920's for a valve construction with parallel seats, and relying on the pressure in the pipe line to keep the valve tight. This has been possible because, although the pressures encountered with pressurized water reactors are high, the temperature is less than 600F. Due to the type of service in which gate valves are used, they often require little or no replacement of parts. In extreme service it may be necessary to replace seat rings, gate, and valve spindle. The latter usually has to be replaced because of abuse.

Valve Standards

Today's modern gate valves are made from very carefully controlled materials. The materials are usually specified to American Society of Testing Materials' specifications. Pressure-temperature ratings have been standardized by the American Standards Association (B16 standards). Dimensions have been standardized so that usually the valves from on manufacturer are interchangeable with another. In addition, where the standards associations have not seen fit to publish a standard, the Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry has published what they call Special Practices. Other standards are in the process of being developed for radio-graphic examination of valve parts for exacting services of nuclear and supercritical installations. Other special testing specifications are being prepared which undoubtedly will be adopted as standards by American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Operation of Gate Valves When we think of the method of operating gate valves we immediately think of a handwheel, as it is only necessary to turn the handwheel clockwise to close it, or counterclockwise to open it. However, the sizes of gate valves have been increasing, and pressures and temperatures have been increasing; and, as a result they far outstrip the strength of one man operating on the rim of the handwheel. A 10-in. boiler feed valve in a modern power plant quite often has a load on the valve stem equal to 25 tons or more. Obviously, without mechanical assistance, an operator is not going to be bale to turn the handwheel to operate the valve. In order to provide mechanical assistance for operating these valves it is necessary to calculate the operating effort required, which is usually assumed to be composed of three principal parts. 1. Pinch on the wedge, either occasioned by the thrust required to seat it, or by thermal contraction and subsequent cooling, after a high temperature valve is closed. 2. Sliding friction of the sliding gate over the seat, which is a function of the differential pressure across the valve and the coefficient of sliding friction of the seating faces. 3. Piston effect of the vale stem occasioned by the pressure inside the valve being higher than the atmospheric pressure. To this should be added stuffing box friction, occasioned by sliding the spindle through the tight packing of the stuffing box. The usual method of calculating the thrust on the valve stem is to multiply the area of the gate ( in contact with the seat ring) by the difference between the upstream and downstream pressure in pounds per square inch. In the case of globe valves, where it is necessary that the disk be wedged into the seat, the effort would be just as great. In the cast of gate valves this would be multiplied by the coefficient of friction of dry metal seats sliding one over the other, depending on the seating material. This value varies between 0.2 and 0.3. For example, when 100 sq. in. of gate is subjected to 100,000 lb of pressure, the load on the gate would be 100,000 lb; and if the coefficient of friction of the seats was assumed to be 0.2 of the 100,000 lb, or 20,000 lb, or 10 tons. In the case of globe valves the load would be the full 100,000 lb.

Most power-operated or hand-operated gate valves employ a screwed valve spindle to control the movement of the gate. Using the screw jack formula, with an assumed valve spindle 1 7/8 in. diameter, with 1/3 in. pitch, 1/3 in. lead and 0.3 coefficient of friction, and ball- or rollerbearings under the yoke nut, the above example would result in a torque of 530 ft-lb. If the handwheel was assumed to be 2 ft. in diameter with a 1-ft. radius, a man would have to exert 530 lb at the 1-ft radius, which is beyond his strength. A man is assumed to be able to exert 40 to 100 lb on the rim of the handwheel. If the handwheel diameter was increased to bring the effort lower, the radius of the handwheel would have to be 5 ft. 3 in. which is seldom possible.

Motor-Operated Valves In our example we have eliminated or neglected the effect of the wedge pinch, which is always a difficult matter to figure. Electric motors can overcome this by providing a mechanical hammerblow device to unwedge the valve; and, some hand-operated valves employ mechanical hammer blows. Split, or flexible, wedge valves are not subject to the same stresses, or wedge pinch, as solid wedge valves. We have neglected also the piston effect of the spindle, although this could add another few thousand pounds to the total operating effort. We have also overlooked stuffing box friction on the spindle, which could add a ton or more to the operating effort. In considering this problem, the first thing that comes to mind is the use of gearing as a means of reducing the effort. There are a great many gear heads on the market today, most of which employ worm-gearing, due to the compactness of the gear ratio. Worm-gears are available with a gear ratio as high as 40 to 1. However, while we have reduced the effort at the rim of the handwheel, we have sacrificed speed. In the example mentioned, the valve would have operated in thirty turns of the handwheel. If we put in an 8 to 1 gear ratio, we have increased the number of turns by eight, or from 30 to 240 revolutions. If the valve is to be operated once a year, and time is not a problem, a man or a relay of men could operate the valve. If the valve is to be opened and closed every day (or every few hours as in process work), we would be faced with a labor problem, and some other means would have to be employed. Electric motors are often used to drive the gearing for operating valves. This presents the problem of how to stop the motor at extremes of travel. There are two methods of doing this. 1. A positioning limit switch which, after a definite number of turns of operation, trips to deenergize the motor. 2. When the valve seats, the load on the motor builds up, and a sensitive device trips the motor from the line. Actually, both methods have their disadvantages. As this is not an article on electrical valve operation, we do not wish to become involved in the relative merits of the two methods.

Substitution of pneumatic motors, for electric motors, or valve operators, is one alternative for taking the drudgery out of valve operation. Piston operators are also employed extensively on low-pressure valves, in waterworks systems. The designer of a piping system would do well to take the time to familiarize himself with what is required to open or close the valves he has specified, taking care to specify which valves need gears, and which need electric motors. In addition to the selection of the proper valve operator, the designer should pay careful attention to the physical placement of valves to avoid conflicts.

Valve Operators
By Laurance Carr Director of Research and Engineering Edward Valves, Inc.
Subsidiary of Rockwell Mfg Co.

One important decision in designing of modern high-pressure power plants is the type of operators to be used on the large, high-pressure valves involved. Let's define "large" highpressure valves as any over 10-in. at 600 psi, 8-in. at 1500 psi, or 6-in. at 2500 psi. In many cases the valve operator, plus its power and indicating connections, may cost more than the basic valve itself. Consequently, it is well worth the time to study actual requirements and to consider the many types of valve operators available. The basic requirement is tied up in the operating characteristics of gate and globe valves. Almost without exception, such large valves are operated by a valve stem extending through a packing chamber to the closure member. The valve stem may travel a distance equal to the diameter of the pipe down to a distance 25 percent the diameter of the pipe. Thus, closing such a valve is equivalent to moving a piston, whose diameter is equal to the valve stem diameter, through a high-pressure chamber for a distance equal to total valve travel. In some modern piping systems, this can result in a considerable force requirement. At the end of this travel, the closing force must be increased enough to create a tight seal on the valve seat. In typical large, high-pressure power plant valves, these closing forces may be as high as 25,000 lbs exerted through a distance of 10 in. just to push the stem into the valve, plus 250,000 lbs exerted through a distance of 1/10 in. to create a tight seal. Forces of this order acting through such distances represent a large amount of work. About 1 hp would be required to close such a valve in one minute, if we had a perfectly efficient operating device. But, the devices that can generate such large forces are relatively inefficient, so the actual power requirements of operators for large valves are much greater than 1 hp.

Forces Undergo Transition Because the greatest force is required for only a short distance near the point of seating, and because a lesser force is required for the longer distance between open and close, valve designers have sought many forms of valve operators to take advantage of the two force conditions. For example, typical gate valves almost always call for total stem travel equal to something a little more than the inside diameter of the pipeline. During this period of travel, whether opening or closing the valve, the total force on the stem is equal to pressure (inside the valve) times area of stem. Now, the typical stem might have a cross section area of 7 sq.in. and might be acted upon by a pressure of 2500 psi. An outward thrust of 18,500 lbs would act on the stem at all times. To this we add the friction load for the valve packing...which frequently is figured as 10 percent of the stem load. So, we add another 2000 lbs to the 18,500 lbs above. Actual seating of a wedge gate in its seat might seem rather difficult to calculate, at first glance. On the other hand, pulling the wedge off of its seat is perhaps a clearer thing to visualize. Under extreme conditions, the valve gate rests against the downstream seat face with a maximum of full line pressure on the upstream side and zero pressure on the downstream side. So, one of the forces holding the wedge against the seat is line pressure times seat area. The force to slide the gate off the seat is then line pressure times seat area times coefficient of friction of the sliding surfaces. A reasonably conservative figure for the friction coefficient on the internal metallic surfaces of a large, high-pressure valve might be 0.33. Operating force for pulling the valve open, on the basis of this calculation, then would be one third the line pressure differential across the wedge times the seat area. If the gate were wedged between two seats, considerably higher force might be required to pull it free. Wedging action could be generated by initial closing, and/or by thermal expansion or contraction that took place after the valve had been closed. The two seats could have contracted against the faces of the gate wedge. The valve stem might have contracted less than the bonnet and yoke assembly. Hence cooling of the valve might have forced the gate into tighter engagement between the two seats. Forces of this nature are very difficult to calculate. Valve designers generally rely on operating experience to judge the magnitude of such forces. But they can be expressed generally as some fraction of operating differential pressure times valve seat area. In securing tight closing of a wedge gate valve, total closing force requirement is often figured on the basis of differential pressure times seat area times friction coefficient, plus a 10 per cent additional load to provide a moderate amount of wedging between the two seat faces, to develop the maximum seat tightness. Application of these formulae generally results in a force for seating and unseating gate valves that acts through a distance of about 1/4 to 1/2 in. This is roughly seven times the force for

operating from closed to wide open. The transition from high force to lower force takes place rather abruptly near the fully closed position because line fluid forces have relatively little effect on the valve gate once it is slightly open.

Globes Require Higher Force Globe valve operating requirements are much like gate valve requirements. Globe valves, however, have shorter total lift and require a greater seating force. Ordinary globe valves may lift only 25 per cent of the valve pipeline diameter, although specially designed low-pressure-drop valves may have stem travel as high as 75 or even 100 per cent of line diameter. Globe valves seat by setting the disc directly into the seat port, in opposition to the line pressure. Hence, the seating force required is pressure differential across the valve times full area of the seat port, without application of the friction coefficient noted for the gate valve. An allowance of 10 percent is added for tightness. If the higher pressure is under the valve disc, the closing force is required as a compressive load in the valve stem to resist the pressure on the disc; this force is a tensile load on the valve stem, to lift the disc off the seat, when opening the valve. As in the case of the gate valve, seat forces in a globe valve dissipate rather quickly upon opening. So the high force requirement lasts only through limited distance, say 1/4 or 1/2 in. Regular stem force is needed for 90 percent or more of the total stem travel. In a typical case, the globe valve seating force is 10 times the force required for moving from open to close.

Differential Is a Variable Quite a distinction must be made between valve opening and closing forces, and valve seating forces. Because they differ by as much as 10 to 1, the distinction between these forces is important. In actual practice, however, the seating load itself often varies widely. In simple terms, the seat load required to close a valve is the full pressure differential as applied across the seat area. A conservative assumption is that the full internal pressure of the line is applied to one side of the seat and atmospheric pressure to the other. In certain valve operations, though, this is almost never the case. Many recirculating lines develop high pressure in the line, but the differential pressure across the circulating pump is low. The valve might close off the lowpressure across the circulating pump, and not close or open against the full line pressure, measured with respect to atmospheric pressure. Less than full line pressure develops, also, where large valves are equipped with bypass lines. In many cases, the large valve is not operated until the bypass line has been opened, to hold down the differential across the large valve.

Boiler installations, in particular, may present pressures across a valve higher than the full design pressure. Boiler and piping code practices call for testing lines at 1 1/2 times working pressure. A valve may be used to isolate a section of the boiler or line for developing this test pressure. The valve closing mechanism must be 50 per cent stronger than might be expected under normal conditions.

Check Valves Need Less Force Of particular interest in many power plant operations is the case of the stop-check valve. A freefloating disc in the valve has a valve stem for securing the disc to the seat. If the ordinary highpressure differentials (created during closing) come from under the valve disc, the valve stem must transmit the same forces as for a globe valve. In many applications, though, the differential tends to be on top of the valve disc. The valve stem is used really as a securing device to hold the disc in place to avoid any accidental opening. Maximum seating load on the valve stem might be only three times the load required for pushing the stem from open to close. The valve operator requirement is somewhat different than for the standard globe or gate valve. Practically all the valves under discussion are operated by a stem thread acting through a bronze nut. A few valves of very special design and application occasionally are operated by directacting hydraulic cylinders. The cylinder idea is always intriguing because of the low friction loss in such devices and the ability to multiply force greatly. But operating pressure must be continually maintained to hold the valve in any one position. Furthermore, failure of the hydraulic system would permit the valve to fly open. These disadvantages prevent any widespread use of direct cylinder operation. The nut-and-screw-thread device is a relatively high-friction unit. Full load is transmitted through the stem threads into the valve operating nut. Appreciable friction on the thread surfaces calls for extra effort over and above that already established for the valve. The force developed for such screw thread construction can conveniently be calculated by means of a formula. This formula, in most practical valve constructions, shows that the operating torque in ft lbs on the valve nut unit is about 1/100 of the pounds force developed in the stem.

Thread Friction Is Big Factor With a rotating stem, the nut is fixed. Total friction is a combination of the thread friction, friction between valve disc and the end of the stem, and packing friction. In the case of a nonrotating stem, the nut is generally mounted on ball or roller bearings. Total friction is a combination of the thread friction, ball or roller bearing friction, and packing friction. In either case, thread friction accounts for more than 75 per cent of the total operating torque.

The fact that thread friction is so high often suggests various devices that might decrease it, making large valves easier to operate. A widely used device in some non-power applications is the ball-bearing stem thread as used in automobile steering mechanisms. Unfortunately, valve stem lads turn out to be so high that the allowable contact pressure of any reasonable number of balls is exceeded. Also, the requirement for extreme hardness on both ball rolling surfaces is not generally compatible with the other valve construction features. A further deterrent is the fact that too low a friction factor at the valve stem thread could allow a valve to automatically fly open. Some locking device would be required if the ball-bearing thread valve is to be held tight in the closed position.

Frequency Study Required Before final decisions are made, knowledge of functional characteristics of valve operators must be added to knowledge of closing forces. Probably frequency of operation is the first factor to consider before selecting an operator. Allowable investment is quite different for a valve that might be opened only once a year than for a valve that might be opened and closed once a day. Urgency of operating the valve must be considered, too. Large valves are opened and closed only according to a pre-arranged schedule in many instances. As much as a week's warning might be available that the valve must be closed at a certain time. In other cases, valves are subject to emergency closure, demanded in a matter of a few seconds. This prohibits any setup in which the foreman must find a man and then send him off to a remote location to close the valve manually. Still another consideration is the location of the valve. If it is easily accessible, there might be considerable difference between the cost of manual-operation and motor-operation. If the valve is in a very remote spot, manual-operation might call for platforms, scaffolds, stairways and railings that would decrease the cost differential between motor-operation and hand-operation. On the other hand, extension stems and chain wheels may achieve remote operation at relatively low cost. A further consideration is whether the valve is always to be operated from a single station, or from several different stations at the same time.

About Motor Operators Quite a number of different operating mechanisms are available to meet different requirements, ranging through a wide cost spread. Probably the most expensive, commonly used valve operator is the geared electric motor type, which closes the valve and cuts itself off when a predetermined torque has been developed by the motor. Such an operator is relatively expensive, both in equipment and electric wiring costs. Its advantages are tremendous, however.

For relatively little additional cost, it can be set up to be operated from several different locations. Open-and-close buttons can be installed in a control room, beside the valve, beside the boiler feed pump, plus any other desired location. Remote indicating devices can be attached at relatively low cost to show the position of the valve at any of the operating stations. By merely choosing a large enough motor, almost any operating speed can be achieved. There is no worry about power plant personnel becoming so tired that they cannot achieve complete closure of the valve within a specified time. The valve can be installed at almost any point in the power plant piping system, without regard to operating levels, access for service or proximity to other equipment. It is an ideal device for valves that are frequently operated.

Simple Handwheel Costs Least At the other end of the cost scale is the simple handwheel attached directly to the operating nut or stem. This is certainly the lowest-cost operating device, having essentially none of the advantages of the motor drive. The obvious disadvantage arises from the high operating torque. In some of the typical examples already cited, the torque requirements on a simple 36-in. diameter wheel might call for 150 lbs pull on the rim of the wheel to turn the valve from open to close. As much as 1000 to 2000 lbs pull would be needed on the rim of the wheel to seat the disk. Thus, 20 men would have to crowd around the rim of this simple wheel to achieve the 2000-lb pull. A common solution to this high-torque problem is to equip the valve with a gear system. Gears, of course, change the operating ratio down to a point where the pull required on the rim of the wheel is within the capability of one or two men. The number of revolutions required for given travel goes up corresponding to the change in gear ratio. In addition, friction losses in the gear train increase. So, the forces required may go down, but the total work effort goes up. The peculiar force requirements of opening and closing a valve call for relatively low forces through a long distance, in going from open to close, followed by high forces through a short distance at the point of closure. This often suggests a gear shift device. Low gear would be used for developing the tight seating force and high gear for operating from open to close. The general idea is sound in theory. But, in practice, the cost of such a gear shift makes the idea impractical. Few devices of this type are available. A mechanism with continuously variable gear ratio...giving high speed in the open position and low speed (with high force) in the near-closed position...is partially achieved by what is known as a toggle construction. A moderate number of large, high-pressure valves have been built, from time to time, with variations of toggle-type operating mechanisms. Such constructions are considerably preferred over a plain manually-operated wheel. But in large, high-pressure valves, toggle-type operators leave something to be desired. Total number of revolutions required from open to close tends to be relatively high, and the work load tends to be more than a single man can perform, even over periods as long as 15 or 20 minutes.

Still another form of gear shifting has been used on large, high-pressure valves for many years...the Impactor handwheel. It, in effect, is a directly-coupled handwheel on the valve operating nut, with a backup feature. This feature permits striking an impact blow. The valve is turned from open to close by continuously rotating the handwheel. No gearing or other magnification of the torque is applied. When the valve is approximately seated, the handwheel is backed off about 1/3 of a turn and then rapidly brought forward. Two anvils on the wheel strike a cross arm secured to the operating nut. The momentum of the spinning handwheel generates almost an infinite operating torque for an instant. By applying a series of such blows to a typical 36-in. Impactor handwheel, one man can develop torque equivalent to 5000 ft-lbs, with no gearing or other magnifying mechanism. This type of valve operator has proved very efficient in many years of high-pressure power plant use. A recent development that bridges the gap between motorized operation and hand operation is the Impacto-gear operator. This is a modification of the widely used Impactor handwheel. A gear-and-pinion assembly is added to the valve operating construction. The pinion shaft projects from the side of the valve, below the handwheel. The pinion is turned by a portable motor, such as an air-driven wrench. A wrench on the end of one air hose could serve several valves. Gearing gives a 12 to 1 reduction. A portable air wrench putting out 50 ft-lbs of torque will generate 600 ft-lbs of operating torque at the valve operating nut. This is sufficient to carry most large, high-pressure valves from full open to full close or back in one minute. Power plant operators are relieved of the backbreaking work of turning the valve handwheel through many revolutions with sustained effort that might range from 50 to 150 lbs pull on the rim of the wheel. After a valve equipped with an Impactogear operator has been brought near the seat, a series of impact handwheel blows are struck by hand to achieve the 3000 or 4000 ft-lb closing torque necessary for tight seating. Thus, one man can close a large, high-pressure valve in a reasonably short time without excessive manual effort. This does not replace the electric motor operator by any means. Though lower in cost, it does not offer remote operation or remote indication. In the final analysis, the best choice of valve operator is dictated by recognizing torque requirements of the valve, the functional features of the many types of operators available, and the needs of the installation. When considering relatively expensive electric motor operators, a very uneconomic selection might be made using highest possible test pressure as a criterion. In this case, valve purchaser and valve supplier must carefully study the exact application, and the maximum differential, that will be applied to the valve seat. Often, several thousand dollars can be saved by sizing the motor operator, exactly for the job application.

Diaphragm Valves

By R. McFarland Technical Director Hills-McCanna Company Chicago, Ill.

In twenty-five years, the diaphragm type valve has become one of the industrial standard basic valve types. The valve consists of three simple elements: the valve body, the valve diaphragm, and valve bonnet assembly. The valve is illustrated, in detail in Fig. 1. The diaphragm in this valve serves as the closing, or seat, member as well as the partition that separates the valve working parts (bonnet) from the fluid passageway. The diaphragm is not used as a packing substitute, but instead is used as a dynamic seating element, and eliminates the necessity for the conventional valve stem packing material. There is some confusion in the engineering profession as regards the meaning of the word diaphragm when referred to valves. An older connotation of a diaphragm has been used by the instrument engineers and manufacturers to denote an outside stem - packed valve, with the stem and throttling element moved by a remote air-motor diaphragm, reacting against a precision spring. (This results in a precise increment of valve stem movement, with relation to air pressure, on the diaphragm motor.) The diaphragm valve to which we refer, and as illustrated, is a valve of truly basic diaphragm design, actually utilizing the diaphragm for closure and separation of the valve working parts from the valve body member.

Tight Closure Feature The attribute of bubble-tight seat obtainable through the rigid valve weir, and diaphragm seal, creates the principal field of use in those services where drip-tight, bubble-proof closure is mandatory. Today, increased industrial processing costs have come to make this feature paramount, and it is desirable to eliminate wastage of even air and water leakage. All too often, this is thought of as inconsequential. As an example of this, one of the largest automobile assembly plants in the nation is completely equipped with diaphragm valves, in sizes from 1/2 to 12 inch, for air service, at pressures of 100 psi. In this case, initial trials in a prior plant test proved conclusively that the air - escape-free closure saved so much air, normally encountered in accepted leakage, that the valve installation would be rapidly amortized. In like manner, the valve with this resilient seat feature is very satisfactory in simple water service, particularly where the water may contain grit or suspended material, or be corrosive or scale forming. In this respect, it is even more important that the valve be completely operative after extended service with corrosive and scale-forming water; and without the valve becoming clogged, scaled or cemented shut through long standing. Hence, pitting, corrosion and tuberculation (while not desirable), can be tolerated without the valve becoming inoperative.

Chemical Applications

With the feature of tight shut-off, and with the attributes of a wide selection of construction materials, the valve has accordingly become the industrial standard in chemical process work, where the majority of corrosive processing reagents can be satisfactorily contained within the pressure and temperature limits of the valve. Only reasonable maintenance is required in such cases. These chemical uses have become so widespread that over 700 different process applications have been registered - handling organic and inorganic, corrosive chemical reagents. The ability of the valve body to be glass, plastic, or soft-rubber-lined - or utilize a host of other construction materials - has permitted it to find application in very severe chemical or abrasive services. Typical are: suspended rouge, alumina, sand, cement, fly ash, lime, gravel and airblown powders. This can be accomplished by the proper selection and combination of valve body and the particular diaphragm material required for the type of service to be encountered. Also, the valve has found wide application on such stringent industrial services as vacuum, down to a fraction of a micron, with low leak rates. This has permitted the application of the valve in electronic component manufacturing and pharmaceutical and chemical manufacturing, where the process involves high-vacuum techniques. A very important example of a difficult application is the wide use of this valve in ion-exchange work for water demineralization. The production of high-ohmic water has resulted in hundreds of installations, utilizing this valve in laboratory and plant demineralizers. For large power plants, particularly, it is important that absolutely no leakage occur in cross-branching, and between resin beds and valve manifolds, so as not to experience regenerant leakage, or demineralizedwater contamination. Diaphragm valves range in size from 1/2 in. to 16 inches; with screwed and flanged-ends available in sizes 1/2 in. to 3 in.; however, flanged-end only in sizes 4 to 16 inch inclusive. The standard elastomeric rubber-base diaphragm operating temperature is from 180F to 220F for special heat-resisting diaphragms. The working pressure of the valve is 150 psi in sizes 1/2 to 4 in.; 125 psi in sizes 5 and 6 inch; 100 psi in 8 in. size; 65 psi in 10 and 12 inch; and 50 psi in 14 and 16 inch sizes. Due to wide variety of diaphragm and body materials required in specific services, any combination of materials with these maximum temperatures and pressures are not always mutually selective. The use of Teflon as a diaphragm material permits the use of the valve at elevated temperatures to 300F, providing the operating pressure is correspondingly reduced. The type of chemical application at elevated temperature also has a bearing on the maximum permissible pressure, and the valve body construction and type of bonnet assembly best suited for the particular application.

Wide Versatility of Valve There are several thousand material combinations available, in the broad list of diaphragm and valve body types on the market. For example, in the valve body material the most popular

materials are glass-lined, soft-rubber-lined, plastic-lined (many types), hard-rubber lined, cast iron, nodular iron, stainless alloys of different varieties, structural carbon, structural plastic (phenolic, PVC), aluminum bronze, everdur, nickel alloys of many types, polished stainless steel and others. These valve body materials can be supplied, in most cases, in either screwed-end or flanged-end; also, some types in sanitary-end (polished stainless), brazed-end, or many types of special flanged designs, are available. The diaphragms are obtainable in rubber-base, neoprene, Hycar, Butyl, Teflon, Kel-F, Polyethylene, Teflon-faced and special diaphragm materials on special order. The basic, three-element design, of body, diaphragm and bonnet assembly, gives wide latitude in the method of operation. Figures 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 show a few of the many types, such as quickopening, sliding-stem, cylinder-operated and motor-operated. The valve is very well suited to remote operation, either hydraulic or pneumatic, with pneumatic operation preferred for flexibility and economy. Thus, the valve can be supplied with either the instrument-type diaphragm motor (with or without a positioner for stem movement precision in throttling service), or equipped with the instrument-type diaphragm motor (or air cylinder) for open - closed service. Extended handwheel, chain handwheel, gear-operated and other designs are produced and made to fit special mounting requirements as industrial valve engineering may indicate. Also, the body of the valve may be equipped with a clean-out port, steam lance, water lance, or drains. A valve which is now standard in the fermentation industry is the antibiotic-type valve, equipped with steam and condensate passages for the continuous maintenance of sterile operation.

Maintenance Features The diaphragm in its operation, functions both as part of the valve seat, and as a separating member for the operating bonnet assembly; so, there is no need for packing. The absence of packing eliminates the necessity to re-pack the valve; thus the valve is capable of handling fluids without packing leakage. The three-element construction has the advantage of permitting "inline maintenance", inasmuch as the valve body need not be removed from the line. Instead, removal of the bonnet assembly permits diaphragm replacement and re-assembly of the valve. This reduces maintenance cost involved in line removal; eliminates stem repacking, seat grinding, and the necessity for selective fits that arise in a conventional valve reassembly. The resilient diaphragm member eliminates the necessity for assembly under close tolerance conditions. Usually, as a result of this "in-line maintenance" feature, the only replacement part normally required is the diaphragm. Adequate care and lubrication of the bonnet assembly parts will insure continued operation. It is seldom necessary to replace any of the operating parts of the bonnet assembly. With the materials available, it is possible to offer maximum corrosion resistance. Selection of the proper

body material gives the optimum in corrosion-resistance, and results in long body life, with infrequent body replacement. This type of valve has become so widely used, and the technique of operation so familiar through use, that maintenance is low for those who have become aware of the attributes of the valve. Referring to Figures 1 and 2, it will be noticed that when the valve is operated from the open to the closed position, the diaphragm movement sweeps out the volume of liquid which must be displaced into the pipe line. This then, is a displacement-type valve and cannot be utilized in socalled locked-lines. A gate valve, for example, is less limited in this respect, in that movement of the valve gate does not displace an equivalent amount of fluid in moving from the open to the closed position. As a result, the ordinary gate valve can be used in a locked-line manifold, and closed as required for operation. This is not true of a diaphragm valve, inasmuch as inadvertent closure in a locked-line will result in "pumping" of the liquid through positive diaphragm movement, to raise the pressure in the locked line manifold. This can reach the point where the diaphragm will break, or a gasketed surface will leak, until the displaced volume of fluid has been dispelled. Also, because of the area of diaphragm exposed, and the inherent mechanics of the valve design, the pressure rating is limited. Obviously, pressure acting over the diaphragm surface results in a torque requirement on the valve handwheel which can become excessive. This is particularly true where the valve is used at maximum pressure in a "live-line", where the back-pressure in the valve, during closure, is near maximum. The valve is normally used for free discharge shut-off, or for low back-pressure shut-off; in this case the torque available in one-man operation is adequate. However, where the back-pressure is high, and on large valve sizes, the developed torque from diaphragm pressure reaction necessitates two-man operation. The introduction of a gear and handwheel mechanism permits manual torque-multiplication for valve closure. Obviously, the increased stress on diaphragms at these high pressures results in lessened diaphragm life. Diaphragm valves are limited in temperature, with most elastomeric diaphragm materials, to a maximum of 180F. However, specially-compounded, heat-resisting diaphragms are available for continuous operation to 220F, or short-term operation at 240F. Solid Teflon diaphragms are available for operation, at reduced pressures, to a maximum temperature of 300F. Again, with the wide range of materials, together with corrosive-service requirements, and temperature and pressure limits, it is possible that all combinations are not mutually selective.

Shock Resistance The resiliency of diaphragms frequently assures less damage than would normally occur in a pipe line assembly whee hydraulic shock exists. Unfortunately, and all too often, the hydromechanics of industrial lines are either unknown, carelessly planned, or little thought is given to their possible creation and effect. Consequently, the power engineer is ultimately faced with

ruptured fittings, broken valves and gages, and secondary effects, resulting from the loosening or vibration of auxiliary equipment in connection with the pipe line. Conventional valves, incorporating precise seating tolerances, ultimately leak as a result of repeated hydraulic shock or vibration. This is partly overcome through the substitution of the resilient diaphragm. When the magnitude and frequency of hydraulic shock becomes sufficiently great, the diaphragm is incapable of absorbing the standing wave of the shock, and rupture of the diaphragm results. A diaphragm rupture would indicate the hydraulic malfunction existing in the pipe line. Viewed properly, this is not an indication of valve failure, as such, but rather an indication that has pointed up the need for correction of those factors causing improper hydraulic conditions. One that may increase maintenance on the valve is inadvertent diaphragm overclosure. Psychologically, the valve operator is usually accustomed to metal-to-metal "feel" in closing a valve. Instead, the diaphragm valve gives a cushion closure, and the tendency would be to continue closure until the "feel", or torque resistance, approximates that of a metal-to-metal seat. This is beyond the necessary point for drip, or bubble-tight, closure; and, to prevent such inadvertent overclosure, the valve can be equipped with a tell-tale limit stop. This device gives an indication to all operators when valve is fully closed. The valve specifications applicable to diaphragm valves are similar to those applicable to other types of standard valves, with one exception. The valve, in some sizes, does not conform to ASA Globe Valve end-to-end dimensions, due to inherent geometry of the design. The valve can be supplied in 125 or 150 psi ASA flange specifications; also, flat-face, raised-face, or in special combinations of valve ends and flange drillings. The material of construction of the valve can be supplied according to ASTM material specifications, where applicable. During assembly and testing, the valve is tested both pneumatically and hydraulically for overall tightness and shutoff. The valve can also meet rigid assembly specifications to pass the G. E. Halogen-Snifter test; also made with special surface finishes, in combination with non-contaminating diaphragm materials, for food, antibiotic and pharmaceutical applications. The applications of the valve are legion. As an example, nuclear applications have been very satisfactory with the handling of heavy water, solvent extraction processes, and auxiliary services in nuclear chemical plant processing. The valve has found wide application in practically all types of plating processes, inasmuch as it combines ideal corrosion-resistance while avoiding conductance or short-circuiting; also it eliminates contamination of the plating solution. In the textile industry, the valve has had wide application in synthetic-fiber manufacture, sulphuric and hydrochloric acid handling and manufacture, and nitric acid applications. Pulp and paper mill applications, tanning, and metal refining applications, are additional uses of valve. To further illustrate the applicability simplified, diagrammatic flow sheet showing typical industrial process where the valves have been given exceptional performance refer to Fig. 9.

Summary This valve, of all industrial classes, is capable of the greatest selection and combinations of materials of construction. Consequently, the valve has been produced with over 100 combinations of body material, and some twenty combinations of diaphragm materials. Each one of these combinations is dictated by the peculiar requirements of the corrosive solution being handled, and the temperature and pressure of operation. While not a precision throttling device, the valve has good throttling qualities within limited rangeability, and relatively low pressure-drop characteristics. All of these attributes have further extended its application into the precision control and instrumentation field, for the controlled flow of corrosive and abrasive materials. These rigid requirements have caused this valve to lead the development of new constructional materials, as the demands of corrosion, temperature and pressure have increased.

Butterfly Valves
By Abdon J. Brazaitis Sales Engineer Henry Pratt Company Chicago, Ill.

Butterfly valves are one of the oldest practical devices for controlling the flow of fluids. They had their beginnings in light weight, non-tight applications such as dampers. Partly because of this early history of light weight construction, and also because of a lack of adequate flow data, engineers were, for a long time, reluctant to specify butterfly valves in industrial applications. The development of a leak-tight, workable rubber seat, however, gave considerable impetus to the industrial use of the valve, and experience with it soon overcame the early objections. The first rubber seat butterfly valve was designed by the late William H. Phillips, and manufactured by the Henry Pratt Co. in 1926. This valve found immediate and widespread acceptance in the power industry, the first major industry to make extensive use of it. As the size of central station equipment increased, with mushrooming power demands, condenser circulating water pipe also increased in size bringing problems in specification of large diameter valving. By specifying the butterfly valve, power engineers secured the advantage of a compact, light weight valve which does not require the use of any supports other than those required by the pipeline itself.

An additional advantage is that natural gum rubber has an excellent "memory", in that it resists permanent indentation. With the natural preservative action of water, the valve seat life greatly exceeds that of any other valve type. One rubber seat butterfly valve, on a test installation, was cycled every 20 minutes for a period of about three years, until a total of 80,000 cycles was accumulated. When returned to the shop, this valve tested bubble-tight.

Function in Power Plants There are a number of important applications for butterfly valves in modern power plant. One of the main applications is in the condenser backwash systems which provide periodic cleansing of the tube sheets. Some plants employ only partial backwash systems, but the newest have total systems which permit backwashing the condenser without loss of condenser vacuum, and with only a momentary drop in generating capacity. Butterfly valves find their widest power plant usage in these condenser flow-reversing systems. In connection with reversing systems, we might briefly mention the successful development of the Butterfly Reversing Valve, which can be likened to a giant four-way valve. This valve employs an elliptical butterfly disc to accomplish flow reversal, and is sometimes better suited than are several round valves. Over the years, dozens of systems have been developed for interlocking, sequencing and actuating butterfly flow-reversing systems. The optimum recommendation can only be made after the valve manufacturer has made a detailed analysis of the hydraulic characteristics of the circulating-water system. Butterfly valves also find wide use as pump discharge valves, either for sectionalizing service when a number of pumps are connected into a common header, or as emergency closures to prevent flow-reversal in the event a pump goes out of service. Butterfly valves in pump discharge service can be synchronized with pump operation, so they will open as the pump starts; or, the pumps may be set to start operating at any point in the valve opening cycle. Valves can be installed "fail-safe", so that in the event of pump or power failure, the butterfly valve will close in a specified time. In the case where long lengths of pipeline are involved, a two-speed operator may be required. This type of operator allows the butterfly valve to close, for the major part of its travel, at a fairly fast speed, while the last portion of travel takes place at a considerably reduced speed. This avoids line shock pressures, while minimizing the water lost back to sump. The choice of the two closing speeds, and the exact transition point, is a function of the hydraulics of the system, and should be analyzed by the valve manufacturer for each specific application. Uses for butterfly valves, other than the aforementioned, are being discovered as power plant technology and design philosophy advance. As an example, with the advent of nuclear power, a new application required the development of the quick-closing butterfly valve. These are used on the air ventilation systems of reactor containment vessels. In normal operation the valves are in

the open position, allowing air to circulate through the containment vessel. However, in the event of a reactor incident, these valves must immediately close to maintain safety.

Valve Specifications Most circulating water valving is designed to a 50 psi standard. Rubber-seat butterfly valves in this pressure class will provide drop-tight shutoff at 50 psi, and will withstand 70 psi shock pressures. This class of valve is suitable for both circulating-water service and most pump discharge application; however, where required, valves in a 125 psi class are available. These valves are drop-tight at 125 psi, and suitable for the most rigorous application. Since power plant circulating water piping is of fabricated steel, a typical butterfly valve specification would be as follows: Body Disc Shaft Bearings Seat Taper Pins Retaining Segments Fabricated Steel (ASTM A7) Fab. Steel (ASTM A7) w/ stainless steel seating edge 18-8, Type 304 stainless steel Silicone lubricated bronze Natural Gum Rubber Compound 18-8 stainless steel Nickel Cast Iron

(See Fig. 1 for example.)

Figure 1

Rubber-seat butterfly valves are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, from 4 inch diameter to 11 feet in diameter, and more. However, these represent extremes in sizing, and power plant valves are usually found in a range from 8 to 60 inches, with a few large plants using valves up to 84 inches in diameter. Power plants in coastal areas are frequently located close enough to the ocean to use it as a source of cooling water. For these applications, salt water corrosion is a special problem. For the ultimate in corrosion resistance, a valve can be fabricated entirely of monel, but the cost of such construction is quite high, and seldom can be justified. Two suitable and economical alternates are tabulated in the Table. Alternate No. 1 covers a material specification which has many years of proven service. The bronze and monel material combinations are traditionally the materials chosen for salt water service due to their reliability. Since the keeper segments, and rubber seat, cover the inside surface of the body, the cast iron material specification has proven ideally suited to salt water from the standpoint of corrosion resistance and economy of initial cost. Alternate No. 2 takes advantage of the newer and more economical materials developed in past years. The Ni-Resist and 18-8 Type 304 stainless steel combinations are being more extensively used as the test of time indicates their reliability.

Selecting the Valve Operator

There are three operator types generally used on butterfly valves in power plants. These are: (1) manual gear reducer; (2) electric motor; and (3) hydraulic cylinder. The most popular of these operators is the electric motor (Fig. 2), because its operating requirements are a product of the plant itself. Beyond this obvious fact, however, the push-button control requirements of the modern generating station require an operator which can be Figure 2 remotely controlled, and which is reliable and essentially maintenance-free. The electric motor operator satisfies all of these requirements. The operator consists of an electric motor, coupled through a worm gear assembly which is spline-connected to the valve

shaft. Integral limit switches are available for interlocking, sequence operation, and position indication. A torque switch in the motor circuit prevents operator damage, by shutting off the motor if the valve disc meets with an obstruction. Operators may be equipped with remote position indicators and a variety of other equipment to meet specific requirements.

Manual gear-reduction operators (Fig. 3) are used mainly in plants which do not employ automatic backwash systems. Supplied with handwheel or chainwheel, the operator provides great mechanical advantage, allowing oneman operation of even very large valves.
Figure 3

Hydraulic cylinder operators (Fig. 4) are finding increasing usage in modern power plants. Available in a wide range of sizes, the cylinder operator offers considerable flexibility of selection to meet a particular application. For maximum economy, hydraulic cylinders operating in the range of 1000-2000 psi are usually specified. Where a number of valves are involved, a common hydraulic system may be employed, using a single source of high pressure oil. For single valves, or where their installation is otherwise desirable, self-contained "power packages" are available. These units include the hydraulic cylinder, pump, motor, oil reservoir, and all related valves and controls, mounted together on the butterfly valve.

Figure 4

Hydraulic cylinder operators (Fig. 4) are finding increasing usage in modern power plants. Available in a wide range of sizes, the cylinder operator offers considerable flexibility of selection to meet a particular application. For maximum economy, hydraulic cylinders operating

in the range of 1000-2000 psi are usually specified. Where a number of valves are involved, a common hydraulic system may be employed, using a single source of high pressure oil. For single valves, or where their installation is otherwise desirable, self-contained "power packages" are available. These units include the hydraulic cylinder, pump, motor, oil reservoir, and all related valves and controls, mounted together on the butterfly valve.

Operator Sizing A great deal of technical information has been published in recent years, describing the design of butterfly valves. The principal valve manufacturers have printed tables and charts which permit the selection of properly sized operators when flow and pressure conditions are known, eliminating the need for complete evaluation of each application. However, an explanation of some of these design considerations can be extremely helpful in understanding the butterfly valve, in applying it properly, and in specifying it wisely. The butterfly valve is basically a simple device, but since the configuration of the valve disc (relative to the flowing stream during the opening cycle) is different from other valve types, the forces encountered will vary. Referring to Fig. 5, we see all of the torques represented, and the relative sequence in which they occur. The torques shown are Th (hydrostatic unbalance), Ts (seating torque), Tb1 (bearing friction torque, valve closed), Ta (fluidynamic torque) and Tb2 (bearing friction torque under flow conditions).

Figure 5

Hydrostatic unbalance torque, Th, exists only when a large valve, in water service, is mounted in a horizontal pipeline with its shaft horizontal, and the pipeline downstream of the valve is empty, while the upstream pipeline is full. This torque is the result of the hydraulic gradient from top to bottom of the full pipeline, producing an off-center action on the valve disc, with resultant unbalanced torque. The unbalance is given by the formula:

d4 Th = -----565' where: Th = hydrostatic unbalance; lb. inches d = valve diameter; inches For the hydrostatic unbalance to be of any concern, the valve must be of large diameter, must open into a dry system, and must be mounted with the shaft horizontal. The likelihood of all three of these conditions occurring at the same time is rare, and the effects of hydrostatic unbalance need not be considered in this discussion. The seating torque, Ts, as its name implies, is the torque required to rotate the valve disc into, and out of, the rubber seat. Its magnitude depends only on valve diameter and the seat material, and is a constant function for any particular valve design. The bearing friction torque, Tb, is the frictional resistance to rotation imposed on the valve shaft by the bearings. Fig. 5 shows the valve in the closed position where the bearing friction torque, Tb1, is a function of the differential pressure across the valve disc, the disc area, the valve shaft radius, and the coefficient of friction between the valve shaft and bearings. The torque required to open the closed valve, shown in Fig. 5, then becomes the sum of the seating torque, Ts and and the bearing friction torque, Tb1. As the butterfly valve disc is rotated in the opening direction, a new force is encountered. This is known as the fluidynamic torque, and is shown as Ta in Fig. 5. This torque can be likened to the "lift" experienced by an airplane wing exposed to an airstream. Another good way of describing this phenomenon is the Bernoulli analogy which states, very generally, that a region of low velocity is a region of high pressure and, conversely, a region of high velocity is a region of low pressure. Referring to Fig. 5, it is seen that the trailing edge of the disc forms a nozzle-lie configuration with the valve body, whereas the leading edge forms a rather orifice-like configuration with the valve body. Logic dictates that the trailing edge opening would become the region of high velocity, and the leading edge opening one of low velocity. The resultant pressure distribution pattern, in Fig. 5, shows a pronounced unbalance on one side of the valve shaft which, when summed up about the centerline of the valve shaft, results in the fluidynamic torque, Ta, tending to close the valve. Reversing the flow through the valve will still create a fluidynamic torque acting to close it, since the positions of the leading edge and trailing edge have simply been reversed, and the resulting pressure distribution is unbalanced in the same way. The magnitude of the fluidynamic torque is dependent on a mathematical relationship between the valve diameter, flow velocity, angle of the valve disc, and pressure distribution across the valve. Its peak usually occurs between disc angles of 30 and 80 degrees. Equations developed from experimental flow data enable the prediction of this torque quite accurately. The bearing friction torque, Tb2, is distinguished from the torque, Tb1, because it varies throughout the opening cycle of the valve as the pressure drop varies with valve disc angle.

Fluidynamic torque, Ta, and the bearing friction torque, Tb2, are additive for the opening of the valve. As the valve is being closed, however, the bearing friction torque, Tb2, subtracts from Ta, since the bearing friction torque reverses algebraic sign as the direction of shaft is reversed. Once all of these torque values have been established, the operator sizing becomes a relatively simple matter. The fluidynamic torque, plus bearing friction torque (open), (Ta + Tb2), are calculated for various valve angles, and the peak value determined. This peak value is then compared with the seating torque, plus bearing friction torque (closed), (Ta + Tb1). The larger of the values of (Ta + Tb2 or (Ts + Tb1) governs the choice of operator size.

Flow Characteristics of Valve Butterfly valves, in addition to serving as shutoffs, can also be used for throttling applications. An index of the excellent throttling characteristics of the butterfly valve is the fact that it has a control rangeability of 45 to 1. A rubber-seat butterfly valve can be used for throttling service and, when required, can be moved to the full closed position to give tight shutoff. In Fig. 6 there is a tabulation of the flow coefficients, Cf, and corresponding head loss K-factors, for valve angles from full closed to full open position. The left column cover flow coefficients and head loss factors for a 50 psi design valve, while the right columns cover the 125 psi construction. The heavier disc construction of the 125 psi valve reflects itself in the higher head loss coefficients, for valve angles 80 to 90 degrees.

Figure 6

It is interesting to note that up through the angle of 75 degrees, the loss coefficients for both the low-pressure and high-pressure construction are identical. This results from the fact that up to this point the head loss coefficient is a function of the valve disc angle only. From about 75 degrees, to the full open position, the disc thickness becomes the controlling factor, as the leading edge of the disc begins to swing into the "shadow" of the disc thickness. Since the highpressure valve disc is thicker than the low pressure disc, the corresponding head loss factors in this range are higher. In addition to these coefficients, Fig. 6 has various formulas for flow, velocity, and head loss for use with the coefficients.

Summary This brief outline indicates the scope of butterfly valve equipment, operators, controls and control arrangements that are available for power plant use. In order to obtain equipment

recommendations which will yield optimum results in service, it is advisable to contact one of the number of reputable valve manufacturers in this field. Using the wealth of technical data validated by years of practical experience, the valve manufacturer can solve valving problems, provided he has a thorough knowledge of the application involved. The valve manufacturer can supply the experience, but information about the application can come only from the power engineer.