Q6-What is science?

Science is the intensive human effort to understand better, the history of the natural world and how
the natural world works, with observable physical evidence as the basis of that understanding. It is done
through observation of natural phenomena, and through experimentation that tries to simulate natural
processes under controlled conditions experimentation that tries to replicate natural processes under controlled
conditions.

Q6-What are the main parts on which Science has investigated?

A science has investigated on three main parts.The observation, identification, description, experimental
investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena. Nothing is immune to the scientific process:

Q7-.What is the fuel for the human body?

Basically, nutrition is all about the study of food and how our bodies use food as fuel for growth and
daily activities. The macronutrients include proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. The micronutrients are the
vitamins and minerals that we need to be healthy. As well as the Human Body is a wonderful,
complicated machine, whose parts all work together to keep the body healthy, like as the digestive,
respiratory, nervous, skeletal, muscular, and circulatory systems all work together in your body to give it
the fuel and energy.

Q7-Why does the body need fuel?

Your body runs just like an engine are required fruits, vegetables, water, whole grains, low fat protein
sources.

Why are these things important?

* Eating a well-balanced diet fills your body with disease fighting anti-oxidants and keeps your
body and brain working at their peak levels.

* Sugar suppresses the body's immune system.

* Your body is made mostly of water. You need to replace it daily. Keep your muscles and brain
"well-oiled".

* Lack of good quality sleep keeps your body and mind from working at peak performance and
suppresses the immune system. Stress, if not defused, will suppress the immune system.

* Exercise keeps the body & muscles working well and helps with stress.

Q.7-Of what should a balanced diet consist?

An ideal balanced diet consists of sufficient amounts of vegetables and fruits within calorie limits.
Vegetables consumed should be all types like dark green vegetable, legumes and starchy vegetables.
This helps to build the iron and zinc levels in your body. Each day's meal should contain whole grain
meals, milk products. Protein rich fish, beans, peas, nuts and seeds should be a permanent part of a
balanced diet.

Q-7Why is water important in a balanced diet?

Why You Need to Drink Water

Your body is estimated to be about 60 to 70 percent water. Blood is mostly water, and your muscles,
lungs, and brain all contain a lot of water. Your body needs water to regulate body temperature and to
provide the means for nutrients to travel to all your organs. Water also transports oxygen to your cells,
removes waste, and protects your joints and organs.

How Much Water do You Need to Drink?

A good estimate is to take your body weight in pounds and divide that number in half. That gives you
the number of ounces of water per day that you need to drink. For example, if you weigh 160 pounds,
you should drink at least 80 ounces of water per day. If you exercise you should drink another eight
ounce glass of water for every 20 minutes you are active. If you drink alcohol, you should drink at least
an equal amount of water. When you are traveling on an airplane, it is good to drink eight ounces of
water for every hour you are on board the plane. If you live in an arid climate, you should add another
two servings per day. As you can see, your daily need for water can add up to quite a lot.

Twenty percent of your water need will come from the foods you eat. The rest of your water need should
come from the beverages you drink. Water is the best choice. Sodas have a lot of sugar in them, so if you
drink sodas, you may take in more calories than you need. Herbal teas that aren't diuretic are fine. Sports
drinks contain electrolytes and may be beneficial, just look out for added sugar and calories that you
don't need. Juices are good because they have vitamins and nutrients.

Caffeinated beverages will also add to your daily water need. Even though caffeine is a diuretic, if you
regularly consume caffeine, your body will regulate itself to that diuretic effect.

One glass of water shuts down midnight hunger pangs for almost 100% of the dieters studied in a
University study.

Preliminary research indicates that 8-10 glasses of water a day could significantly ease back and joint
pain for up to 80% of sufferers.

A mere 2% drop in body water can trigger fuzzy short-term memory, trouble with basic math, and
difficulty focusing on the computer screen.

Drinking 5 glasses of water daily decreases the risk of colon cancer by 45%, plus it can slash the risk of
breast cancer by 79%, and one is 50% less likely to develop bladder cancer.

Are you drinking the amount of water you should every day?

. Q7- Why is it important to eat a balanced diet?

In order for the body to successfully utilise the energy available within the food and use it properly,
humans must intake the required amount of nutrients and minerals that our body requires; this can be
done by having a balanced diet. A good diet will consist of the right measurement of the following
compounds.

• Vitamins - Vitamins are required for various chemical reactions in the body. They can be found
mostly in dairy products, fruits and vegetables.
• Proteins - Proteins are also vitally important as part of a balanced diet. Proteins have many
functions such as globular proteins in the body which make enzymes, hormones and antibodies
for example, all essential to human existence
• Carbohydrates - Carbohydrates are compounds that consist of carbon (carbo-), hydrogen
(-hydr-) and oxygen (-ate) atoms. Glucose, the compound that is broken down in the first step of
respiration is an example of a carbohydrate, hence the important of carbohydrates in diets.
• Fats - Also known as lipids, fats produce twice the amount of energy that carbohydrates are
capable of producing, and this is due to the more complex nature of their structure. Their are five
different types of lipid, either, triglycerides, phospholipids, glycolipids, steroids and waxes
• Minerals - These inorganic substances are required for a variety of reasons in the body. One
such example is the requirement of iron, which is present in haemoglobin, in its role of absorbing
oxygen from the lungs into the bloodstream.

Q.8-From where do all living things inherit their characteristics?

What are: Chromosomes & Genes?

Chromosomes: Human cells normally contain 46 chromosomes. A Chromosome is a thread of protein

with many genes attached to it. The chromosomes have 23 pairs rather than 46 separate ones; this is
because each one of us inherits 23 chromosomes from each parent. When we make gametes (sperms and
eggs) a different kind of cell division occurs. When a sperm fertilizes an egg, there will be 23 pairs of
chromosomes again. Of these 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 pairs control quite ordinary features like eye
color and hair color. One pair of chromosomes controls sex i.e. which one you will be. These are the X
and Y chromosomes.

Genes and Alleles: A human cell contains millions of bits of DNA; each bit is a piece of information
which is used to control how the cell works and ultimately what we look like. My hair is brown because
that is what the information in my genes makes it. If you saw me you would see that it is now going grey
that is because of all the stress that I have as a teacher and because I am getting older; this is not to do
with my genes but is caused by my environment. For every characteristic a cell contains two bits of
DNA or genes. These two genes may be the same as each other homozygous or different to each other
heterozygous.

DNA: this is the chemical which carries genetic information in the nuclei of cells.

Gene: this is a bit of DNA.

Chromosome: this is a strand of protein with a large number of DNA molecules attached to it. The
number of chromosomes varies between different animals and plants. The full number in humans is 46
(23 pairs).

Alleles: these are different versions of a gene e.g. B and b see eye color above.
Dominant: this is the allele which will be "expressed" in the phenotype if it is present as either a single
gene or as two genes. B.

Recessive: this is the allele which is only expressed if these are two such alleles e.g. b.

Co-dominance: this is when neither of two alleles is dominant to the other. Here there are three
genotypes HH, HS and SS; each produces a different phenotype.

Homozygous: this means having two identical alleles, e.g. BB or bb.

Heterozygous: this means having a dominant and a recessive allele e.g. Bb.

Genotype: this is what genes you carry e.g. BB, Bb or bb

Phenotype: this is what you look like e.g. brown or blue eyes.

Mitosis: this is a genetically exact division of a cell.

Meiosis: this is a genetically inexact division of cell reducing the number of chromosomes to a half the
normal number. This is what happens in the testis and ovary; meiosis produces gametes.

Gametes: these are the sex cells i.e. sperms and eggs. Eggs are also called ova.

Mutations: this is change or mistake in copying a gene. Most mutations result in recessive genes. The
information in the DNA molecule has been corrupted and it will no longer produce the correct protein.

OBJECTIVE: To demonstrate increased knowledge of shape identification.

MATERIALS: Paper, Marker, Artifacts within the classroom (i.e. Flag, Clock, etc.), Worksheet,
Crayons, Shape Blocks, and Shape Bingo Game.

VOCABULARY: Square, Triangle, Rectangle, Diamond, Circle, Oval, Pentagon, Octagon.

LAUNCH: Ask the students to describe the word "shape". Answers may include an object's form,
a person's figure, or they may name specific geometric shapes.

DIRECTIONS:

1. Ask the students to give the characteristics of a specific shape, such as a square.
2. Write these descriptions down on a big piece of paper that can be hung later.
3. Continue writing the characteristics until all the desired shaped are finished.
4. Ask the children to go around the room and locate each of the shapes. If possible, have the
children bring the item back to the table and describe its characteristics to the group.
5. To further their identification abilities, have each student do the front of the worksheet.
6. Turn the worksheet over and have the students draw a picture of a piece of pizza, using the
shapes they learned as toppings.
7. Review the characteristics of each shape, and ask if anyone would like to add or delete
anything from the list.
8. Play Shape Bingo.
 9. Have the children identify each shape, after they call BINGO.

DISCUSSION: Talk about how the students used the characteristics to help them identify each
shape. Ask them what other activities require the knowledge of shapes. Some of these may include
Shoots and Ladders, building blocks, and art work.

Q.8-from Where do living things inherit their characteristics?

Before moving on to the development of microscopic organisms on Earth, we must first describe
the characteristics of life. All matter, both living and non-living, is composed of miniature chemical
building blocks called atoms?. Your body contains billions of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus and carbon atoms.

What is life? What does it mean do be alive? How is something made “living”? These are all
pertinent questions when discussing the origin of life. Scientists have identified seven basic
characteristics of life.

1.Cells are the basic components of all living things. Some organisms are single celled, like
bacteria, or multi-celled, like humans.

2. Living organisms require energy, usually in the form of ATP?. They use this energy to carry out
energy-requiring activities such as metabolism and locomotion.

3.All living organisms reproduce, either by sexual or asexual.

4. Living organisms inherit traits from the parent organisms that created them. This is called
heredity.
5. All living things respond to stimuli? in their environment

6. Living organisms adapt to their environment and evolve.

All living things...

...Are Composed of Cells

This is a single-celled organism called an amoeba.
Courtesy The Cell

...Require Energy
This is a molecular model of ATP, the metabolic "energy
currency" of all cells. Courtesy Jacob Halaska
 ...Reproduce

This is an image of a plant cell undergoing

mitosis (metaphase stage). Courtesy: S. D.
Clark

...Display Heredity
These are two daughter cells containing identical genetic
material. Courtesy: Cornell University

...Respond to the Environment

This is an image of a stomata opening in

response to light stimulus. Courtesy Eric
Kruger

...Maintain Homeostasis

All living things maintain a state of internal balance. This is called homeostasis?.

...Evolve and Adapt

This is a petri dish containing bacteria that cause tuberculosis. Antibiotics
were once effective in combating this bacteria, but unfortunately these
organisms have adapted a resistance to these antibiotics. Courtesy The Why
Files

Using these characteristics, one can categorize things as living or non-living. Imagine if you were a
biologist who had never been to Earth before. You have been sent on a mission to determine
whether these things called “trees” are alive. How do trees satisfy the seven characteristics of living
things? Now investigate some other things on Earth. Are viruses qualified as living?

This is a very interesting question which has instigated many heated debates in scientific circles.
Why are viruses such a big deal? Well, viruses are interesting because they are neither inanimate
nor living; a virus is "midway between brute matter and living organism" (Wolfhard Weidel).
Because of this ambiguity, it is difficult to define and classify viruses. Although viruses are not
composed of cells, they possess all the other characteristics of living things. They replicate, require
energy (from living cells), adapt, respond to stimuli and display heredity. Because viruses satisfy
six of the seven characteristics of living things, they are on the verge of being classified as a living
organism. Perhaps the haziness surrounding our very definition of "living" is at fault for not
including viruses as a form of life. As scientist Wolfhard Weidel once said, "nothing brings us so
close to the riddle of Life - and to its solution - as viruses".

Conception
Sperm carries the father's chromosomes to the mother's ovum where they combine with
her chromosomes at the time of conception. Sperm cells are microscopic, but ova may be
large enough in some species to be visible with the naked eye. Human ova are about the
diameter of a hair.

Human sex cells (not drawn to the same scale)

The two sequential division processes of meiosis culminate in the production of gametes with
only half the number of chromosomes of somatic cells. As a result, human sperm and ova
each have only 23 single-stranded chromosomes.

Summary of reduction division in meiosis

Human somatic cells, with their full set of 46 chromosomes, have what geneticists refer to as a
diploid number of chromosomes. Gametes have a haploid number (23). When
conception occurs, a human sperm and ovum combine their chromosomes to make a zygote
(fertilized egg) with 46 chromosomes. This is the same number that the parents each had
in their somatic cells. In doing this, nature is acting conservatively. Each generation inherits
the same number of chromosomes. Without reducing their number by half in meiosis first,
each new generation would have double the number of chromosomes in their cells as the
previous one. Within only 15 generations, humans would have over 1½ million chromosomes
per cell and would be a radically different kind of animal. In fact, when a zygote has an extra
set of chromosomes, it usually is spontaneously aborted by the mother's reproductive system--
it is a lethal condition.

The complete meiosis process in human males takes about 74 hours. Spermatogenesis
usually begins at 12-13 years of age and continues throughout life. Several hundred million
sperm cells are produced daily by healthy young adult males. Between 200 and 600 million
sperm cells are normally released in each ejaculation. Since only one sperm cell is required
for conception, this huge number would seem to be an extreme overkill. However, as many as
20% of sperm cells are likely to be defective and the female reproductive tract is hostile even
to healthy ones--it is acidic and contains antibodies that seek out and destroy the sperm cells.
Ejaculating large numbers of sperm at the same time is nature's way of overcoming these
difficulties and increasing the likelihood that conception will take place. The number of sperm
cells produced can be significantly diminished by psychological and physiological stress.
Sperm count also progressively declines with age after reaching a peak, usually in the early
20's. In addition, the percentage of sperm that move randomly rather than in a straight line
generally increases in older men. The result is a decrease in male fertility. The genes that are
responsible for sperm production are in the Y sex chromosome. Unfortunately, the mutation
rate for the Y chromosome is thought to be thousands of times higher than for those in other
chromosomes. This may be a major cause of male infertility. As a result, genetic testing is
beginning to be used to diagnose it.

Most human cells are frequently reproduced and replaced during the life of an individual.
However, the process varies with the kind of cell. Somatic , or body cells, such as those
that make up skin, hair, and muscle, are duplicated by mitosis . The sex cells, sperm and
ova, are produced by meiosis in special tissues of male testes and female ovaries .
Since the vast majority of our cells are somatic, mitosis is the most common form of cell
replication.

Mitosis
The cell division process that produces new cells for growth, repair, and the general
replacement of older cells is called mitosis. In this process, a somatic cell divides into two
complete new cells that are identical to the original one. Human somatic cells go through the 6
phases of mitosis in 1/2 to 1 1/2 hours, depending on the kind of tissue being duplicated.
 Six phases of mitosis

mitosis close up

Mitosis--video clip from Teachers' Domain

View in: QuickTime or Windows Media Player
(length = 1 min 35 secs)

Some human somatic cells are frequently replaced by new ones and other cells are rarely
duplicated. Hair, skin, and fingernails are replaced constantly and at a rapid rate throughout
our lives. In contrast, brain and nerve cells in the central nervous system are rarely produced
after we are a few months old. Subsequently, if they are destroyed later, the loss is usually
permanent, as in the case of paraplegics. Liver cells usually do not reproduce after an
individual has finished growing and are not replaced except when there is an injury. Red blood
cells are also somewhat of an exception. While they are being constantly produced in our
bone marrow, the specialized cells from which they come do not have nuclei nor do the red
blood cells themselves.

Meiosis
Meiosis is a somewhat similar but more complex process than mitosis. This is especially true
in females. While mitosis produces 2 daughter cells from each parent cell, meiosis results in 4
sex cells, or gametes in males and 1 in females. Unlike the cells created by mitosis,
gametes are not identical to the parent cells. In males, meiosis is referred to as
spermatogenesis because sperm cells are produced. In females, it is called oögenesis
because ova, or eggs, are the main ultimate product. The illustration below shows the 8
phases of spermatogenesis.
Q-7 what is the deficiency disease?

Nutrient deficiency diseases occur when there is an absence of nutrients which are essential
for growth and health.
There are more than 50 known nutrients in food. Nutrients enable body tissues to grow and
maintain themselves. They contribute to the energy requirements of the individual organism
and they regulate the processes of the body. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins provide the
body with energy. The energy producing component of food is measured in calories. Aside from
the water and fiber content of food, which are also important for their role in nutrition.
There are about 25 mineral elements in the body usually appearing in the form of simple salts.
Some that are essential are calcium, phosphorous, iodine, iron.
Q-7:What safety precautions should you take when carrying out food tests?
Q.7-Find out what an emulsion is?

An emulsion (suspension) is a stable mixture of oil and water that does not separate. Many foods and
things around the house, for example hand creams or mayonnaise, are emulsions. The oil and water are
kept together in an emulsion by compounds called emulsifiers.

Q.7-What is Clinistix and albustix used for?

Clinistix: is a commercially available product for testing for of glucose in urine. It turns purple if
glucose is present.

Albustix: is a commercially available product for testing for the presence protein in Urine
Food Test 1: Sugar test-Benedict's solution

Benedict's solution is used to test for simple sugars, such as glucose. It is a clear blue solution of sodium
and copper salts. In the presence of simple sugars, the blue solution changes color to green, yellow, and
brick-red, depending on the amount of sugar.

What to do.

1. Mix small amount of each food sample with distilled water to make a test liquid.
2. To a test tube, add 40 drops of liquid to be tested.
 3. If testing more than one liquid, label each test tube with a marker.
4. Add 10 drops of Benedict's solution to each test tube. Carefully heat the test tubes by
suspending in a hot water bath at about 40-50 degrees celsius for five minutes.
5. Note any color change. If sugar is present solution will turn green, yellow, or brick-red,
depending on sugar concentration.

Food Test 2: Protein - Biuret solution

Biuret solution is used to identify the presence of protein. Biuret reagent is a blue solution that, when it
reacts with protein, will change color to pink-purple.

What to do.

1. To a test tube, add 40 drops of liquid to be tested.

2. If testing more than one liquid, label each test tube with a marker.
3. Add 3 drops of Biuret reagent solution to each test tube. Shake gently to mix.
4. Note any color change. Proteins will turn solution pink or purple.

Food Test 3: Fat - Sudan III stain

Sudan III is used to identify the presence of lipids in liquids. It will stain fat cells red.

What to do.

1. To a test tube, add equal parts of test liquid and water to fill about half full.
2. If testing more than one liquid, label each test tube with a marker.
3. Add 3 drops of Sudan III stain to each test tube. Shake gently to mix.
4. A red-stained oil layer will separate out and float on the water surface if fat is present.

Food Test 4: Vitamin C

Vitamin C Reagent (dichlorophenolindophenol) indicator solution is blue. A colorless end point will be
reached when a solution containing vitamin C (such as orange juice) is added to this indicator.

What to do.

First, prepare test solution by grinding vitamin C reagent tablet into a powder using a mortar and pestle or
back of a spoon. Pour powder into dropper bottle and add 30ml (1 oz.) of distilled water.
If testing more than one liquid, label each test tube with a marker. Fill each with 50 drops of blue vitamin C
indicator solution.

Now add juice one drop at a time to the indicator solution in the test tube.

Count drops until dark blue color turns clear. This is your end point.

Compare different juices. Those that require more drops to reach the clear end point are LOWER in vitamin C.

A Tube Within a Tube

Q7why must food be digested

There are some things that must happen to food so it can reach the cells.

1. It must be crushed and mixed with the juices in your digestive system.
2. It must be changed into a form your cells can use.
3. It must be made small enough to pass from your digestive system into your body.

Why must it be so small? This is because your digestive system is like a tube that goes from your mouth
to your anus. It can be anywhere from 6 to 9 meters long, though it is coiled up. There is no opening
between your digestive system and the rest of your body. The only way food can get to your body is
through the walls of your digestive system. To do that, it has to be a very small, as small as a molecule.
A molecule (MOLL-uh-kyool) is a tiny piece of matter made of atoms joined together.

The Mouth

Most people think that all your digestion happens in the stomach. That is not true. Digestion starts in the
mouth. Actually, it starts even before then! When you smell or think of food, your mouth starts
producing saliva (sal-EYE-vuh). Saliva is not just water. It contains enzymes (EN-zimes), substances
made by the body which help changes happen. The enzyme in your saliva starts to break down the starch
in your food. The food must be crushed and mixed with the saliva, and this is where your teeth come in.
They are great at grinding, cutting, and tearing food. The food is chewed and moistened until it is a soft
wet ball called a bolus (BOWL-us), and then it is ready to go on.

The Esophagus

The tongue pushes the bolus to the back of the throat and, without your having to think about it, you
swallow. Swallowing closes the windpipe so the food will not go into your lungs, and pushes the food
down your esophagus. The esophagus is a muscular tube that goes down your throat to your stomach.
Every part of your digestive system is lined with muscles to keep the food moving. Food does not fall
through your system. It is pushed.

The way the esophagus moves the food is interesting. Again, without you having to think about it, the
muscles squeeze and relax in waves, squeezing the bolus down to the stomach. This movement is called
peristalsis (pair-uh-STALL-siss).

The Stomach

There is a tight place at the top of the stomach which must relax to let the food in. This place is called a
sphincter, and it is a ring of muscles which can open and close. Your stomach holds only 50-100 mL
normally, but when you eat a meal it can hold as much as a liter of food. It can hold even more, but you
will feel uncomfortable.

Inside the stomach, the lining releases water, hydrochloric (hi-droe-KLOR-ick) acid, and another
enzyme. Hydrochloric acid kills germs and makes it possible for the enzyme to work. The enzyme
breaks down protein. Meanwhile, the muscles lining your stomach squeeze and mix the food. The acid
does not hurt the lining of the stomach because it is protected with mucus.

Very little digestion happens in the stomach. The food is only there for 1-2 hours, though it takes longer
if your meal was high in fat. Gradually, the stomach releases food into the small intestine.

The Small Intestine

The small intestine is where most digestion happens. Though it is called "small," the small intestine is
actually very big. It is just not as fat as the large intestine. It is very long, 3-6 meters long, but it is all
coiled and bunched inside the body. In the small intestine, the starches and proteins finish digesting, and
fats are digested in the last third of the small intestine. Juices from organs called the pancreas and the
liver come in to help digest the food. The bile from the liver is very important in breaking down fat.
Also, there are many bacteria in your small intestine. Some of them make vitamins.
The small intestine is also where nutrients pass into the rest of the body. It is lined with tiny bumps
called villi. Through the skin of the villi, the nutrients can pass into the blood and into a fluid system in
the body known as the lymph.

The Large Intestine

All that is left now is fiber, water, bile, cells from the lining of the intestine, and bacteria. This material,
which cannot be digested, passes into the large intestine. The large intestine is shorter than the small
intestine, but it is thicker. Inside the large intestine, the water is taken out and returned to the body. What
is left is passed out of the body as waste, known as feces (FEE-seez).

This whole process of digestion might take as long as 24 hours. In other words, when you are eating
supper, you are still digesting your breakfast.

Homework

Questions: For your first assignment of the week, answer these questions in complete sentences on a
sheet of loose-leaf paper, with a proper header:

1. How must food be changed so it can reach the cells?

2. Choose one organ of the digestive system. Explain what happens to food in that part.
3. Where in the body does most digestion occur?
4. If you were hanging upside down by your knees, could you still digest food? Explain your
answer.

Q-7.How long does it take to digest food — from the time you eat it to the time you
excrete it in urine or stool?
Answer
Digestion time varies depending on the individual. For healthy adults, it's usually between 24 and 72 hours.
After you eat, it takes about six to eight hours for food to pass through your stomach and small intestine.
Food then enters your large intestine (colon) for further digestion and absorption of water. Elimination of
undigested food residue through the large intestine usually begins after 24 hours. Complete elimination from
the body may take several days.

Q.7 What is peristalsis

A wave-like squeezing motion in a tube. Food moves down the esophagus by peristalsis. A
peristalsis
mouse moves through a boa constrictor by peristalsis

Foods which provide energy. They are often called starches and sugars, and are found in
carbohydrate
things like bread, pasta, fruit, and cereal.
protease, peptidase, proteinase, proteolytic enzyme (any enzyme that catalyzes the splitting of proteins
into smaller peptide fractions and amino acids by a process known as proteolysis)

lipase (an enzyme secreted in the digestive tract that catalyzes the breakdown of fats into individual
fatty acids that can be absorbed into the bloodstream)

Q.7:"biological catalysts
Enzymes are "biological catalysts." "Biological" means the substance in question is produced or is
derived from some living organism. "Catalyst" denotes a substance that has the ability to increase
the rate of a chemical reaction, and is not changed or destroyed by the chemical reaction that it
accelerates.

Generally speaking, catalysts are specific in nature as to the type of reaction they can
catalyze. Enzymes, as a subclass of catalysts, are very specific in nature. Each enzyme can act
to catalyze only very select chemical reactions and only with very select substances. An enzyme
has been described as a "key" which can "unlock" complex compounds. An enzyme, as the key,
must have a certain structure or multi-dimensional shape that matches a specific section of the
"substrate" (a substrate is the compound or substance which undergoes the change). Once these
two components come together, certain chemical bonds within the substrate molecule
change much as a lock is released, and just like the key in this illustration, the enzyme is free to
execute its duty once again.

Many chemical reactions do proceed but at such a slow rate that their progress would seem to be
imperceptible at normally encountered environmental temperature. Consider for example, the
oxidation of glucose or other sugars to useable energy by animals and plants. For a living organism
to derive heat and other energy from sugar, the sugar must be oxidized (combined with oxygen) or
metabolically "burned"

However, in a living system, the oxidation of sugar must meet an additional condition;
that oxidation of sugar must proceed essentially at normal body temperature. Obviously, sugar
surrounded by sufficient oxygen would not oxidize very rapidly at this temperature. In conjunction
with a series of enzymes created by the living organism, however, this reaction does
proceed quite rapidly at temperatures up to 100°F (38°C). Therefore, enzymes allow the living
organism to make use of the potential energy contained in sugar and other food substances.

Enzymes or biological catalysts allow reactions that are necessary to sustain life proceed relatively
quickly at the normal environmental temperatures. Enzymes often
increase the rate of a chemical reaction between 10 and 20 million times what the speed of
reaction would be when left uncatalyzed (at a given temperature).

Nutrients locked in certain organics are complex macromolecules, or in hard-to-digest matrices may
be released or predigested by a high degree of heat or concentrated acid treatment. In an
alternative manner, specific enzymes can promote the pre-digestion of certain complex nutrients
and facilitate the release of highly digestible nutrients in organics during processing without the
need of excessive heat or rigorous chemical treatment.

Q 7;What happens to starch when it is Digested

Our teeth break food down into small pieces when we chew. This is only a start to the process

of digestion, as chewed pieces of food are still too large to be absorbed by the body. Food has

to be broken down chemically into really small particles before it can be absorbed. Enzymes

are needed so that this break-down happens quickly enough to be useful.

Enzymes

Take care - enzymes are not living things. They are just special proteins that can break large

molecules into small molecules. Different types of enzymes can break down different nutrients:

• carbohydrase or amylase enzymes break down starch into sugar

• protease enzymes break down proteins into amino acids

• lipase enzymes break down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

Carbohydrates are digested in the mouth, stomach and small intestine. The saliva in your

mouth contains amylase. If you chew a piece of bread for long enough, the starch it contains is

digested to sugar, and it begins to taste sweet.

Carbohydrase enzymes break down starch into sugars

Proteins are digested in the stomach and small intestine. Digestion of proteins in the stomach

is helped by stomach acid, which is strong hydrochloric acid. This also kills harmful micro-

organisms that may be in the food.

 Protease enzymes break down proteins into amino acids

Digestion of fat in the small intestine is helped by bile, made in the liver. Bile breaks the fat into

small droplets that are easier for the lipase enzymes to work on.

Lipase enzymes break down fat into fatty acids and glycerol

Minerals, vitamins and water are already small enough to be absorbed by the body without

being broken down, so they are not digested. Digestive enzymes cannot break down fibre,

which is why it cannot be absorbed by the body.

Q7:amylase (any of a group of proteins found in saliva and pancreatic juice and parts of plants;
help convert starch to sugar)
Q7:Blood plasma

is the liquid component of blood, in which the blood cells are suspended. It makes up about 60% of
total blood volume. It is composed of mostly water (90% by volume), and contains dissolved proteins,
glucose, clotting factors, mineral ions, hormones and carbon dioxide (plasma being the main medium for
excretory product transportation). Blood plasma is prepared simply by spinning a tube of fresh blood in
a centrifuge until the blood cells fall to the bottom of the tube. The blood plasma is then poured or
drawn off. Blood serum is blood plasma without fibrinogen or the other clotting fact

Q7:Capillaries

are the smallest of a body's blood vessels, measuring 5-10 μm in diameter, which connect arterioles and
venules, and enable the interchange of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and many other nutrient and
waste chemical substances between blood and surrounding tissues.[1]

ors.[1]

Q7: tissue fluid or Interstitial fluid) is a solution which bathes and surrounds the cells of multicellular
animals. It is the main component of the extracellular fluid, which also includes plasma and transcellular
fluid. The interstitial fluid is found in the interstitial spaces, also known as the tissue spaces.

On average, a person has about 11 litres (2.4 imperial gallons) of interstitial fluid providing the cells of
the body with nutrients and a means of waste removal.

Q7:Volume of a sphere

Assuming that the ball is spherical in shape, the volume of a sphere is given by the formula

(4/3)(pi)(radius)3 cubic units

Source: www.icoachmath.com
Q8:deoxyribonucleic acid, desoxyribonucleic acid,
DNA ((biochemistry) a long linear polymer found in the nucleus of a cell and formed from nucleotides
and shaped like a double helix; associated with the transmission of genetic information) "DNA is the
king of molecules"
 Q.-8How many sex cells are made from one reproductive cell?

A reproductive cell having the haploid number of chromosomes, especially a mature sperm or egg
capable of fusing with a gamete of the opposite sex to produce the fertilized egg.

Cell Reproduction
Most human cells are frequently reproduced and replaced during the life of an individual.
However, the process varies with the kind of cell. Somatic , or body cells, such as those
that make up skin, hair, and muscle, are duplicated by mitosis . The sex cells, sperm and
ova, are produced by meiosis in special tissues of male testes and female ovaries .
Since the vast majority of our cells are somatic, mitosis is the most common form of cell
replication.

Mitosis
The cell division process that produces new cells for growth, repair, and the general
replacement of older cells is called mitosis. In this process, a somatic cell divides into two
complete new cells that are identical to the original one. Human somatic cells go through the 6
phases of mitosis in 1/2 to 1 1/2 hours, depending on the kind of tissue being duplicated.

Six phases of mitosis

mitosis close up

Mitosis--video clip from Teachers' Domain

View in: QuickTime or Windows Media Player
(length = 1 min 35 secs)

Some human somatic cells are frequently replaced by new ones and other cells are rarely
duplicated. Hair, skin, and fingernails are replaced constantly and at a rapid rate throughout
our lives. In contrast, brain and nerve cells in the central nervous system are rarely produced
after we are a few months old. Subsequently, if they are destroyed later, the loss is usually
permanent, as in the case of paraplegics. Liver cells usually do not reproduce after an
individual has finished growing and are not replaced except when there is an injury. Red blood
cells are also somewhat of an exception. While they are being constantly produced in our
bone marrow, the specialized cells from which they come do not have nuclei nor do the red
blood cells themselves.

Meiosis
Meiosis is a somewhat similar but more complex process than mitosis. This is especially true
in females. While mitosis produces 2 daughter cells from each parent cell, meiosis results in 4
sex cells, or gametes in males and 1 in females. Unlike the cells created by mitosis,
gametes are not identical to the parent cells. In males, meiosis is referred to as
spermatogenesis because sperm cells are produced. In females, it is called oögenesis
because ova, or eggs, are the main ultimate product. The illustration below shows the 8
phases of spermatogenesis.

Phases of spermatogenesis (i.e., meiosis in males)

Q7-How many chromosomes are in a human?

Chromosomes contain the DNA of many characteristics that humans may have - gender, hair color, eye
color, skin color, etc. Humans have forty-six chromosomes. Chromosomes are often paired together -
humans have twenty-three chromosome pairs.

46; 23 from each of my parents.

Q7/babay grows from a single cell fertilized egg cell.

All living things are made up of cells, and depending on how complex the organism is, it may have one
cell, like a bacterium, or All living things are made up of cells, and depending on how complex the
organism is, it may have one cell, like a bacterium, or trillions of cells, like humans. The question is,
how does a fertilized human embryo with one cell develop into an adult with 5 trillion cells? The answer
is in a process referred to as cell division. A single fertilized human egg cell will divide to produce two
cells. The two cells have the same genetic information as each other and the parent cell. The cells will
continue to divide until trillions of cells are produced. This is how a fertilized egg grows into a baby, and
then an adult. This division of cells is referred to as mitosis.
During the cell cycle, a cell grows, prepares for division, and divides to create two daughter cells. The
three main stages of the cell cycle are interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis. Cells spend most of their
lives, about 78 percent of the time, not dividing in a phase called interphase. During interphase the cells
get larger, replicate their chromosomes for cell division, synthesize substances that are essential to cell
division, and build materials for growth and development. Cells in interphase have an easily seen
nucleus and nucleolus, and the chromosomes appear as short strands within the nucleus.

During interphase the chromosomes, which are composed of DNA, are replicated before the cell divides
so an exact copy of every chromosome is ready for each daughter cell. During mitosis the chromosomes
in a cell are split apart when the cell divides. Chromosomes contain the genetic information that is
passed from one generation to the next. The genetic information is DNA which is like the blueprints for
a cell. The DNA is identical in all cells of the body, but it is expressed differently in different types of
cells. In hair cells the DNA codes for the color of the hair. In eye cells it codes for the color of your eyes.
DNA also instructs each well when to divide, and how to function.

Mitosis occurs in four phases. The first phase is prophase. Cells in prophase have an enlarged nucleus,
the nucleolus is no longer visible, and the chromosomes appear as short jumbled strands within the
nucleus. Cells spend about 14 percent of the cell cycle in prophase. This is the next largest amount of
time spent in a phase after interphase. This phase takes longer than the others because the nuclear
envelope fragments and the microtubules have to attach to the chromosomes. Metaphase follows
prophase. Cells in metaphase have the chromosomes, which appear as long thin strands under the
microscope, lined up along the center of the cell. Metaphase takes about 4 percent of the time required
for the completion of a cell cycle. This is one of the quickest phases because all that occurs is the lining
up of the chromosomes at the center of the cell. The third phase is anaphase. This phase only takes about
0.8 percent of the cell cycle to complete, which is the shortest time required out of all the phases. During
anaphase the sister chromatids, or the two identical parts of a chromosome, are pulled apart to opposite
ends of the cell by the spindle fibers. This allows each daughter cell to have an identical copy of each of
the original cell’s chromosomes. The last stage of mitosis is telophase. Telophase takes up about 3
percent of the cell cycle. This is also a short phase. During telophase the chromosomes appear at the
opposite ends of the cell and a new nuclear membrane begins to form around the chromosomes in each
half of the cell. Cytokinesis occurs at the end of mitosis as the cytoplasm divides and two distinct cells
are formed. In plant cells, a cell plate forms halfway between the divided nuclei, and then a cell wall
appears in the cell plate. In animal cells, the cell membrane moves inward until the cytoplasm in pinched
in half. Each half has its own nucleus and cytoplasmic organelles.

Meiosis reduces the chromosomal number by half to form four haploid gametes, or reproductive cells,
that are genetically different. When gametes combine during fertilization the cell becomes diploid.
During the first half of meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate. During prophase I crossing-over
occurs. This results in the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes. During
meiosis I the number of chromosomes is split in half and the resulting cells are haploid. During meiosis
II the two chromatids of each chromosomes split and the resulting cells are haploid. At the end of
meiosis there are four haploid cells. Meiosis increases genetic variation in organisms through
independent assortment, crossing-over, and random fertilization.

trillions of cells, like humans. The question is, how does a fertilized human embryo with one cell
develop into an adult with 5 trillion cells? The answer is in a process crossing-over occurs. This results
in the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes. During meiosis I the number of
chromosomes is split in half and the resulting cells are haploid. During meiosis II the two chromatids of
each chromosomes split and the resulting cells are haploid. At the end of meiosis there are four haploid
cells. Meiosis increases genetic variation in organisms through independent assortment, crossing-over,
and random fertilization.
Volume of golf ball
Q.1describe how could you find the volume of golf
ball?
Volume can be defined as the amount of total space that is occupied by matter be it solid, liquid or a
gaseous substance. Volume is measured by the basic unit of cubic centimetre and it is expressed by the symbol
cm3. Generally the volume of any rectangular substance can be found with the help of a mathematical formula of
Volume = length x width x height. It is a very simple formula but it cannot be applied to odd-shaped objects like
corks and golf balls.

Therefore another method is used to find the volume of odd and irregularly shaped objects. This method is
known as the displacement of water. It is based on the Archimedes principle that the volume of an object would be
equal to the amount of water displaced. Hence the displacement of water would be equal to the volume of the
object. So just put a cork into a tub of water filled to the brim and you can find out its volume by the amount of
water displaced. The same method can be used to find out the volume of a golf ball.
answered 2 years ago

Q.2A midge beats its wing 1000 times each second. what is the average
time for a single beat?

. The secret of this kind of flight lies in rapid wing beats. The tiny midge beats its wings 1,000 times per
second to stay airborne, each beat contributing a minute amount of lift.

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Scientists have long known that the muscle contractions necessary to produce these rapid wing beats
are not triggered individually by nerve stimulus, as in birds. Nerves cannot work that fast. How then
does the midge fly? In Britain's New Scientist, Professor Vincent B. Wigglesworth, extracting reports by
other European scientists, supplies the answer: midges—and presumably other similar insects—are
automatic flying machines. A midge's muscular motor works in much the same way as a piston engine.
Once the ignition is turned on. the engine keeps running until the ignition is turned off or the fuel
exhausted.
Midge flight is controlled by two sets of opposed, springlike muscles in the insect's thorax. Acting
through elastic structures in the thorax wall, one muscle set draws the wings up, the other pulls them
down. At a specific point on the upswing, the wings "click" to a fully elevated position, the elevating
muscles automatically relax, and the tautly stretched depressing muscles take over. The same sequence
is repeated on the downswing. The flying muscles do not need to be triggered by nerve commands. The
insect's nerves serve only to start and stop the process—like the car's ignition.

Insect muscles that burn fat are fairly economical, but those that burn carbohydrates such as glycogen
are lavish with fuel. Reports Wigglesworth: the carbohydrate-fueled fruit fly, Drosophila, can stay aloft
for five hours at a stretch, but it beats its wings 250 times per second, and it burns up 10% of its body
weight during an hour's flight—proportionately as much fuel as a 600 m.p.h. jet airliner. Drosophila's
cruising speed: 2-3 m.p.h.

Social Studies
FAMOUS PERSON -- WHO AM I?

Appropriate for grades 4-9.

OVERVIEW: This is a review activity to be used at the end of a

unit or any quarter, semester or at the end of the year.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this activity is to review various

historical personalities studied.

OBJECTIVES: Students will be able to:

1. Identify the important contributions of each individual.

2. Formulate questions of a very specific nature.

ACTIVITIES: Each student will have a 3"x 5" note card taped to
their back with the name of an historical personality the class
has studied written on it. The student will not know the name of
this person. Their goal is to try to identify "who they are" by
asking questions that can be answered with a "yes" or "no" answer.
Some simple rules to follow are: no more than two questions at a
time can be asked of any one person, the student must figure out
who he/she is within 20 questions. Everyone who does this is a
winner but the person who figures out who he/she is in the least
number of questions is the grand winner. It might help if each
student started with a paper numbered from 1 to 20. After each
question, a number is erased (or checked) off. To prevent wild
guesses, a penalty of three numbers sh[‹
$•*É…Í•BzɁC•••Sº™™™½…Õ•Í›Ñ¡
с•Í•¹½ÉÉ•Ñ¹@When everyone has completed
the activity a sheet with all of the personalities on it can be
assigned for each student to make a general statement about.

RESOURCES/MATERIALS NEEDED: - 3"x 5" note cards

 - tape
- lists of historical personalities

TYING IT ALL TOGETHER: This has proved to be a very enjoyable way

the review a unit. It is different and the students love it. It
will probably take about 20 minutes to
complete.
TITLE: COMPARING CULTURES

AUTHOR: Mychael Willon; Unified School District #259

217 North Water Street, Wichita, Kansas 67202

GRADE LEVEL/SUBJECT: Appropriate for grades 1-5.

Subject areas include Language Arts and Social Studies.

OVERVIEW: Most elementary students have heard the traditional story

of Cinderella. Review this story with them, asking them to elaborate on
the parts they remember, such as the main characters and the setting.

PURPOSE: This lesson will encourage students to use the higher level
thinking skills and will help them learn to better cooperate with their
peers. It will also help students develop a respect for cultures different
from their own.

OBJECTIVE(s): As a result of this activity, the children will be able to :

1. Work with a partner to answer questions in a cooperative manner.
2. Compare two stories/cultures and point out how they are alike and
how they are different.
3. Share their own version of a well-known story and adapt it to
another culture, elaborating on why they made certain adaptations.

RESOURCES/MATERIALS: For this particular lesson, the teacher would

need Shirley Climo's, The Egyptian Cinderella. Actually, the teacher could
select any book with a well-known title, such as this one, and read it,
adapting the lesson by comparing it to the story that the students are
familiar with.

ACTIVITIES AND PROCEDURES: After reviewing the story of Cinderella

with the students, the teacher will then explain the cooperative learning
strategy of think-pair-share (TPS). The teacher will ask the students to
find a partner and hold up her/his hand, so that each student has only one
partner. If there is an off number of students, the teacher may want to
assign one group of three, or be a partner to the extra student. (If the
teacher feels more comfortable assigning pairs, that strategy would also
be appropriate.)

The teacher would then explain that the students are to watch her/him for
visual cues for questioning during the remainder of the lesson. The teacher
may use any hand signals for cueing, such as putting her/his finger to
her/his head indicating "think time", when everyone should be silently
thinking about the best answer to the question that the teacher has asked.
The students will be told that for the next cue - two fingers being held up
they will, in whisper voices, share their answers with their partners.
Finally, when the teacher raises her/his hand, the students will again be
silent, while the teacher calls on one students at a time to share some
answers.

Once the teacher has explained the strategy for TPS, s/he will read the
story, The Eqyptian Cinderella, to the class. As the teacher reads the
story, s/he will pause to ask questions throughout, that compare and
contrast this story to the version of the story that the students have read
or seen as a movie.
Some examples of questions that the teacher could ask would be:
1. How is the dress of Rhodopis (The Egyptian Cinderella) different
from the Cinderella you have previously read about? Why do you think they
dress differently? Can anyone tell us how the climate of Egypt compares
with the climate of the United States? (The teacher may want to show the
student Egypt and the United States on the globe and on a map, to integrate
geography into the lesson.)
2. How are Kipa and the other two servant girls like Cinderella's step-
sisters? Do they treat Rhodopis fair? Tell why you think they do or don't.
3. Does this story have a happy ending? Compare the way this story
ends with the ending of Cinderella .

The questions that the teacher asks would be varied and geared toward the
age level of the audience s/he is teaching.

TYING IT ALL TOGETHER: Have the students either orally, or on paper,

write their own version of a well-known story, adapting it to another
culture.

TITLE: MAP MAKING

AUTHOR: Linda Bauck; Wallowa Elementary, OR

GRADE LEVEL/SUBJECT: 4 - 6; Social Studies - Map Skills

OVERVIEW: Students usually do not view map making as something

that is done by people. This activity acquaints students with
some of the problems associated with map making, especially with
transferring a round shape into a flat shape. It also raises
their awareness of location of continents, latitude and longitude,
and other map skills.

PURPOSE: A map is a representation of all or part of the surface

of the earth on a plane. This activity will acquaint students
with some of the problems associated with map making.

OBJECTIVES:
1. The students will become aware of the placement of continents
and oceans by drawing them on a handmade globe.
2. The students will become aware of the placement of the equator,
the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn and the North and
South Poles by drawing them on the handmade globe.
3. The students will make a flat map from their globe by cutting
it with scissors and laying it flat.

RESOURCES/MATERIALS:
1/2 sheet of 8 1/2" X 11" paper for each student (scrap paper is good)
One tennis ball (or soft ball)for each student
scissors, tape, pencils

ACTIVITIES AND PROCEDURES:

1. Using 1/2 sheet of paper, wrap a tennis ball. The wrapping should
have not wrinkles or overlapping on the paper. The paper may be cut
if the student feels that will help. Tape the wrapping in place.
2. Sketch the continents on the map in the correct places. Add the
North and South Poles, the Equator, and the Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Capricorn.
3. Compare it to a commercial globe in the room and discuss. Make
adjustments as necessary.
4. When the covering is completed, remove it from the tennis ball.
Lay it flat on the desk and study the "map of the world.
5. Discuss the good/bad features in the conclusions.
6. Compare it to a flat map in the atlas.
7. The teacher is a facilitator in this activity. It is important
to emphasize that each student will find their own solution - that
there is no one "right" answer.

TYING IT ALL TOGETHER:

1. This is a very effective first day activity to introduce, not
only a map unit, but to set the class tone for emphasizing problem
solving as a way of doing things.
2. Stress that each student can develop their own strategy but can
get ideas by looking around the room.
3. Be sure to discuss problems involved and the many ways in which
they were solved in executing the activity.
4. Relate the activity to early cartography, the various flat map
designs, early explorers, etc.
Lahore:

1. The city of Lahore is the capital of the Punjab.

2. The Heart of Pakistan'.
3. Lahore is situated on the banks of the Ravi. Lahore is a city of gardens,
4. Lahore is the city of poets, artists

Islamabad

1. It is the capital of Pakistan.

2. It lies against the surroundings of the Margalla Hills. The city was built in 1960.
3. President General Ayub Khan ordered to make Islamabad city.
4. Islamabad has famous institute Quaid-e-Azam University.
5. 2nd Largest Mosque in world.

Quetta

1. Quetta is derived from kwatta.

2. Meaning fort in Pushtu.
3. The fruit garden of Pakistan.
4. The capital of Baluchistan.
5. Quetta is the important military stations of the country.
6. The boundaries of Iran and Afghanistan meet here.

Multan

1. Multan is well-known as 'City of Saints and Shrines'

2. It is located in a bend created by five confluent rivers.