Australia

Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area. Wikipedia

Capital: Canberra Dialing code: 61 Prime minister: Julia Gillard Population: 22,620,600 (2011) World Bank Official language: English Language Government: Federation, Parliamentary system, Constitutional monarchy

Points of interest
Uluru Great Barrier Reef Australia Zoo Sydney Opera House

Australia's Climate
Australia is bisected by the tropic of Capricorn; much of Australia is closer to the equator than any part of the USA. Accordingly, the northern Australia enjoys a tropical climate, and southern Australia a temperate one. The tropical states Queensland and the Northern Territory have highly predictable weather. In ``winter'', typical daily maximums are from 20 to 24 degrees Celsius (68 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit) and rain is rare. The beaches and tropical islands of Queensland and the Great Barrier Reef are perhaps at their most pleasant at this time of year. Further south, the weather is less dependable; in Melbourne in August maximums as low as 13 (56F) degrees are possible, but can reach as high as 23 (72F) degrees. In summer, the northern states are hotter and wetter, while the southern states are simply hotter, with temperatures up to 41 (105F) in Sydney, Adelaide, and Melbourne but generally between 25 and 33 - very pleasant indeed. Snow is rare in the southernmost capitals Melbourne and Hobart, falling less than once every ten years, and in the other capitals it is unknown. However, there are extensive, well-developed ski fields in the Great Dividing Range, a few hours drive from Melbourne and Sydney. Late August marks the peak of the snow season, and the ski resorts are a popular destination; perhaps too popular for some tastes. An alternative skiing destination is New Zealand, which provides skiers with excellent snow and facilities at lower cost.

The climate of Australia varies widely due to its large geographical size, but by far the largest part of Australia is desertor semi-arid. Only the south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil. The northern part of the country has a tropical climate, varied between tropical rainforests, grasslands, part desert. Australia's climate is ruled by the hot, sinking air of the subtropical high pressure belt which moves north and south with the seasons. This causes the rainfall pattern over Australia to be highly seasonal. Australia's rainfall is the lowest of the seven continents (besides Antarctica). Rainfall is variable, with frequent droughts lasting several seasons and is thought to be caused in part by the El NioSouthern Oscillation. Since it is a small continent separated from polar regions by the Southern Ocean, Australia does not get the harsh snaps of polar air that swarm over Northern Hemisphere continents during winter. The continents in the Northern Hemisphere have a considerable temperature contrast between summer and winter, whereas in Australia the temperature contrast is small. In many parts of the country, seasonal high and lows can be great with temperatures ranging from above 50 C (122 F) to well below zero. Minimum temperatures are moderated by the lack of mountains and the influence of surrounding oceans. The El Nio-Southern Oscillation is associated to seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world, though Australia is one of the most affected continents, which experiences extensive droughts alongside with considerable wet periods. Occasionally a dust storm will blanket a region and there are reports of the occasional tornado. Tropical cyclones, heat waves, bushfires and frosts in the country are also associated to the Southern Oscillation. Rising levels of salinity anddesertification in some areas is ravaging the landscape. According to the Bureau of Meteorology, 80% of the land have a rainfall less than 600 mm (24 in) per year and 50% having even less than 300 mm (12 in).[1] As a whole, Australia has an annual average rainfall of 419 mm (16 in).[2]

Contents
[hide]

1 Precipitation

o o

1.1 Rain 1.2 Snow

2 States and Territories

o o o o o o o

2.1 Australian Capital Territory 2.2 New South Wales 2.3 Northern Territory 2.4 Queensland 2.5 South Australia 2.6 Tasmania 2.7 Victoria

2.7.1 Rainfall

2.8 Western Australia

3 Natural hazards and disasters

o o o o o o o

3.1 Bushfires 3.2 Flooding 3.3 Global warming 3.4 Drought 3.5 Cyclones 3.6 Blizzards 3.7 Dust storms

4 See also 5 References 6 External links

[edit]Precipitation [edit]Rain

See also: Wet season The rainfall patterns across Australia are highly seasonal. Compared to the Earth's other continental landmasses Australia is very dry. More than 80% of the continent has an annual rainfall of less than 600 mm (24 in);

only Antarctica receives less rainfall than Australia.[3] A place inland near Lake Eyre (in South Australia) only receives 81 mm (3 in) of rain annually.[4] From one extreme to another, parts of the far North Queensland coast annually average over 4,000 mm (157 in), with the Australian annual record being 12,461 mm (491 in), set at the summit of Mount Bellenden Ker in 2000. There are four main factors that contribute to the dryness of the Australian landmass:

Cold ocean currents off the west coast Low elevation of landforms Dominance of high-pressure systems Shape of the landmass

The average annual rainfall in the Australian desert is low, ranging from 200 to 250 mm (8 to 10 in) per year. Thunderstorms are relatively common in the region, with an average of 15 - 20 thunderstorms per annum.[5] Summer daytime temperatures range from 32 to 40 C (90 to 104 F). In winter, this falls to 18 to 23 C (64 to 73 F). The southern parts of Australia get the usual westerly winds and cold fronts that come with rain when the high pressure systems move towards northern Australian during winter. Cold snaps may bring frosts inland, though temperatures near the coast are almost mild all year round. Summers in southern Australia are generally dry and hot with coastal sea breezes. During a lengthy dry spell, hot and dry winds from the interior can cause bushfires in some of southern and eastern states, though most commonly Victoria and New South Wales. The tropical areas of northern Australia have a wet summer because of monsoon presence. During "the wet", typically October to April, humid north-westerly winds bring showers and thunderstorms. In occasional cases, tropical cyclones can bring heavy rainfall to tropical coastal regions, which are also likely to reach further inland. After the monsoonal season, the dry season comes ("winter"), which mostly brings clear skies and mild conditions. Low rate of evaporation from this very cool body of water result in little evaporation occurring. As a result, rain clouds are sparsely formed and

very rarely do they form long enough for a continuous period of rain to be recorded. Australia's arid/semi-arid zone extends to this region. The absence of any significant mountain range or area of substantial height above sea level, results in very little rainfall caused by orographic uplift. In the east the Great Dividing Range limits rain moving into inland Australia. Australia has a compact shape and no significant bodies of water penetrate very far inland. This is important because it means that moist winds are prevented from penetrating to inland Australia, keeping rainfall low.[6]
[edit]Snow

Snow blankets the town of Robertsoncausing the closure of various transport facilities including the Cockatoo Run (16 August 1996).

In Australia, snow falls on the east coast, in states of Victoria, Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and Tasmania. There is a regular snow season in several areas which have seasonal ski tourism industries. Sometimes snow has even been reported in the mountains of South Australia, Western Australia and Queensland though this is rare. Snow at sea level is occasionally recorded on mainland Australia, but is more frequent in Tasmania where snowfalls at sea level can occur during the summer months. Snow has been recorded across most of Tasmania, though it is rare on the northern coast at sea level. Snow is rare in the southernmost capitals like Melbourne and Hobart, falling less than once every ten years, and in the other capitals it is unknown (however snow has fallen in the hill suburbs of Perth and Adelaide).

However, there are extensive, well-developed ski fields in the Great Dividing Range, a few hours' drive from Melbourne and Sydney.[7] The occasional cold snap, caused by cold air drifting north from Antarctica, can cause significant snowfall in rural areas, as well as major cities such as Hobart, Melbourne's outer mountain suburbs and Canberra. Such occasions are rare, but have occurred in 1951, 1986 and 2005.[8]
[edit]States

and Territories
Capital Territory

[edit]Australian

Because of its elevation (650 m (2,130 ft)) and distance from the coast, the Australian Capital Territory experiences a continental climate, unlike many other Australian cities whose climates are moderated by the sea. Canberra is notorious for hot, dry summers, and cold winters with occasional fog and frequent frosts. Many of the higher mountains in the territorys south-west are snow-covered for at least part of the winter. Thunderstorms can occur between October and March, and annual rainfall is 623 mm (25 in), with rainfall highest in spring and summer and lowest in winter. The highest maximum temperature recorded in the ACT was 42.8 C (109.0 F) at Acton on 11 January 1939. The lowest minimum temperature was 14.6 C (5.7 F) at Gudgenby on 11 July 1971.[9]
[edit]New

South Wales

See also: Climate of Sydney, New South Wales Over half of New South Wales has an arid or semi-arid climate. However, the eastern portion has a temperate climate, ranging from humid subtropical to the Central Coast and most of Sydney, and oceanic to the south coast. The Snowy Mountains region in the south-east falls in the alpine climate/highland climate zone, with cool to cold weather all year around and snowfalls in the winter. Further inland, the climate gets semi-arid and it's a desert climate towards the western part of the state. The weather in the south of the state is generally hot in summer and cool in the winter as the seasons are well-defined in the south. The hottest

New South Wales Climate region is the north-west part of the state, seasons are not well-defined in the north, where summers are hot and can be wet and winters are cooler and drier. The coldest region is the Snowy Mountains where the snow and frost continues for quite long durations during the winter months. The highest maximum temperature recorded was 49.7 C (121.5 F) at Menindee in the state's west on 10 January 1939. The lowest minimum temperature was 23 C (9.4 F) at Charlotte Passon 29 June 1994 in the Snowy Mountains. This is also the lowest temperature recorded in the whole of Australia excluding Australian Antarctic Territory.[10] Rainfall varies throughout the state. The far north-west receives the least, less than 180 mm (7 in) annually, while the east receives between 600 to 1,200 mm (24 to 47 in) of rain.
City Min. Temp Max. Temp No. Clear days Rainfall

Coffs Harbour

[11]

14 C (57 F) 23 C (73 F)

122

1,679 mm (66 in)

Sydney

[12]

14 C (57 F) 22 C (72 F)

104

1,213 mm (48 in)

Armidale

[13]

7 C (45 F) 20 C (68 F)

106

791 mm (31 in)

Penrith

[14]

14 C (57 F) 22 C (72 F)

103

696 mm (27 in)

Wagga Wagga

[15]

9 C (48 F) 22 C (72 F)

124

566 mm (22 in)

Broken Hill

[16]

12 C (54 F) 24 C (75 F)

137

245 mm (10 in)

[edit]Northern

Territory

Monsoonal squall nears Darwin

Average monthly maximum temperature in Northern Territory

Month

Darwin

Alice Springs

January

31.8 C (89.2 F)

36.4 C (97.5 F)

February

31.4 C (88.5 F)

35.1 C (95.2 F)

March

31.9 C (89.4 F)

32.7 C (90.9 F)

April

32.7 C (90.9 F)

28.2 C (82.8 F)

May

32.0 C (89.6 F)

23.0 C (73.4 F)

June

30.6 C (87.1 F)

19.8 C (67.6 F)

July

30.5 C (86.9 F)

19.7 C (67.5 F)

August

31.3 C (88.3 F)

22.5 C (72.5 F)

September

32.5 C (90.5 F)

27.2 C (81.0 F)

October

33.2 C (91.8 F)

31.0 C (87.8 F)

November

33.3 C (91.9 F)

33.6 C (92.5 F)

December

32.6 C (90.7 F)

35.4 C (95.7 F)

Source: Bureau of Meteorology[17][18]

The Northern Territory has two distinctive climate zones. The northern end, including Darwin, has atropical savanna climate (Kppen Aw)[19] with high humidity and two seasons, the wet (November to April) and dry season (May to October). During the dry season nearly every day is warm and sunny, and afternoon humidity averages around 30%. There is very little rainfall between May and September. In the coolest months of June and July, the daily minimum temperature may dip as low as 14 C (57 F), but very rarely lower, and frost has never been recorded. The wet season is associated with tropical cyclones and monsoon rains. The majority of rainfall occurs between December and March (the Southern Hemisphere summer), when thunderstorms are common and afternoon relative humidity averages over 70% during the wettest months. On average more than 1,570 mm (62 in) of rain falls in the north. Thunderstorms can produce spectacular lightning displays. The central region is the desert centre of the country, which includes Alice Springs and Uluru, and is semi-arid with little rain usually falling during the hottest months from October to March. Central Australia receives less than 250 mm (10 in) of rain per year. The highest maximum temperature recorded in the territory was 48.3 C (118.9 F) at Finke on 1 and 2 January 1960. The lowest minimum temperature was 7.5 C (18.5 F) at Alice Springs on 12 July 1976.[10]
[edit]Queensland

Grassland typical of Queensland and mountain ranges nearProsperine.

Because of its size, there is significant variation in climate across the state. Low rainfall and hot summers are typical for the inland west, a monsoonal 'wet' season in the far north, and warm temperate conditions along the coastal strip. Inland and in southern ranges low minimum temperatures are experienced. The climate of the coastal strip is influenced by warm ocean waters, keeping the region free from extremes of temperature and providing moisture for rainfall.[20] There are five predominate climatic zones in Queensland,[21] based on temperature and humidity:

hot humid summer (far north and coastal) warm humid summer (coastal elevated hinterlands and coastal southeast) hot dry summer, mild winter (central west) hot dry summer, cold winter (southern west) temperate - warm summer, cold winter (inland south-east, e.g. Granite Belt)

However, most of the Queensland populace experience two weather seasons: a "winter" period of rather warm temperatures and minimal rainfall and a sultry summer period of hot, sticky temperatures and higher levels of rainfall. The highest maximum temperature observed in the state is 49.5 C (121.1 F) at Birdsville on 24 December 1972. The temperature of 53.1 C (127.6 F) at Cloncurry on 16 January 1889 is not considered official; the figure quoted from Birdsville is the next highest, so that record is considered as being official. The lowest minimum temperature is 10.6 C (12.9 F) at Stanthorpe on 23 June 1961 and at The Hermitage on 12 July 1965.[10]
City Min. Temp Max. Temp No. Clear days Rainfall

Brisbane

14 C (57 F) 26 C (79 F)

123

1,061 mm (42 in)

Mackay

18 C (64 F) 27 C (81 F)

113

1,667 mm (66 in)

Cairns

20 C (68 F) 29 C (84 F)

86

2,223 mm (88 in)

Townsville 18 C (64 F) 29 C (84 F) [edit]South

n/a

1,144 mm (45 in)

Australia

See also: Climate of Adelaide The majority of the state has the arid and semi-arid climates. The southern coastal parts of the state have a Mediterranean climate with mild wet winters and hot dry summers. The highest rainfall occurs along the southern coasts and the Mount Lofty Ranges (with an average annual rainfall of 1,200 millimetres (47 in) in the vicinity of Mount Lofty); the lowest rainfall occurs in the desert regions where the average annual totals are less than 150 millimetres (6 in). Most of the rain in the southern districts of the State fall during the winter months when the sub-tropical high-pressure belt is displaced to the north over the Australian continent.[22] South Australia's mean temperature range is 29 C (84 F) in January and 15 C (59 F) in July. Daily temperatures in parts of the state in January and February can be up to 48 C (118 F). The highest maximum temperature was recorded as 50.7 C (123.3 F) at Oodnadatta on 2 January 1960, which is the highest official temperature recorded in Australia. The lowest minimum temperature was 8 C (17.6 F) at Yongala on 20 July 1976.[10]
[edit]Tasmania

See also: Climate of Tasmania and Climate diagrams of Tasmania Tasmania has a cool temperate climate with four distinct seasons. Summer lasts from December to February when the average maximum sea temperature is 21 C (70 F) and inland areas

around Launceston reach 24 C (75 F). Other inland areas are much cooler with Liawenee, located on the Central Plateau, one of the coldest places in Australia with temperatures in February ranging between 4 to 17 C (39 to 63 F). Autumn lasts between March and May and experiences changeable weather, where summer weather patterns gradually take on the shape of winter patterns.[23]

St. Columbia Falls

The winter months are between June and July and are generally the wettest and coolest months in the state, with most high lying areas receiving considerable snowfall. Winter maximums are 12 C (54 F) on average along coastal areas and 3 C (37 F) on the Central Plateau, thanks to a series of cold fronts from the Southern Ocean.[24] Spring is a season of transition, where winter weather patterns begin to take the shape of summer patterns, with snowfall still common up until October. Spring is generally the windiest time of the year with afternoon sea breezes starting to take effect on the coast. Rainfall in Tasmania follows a complicated pattern rather analogous to that found on large continents at the same latitude in the Northern Hemisphere. On the western side rainfall increases from around

1,458 mm (57 in) at Strahan on the coast up to 2,690 mm (106 in) at Cradle Valley in the highlands.[25] There is a strong winter maximum in rainfall: January and February typically averages between 30-40% the rainfall of July and August, though even in the driest months rain usually falls on every second day and the number of rainy days per year is much greater than on any part of the Australian mainland. Further east in the Lake Country, annual rainfall declines to around 900 mm (35 in), whilst in the Midlands, annual rainfall is as low as 450 mm (18 in) atRoss and generally below 600 mm (24 in). The eastern part of Tasmania has more evenly distributed rainfall than in the west, and most months receive very similar averages. The densely populated northern coast is much drier than the western side, with annual rainfall ranging from 666 mm (26 in) in Launceston to 955 mm (38 in) in Burnie in the north west and 993 mm (39 in) in Scottsdale located further to the east.[26][27] Most rain falls in winter, and in summer the average can be as low as 31 mm (1 in) per month in Launceston. The east coast is wetter than the Midlands, with an average annual rainfall ranging from 775 mm (31 in) in St. Helens to around 640 mm (25 in) in Swansea.[28][29] Here the rainfall is evenly distributed over the year but can be very erratic as heavy rainfalls from the warm Tasman Sea are quite frequent. Whereas a three-day fall of 125 mm (5 in) occurs only once every fifty years on the north coast, it occurs on average once every four or five years around Swansea and Bicheno, and on 78 June 1954, there were many falls as large as 230 mm (9 in) in two days in that area. The east coast is sometimes called the "sun coast" because of its sunny climate.[30] Several sections of inland Tasmania, together with Flinders Island, were declared drought-affected areas by the state government in 2007.[31] The highest recorded maximum temperature in Tasmania was 42.2 C (108.0 F) at Scamander on 30 January 2009, during the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave. Tasmania's lowest recorded minimum temperature was 13 C (8.6 F) on 30 June 1983, at Butlers Gorge, Shannon, and Tarraleah.[10]

City

Min. Temp

Max. Temp

No. Clear days

Rainfall

Hobart

[32]

8.3 C (46.9 F) 16.9 C (62.4 F)

41

616 mm (24 in)

Launceston

[33]

7.2 C (45.0 F) 18.4 C (65.1 F)

50

666 mm (26 in)

Devonport

[34]

8.1 C (46.6 F) 16.8 C (62.2 F)

61

778 mm (31 in)

Strahan

[35]

7.9 C (46.2 F) 16.5 C (61.7 F)

41

1,458 mm (57 in)

[edit]Victoria
Average monthly maximum temperature in Victoria

Month

Melbourne

Mildura

January

25.8 C (78.4 F)

32.8 C (91.0 F)

February

25.8 C (78.4 F)

32.7 C (90.9 F)

March

23.8 C (74.8 F)

29.3 C (84.7 F)

April

20.2 C (68.4 F)

24.1 C (75.4 F)

May

16.6 C (61.9 F)

19.6 C (67.3 F)

June

14.0 C (57.2 F)

16.0 C (60.8 F)

July

13.4 C (56.1 F)

15.4 C (59.7 F)

August

14.9 C (58.8 F)

17.7 C (63.9 F)

September

17.2 C (63.0 F)

21.1 C (70.0 F)

October

19.6 C (67.3 F)

25.0 C (77.0 F)

November

21.8 C (71.2 F)

29.0 C (84.2 F)

December

24.1 C (75.4 F)

31.7 C (89.1 F)

Source: Bureau of Meteorology

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Climate diagrams of Victoria

Victoria has a varied climate despite its small size. It ranges from semiarid and hot in the north-west, to temperate and cool along the coast. Victoria's main land feature, the Great Dividing Range, produces a cooler, mountain climate in the centre of the state. Victoria's southernmost position on the Australian mainland means it is cooler and wetter than other mainland states and territories. The coastal plain south of the Great Dividing Range has Victoria's mildest climate. Air from the Southern Ocean helps reduce the heat of summer and the cold of winter. Melbourne and other large cities are located in this temperate region. The Mallee and upper Wimmera are Victoria's warmest regions with hot winds blowing from nearby deserts. Average temperatures top 30 C (86 F)during summer and 15 C (59 F) in winter. Victoria's highest maximum temperature of 48.8 C (119.8 F) was recorded in Hopetoun on 7 February 2009, during the 2009 south-eastern Australia heat wave.[10] A screen temperature of 50.7 C (123.3 F) was recorded on 7 January 1906 inMildura.[36][37] The Victorian Alps in the north-east are the coldest part of Victoria. The Alps are part of the Great Dividing Range mountain system extending east-west through the centre of Victoria. Average temperatures are less than 9 C (48 F) in winter and below 0 C (32 F) in the highest parts of the ranges. The state's lowest minimum temperature of 11.7

C (10.9 F) was recorded at Omeo on 13 June 1965, and again at Falls Creek on 3 July 1970.[10]
[edit]Rainfall

Victoria is the wettest Australian state after Tasmania. Rainfall in Victoria increases from north to south, with higher averages in areas of high altitude. Median annual rainfall exceeds 1,800 mm (71 in) in some parts of the north-east but is less than 250 millimetres (10 in) in the Mallee. Rain is heaviest in the Otway Ranges and Gippsland in southern Victoria and in the mountainous north-east. Snow generally falls only in the mountains and hills in the centre of the state. Rain falls most frequently in winter, but summer precipitation is heavier. Rainfall is most reliable in Gippsland and theWestern District, making them both leading farming areas. Victoria's highest recorded daily rainfall was 375 millimetres (14.8 in) at Tanybryn in the Otway Ranges on 22 March 1983.[10]
Temperature and precipitation for Victoria. Source: Bureau of Meteorology, Department of Primary Industries, Australian Natural Resources Atlas

Average January temperatures: Victoria's north is always hotter than coastal and mountainous areas.

Average July temperatures: Victoria's hills and ranges are coolest during winter. Snow also falls there.

Average yearly precipitation: Victoria's rainfall is concentrated in the mountainous north-east and coast.

[edit]Western

Australia

A four wheel drive in the Gibson Desert

The south-west corner of the state has a Mediterranean climate.[38] The area was originally heavily forested, including large stands of thekarri, one of the tallest trees in the world. This agricultural region of Western Australia is in the top nine terrestrial habitats for terrestrialbiodiversity, with a higher proportion of endemic species than most other equivalent regions. Thanks to the offshore Leeuwin Current the area numbers in the top six regions for marine biodiversity, containing the most southerly coral reefs in the world. Average annual rainfall varies from 300 mm (12 in) at the edge of the Wheatbelt region to 1,400 mm (55 in) in the wettest areas nearNorthcliffe, but in the months of November to March evaporation exceeds rainfall, and it is generally very dry. Plants must be adapted to this as well as the extreme poverty of all soils. A major reduction in rainfall has been observed, with a greater number of rainfall events in the summer months. The central four-fifths of the state is semi-arid or desert and is lightly inhabited with the only significant activity being mining. Annual rainfall averages about 200 to 250 mm (8 to 10 in), most of which occurs in sporadic torrential falls related to cyclone events in summer months. An exception to this is the northern tropical regions. The Kimberley has an extremely hot monsoonal climate with average annual rainfall ranging

from 500 to 1,500 mm (20 to 59 in), but there is a very long almost rainless season from April to November. Eighty-five percent of the state's runoff occurs in the Kimberley, but because it occurs in violent floods and because of the insurmountable poverty of the generally shallow soils, the only development has taken place along the Ord River. Australia's tropical/subtropical location and cold waters off the western coast make most of Western Australia a hot desert with aridity a marked feature of a greater part of the continent. These cold waters produce precious little moisture needed on the mainland. A 2005 study by Australian and American researchers[39] investigated the desertification of the interior, and suggested that one explanation was related to human settlers who arrived about 50,000 years ago. Regular burning by these settlers could have prevented monsoons from reaching interior Australia. Occurrence of snow in the state is rare, and typically only in the Stirling Range near Albany, as it is the only mountain range far enough south and with sufficient elevation. More rarely, snow can fall on the nearby Porongurup Range. Snow outside these areas is a major event; it usually occurs in hilly areas of south-western Australia. The most widespread low-level snow occurred on 26 June 1956 when snow was reported in the Perth Hills, as far north as Wongan Hills and as far east as Salmon Gums. However, even in the Stirling Range, snowfalls rarely exceed 5 cm (2 in) and rarely settle for more than one day.[40] The highest observed maximum temperature of 50.5 C (122.9 F) was recorded at Mardie Station on 19 February 1998. The lowest minimum temperature recorded was 7.2 C (19.0 F) at Eyre Bird Observatory on 17 August 2008.[10]
[edit]Natural

hazards and disasters

[edit]Bushfires

Main article: Bushfires in Australia Climatic factors contribute to Australia's high incidence of bushfires, particularly during the summer months. Low relative humidity, wind and lack of rain can cause a small fire, either man-made or caused naturally

by lightning strikes, to spread rapidly over large distances. Low humidity, the heat of the sun and lack of water cause vegetation to dry out becoming a perfect fuel for the fire. High winds fan the flames, increasing their intensity and the speed and distance at which they can travel.[41] Many of the worst bushfires in eastern Australia, such as the 1983 Ash Wednesday fires, accompany El Nio-Southern Oscillation events which tend to cause a warm, dry and windy climate.[42]The worst bushfires in Australian history occurred on Black Saturday in February 2009. The human death toll of the disaster was 173, and over 2000 homes were lost.[43]
[edit]Flooding

Though Australia is generally dry and arid, a large portion of the country lives in the tropics. Rainfall in these areas is extremely heavy. With some are areas recording world record breaking rain, such as the mountains which lie to the south west of Cairns. Through La Nia years the eastern seaboard of Australia records above average rainfall usually creating damaging floods. The 2010-2011 La Nina system has broken many rainfall records in Australia, particularly in the states of Queensland and New South Wales, which have seen extensive flooding which has caused major damage to infrastructure and crops. The central east area of Queensland, an area the size of Germany and France combined, was under water in 2010 2011. The estimated damage bill could reach into the billions. Some cities that see heavy yearly rainfall include: Cairns, Townsville, Rockhampton, Byron Bay, Strahan

[edit]Global

warming

Australian annual average temperature anomaly from 1910 to 2009 with five-year locally weighted ('Lowess') trend line. Source: Australian Bureau of Meteorology.

Main articles: Effects of global warming on Australia and Climate change in Australia According to the majority of scientists, climate change is predicted by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO)[44] to have significant effects on the climate of and extreme weather events in Australia. According to the Bureau of Meteorology, Australias annual mean temperature for 2009 was0.90 C (1.62 F) above the 1961-90 average, making it the nations second warmest year since high-quality records began in 1910.[45] It is predicted that the Great Barrier Reef and reefs surrounding Lord Howe Island could be killed as a result of the rise in water temperature forecast by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report. The Murray River, Darling River Coorong and Macquarie Marshes are all at risk from decreased rainfall from climate change.[citation needed]

Coastal communities face risks from sea level rise, albeit over a long period of time based on current estimates of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. The Gold Coast, being built on sand and with many canal developments, could be considered particularly at risk. Suburbs of Sydney like Drummoyne and Concord on rivers like the Parramatta River face risks of inundation of low lying areas such as parks (such as Timbrell Park and Majors Bay Reserve) reclaimed from mudflats at the heads of bays, or massive expenses in rebuildingseawalls to higher levels. Currently, there are several environmental movements and campaigners advocating for action on climate change. One such campaign is "The Big Switch", Australia's largest community climate change campaign.[46] New projections for Australia's changing climate includes:[47]

droughts are likely to become more frequent, particularly in the southwest evaporation rates are likely to increase, particularly in the north and east high-fire-danger weather is likely to increase in the south-east sea levels will continue to rise

[edit]Drought

Drought-affected paddock in the New South Wales farming region of the Riverina

Main article: Drought in Australia Drought in Australia is defined by rainfall over a three month period being in the lowest ten percent of amounts having been recorded for that region in the past.[48] This definition takes into account that low rainfall is

a relative term and rainfall deficiencies need to be compared to typical rainfall patterns including seasonal variations. Specifically drought in Australia is defined in relation to a rainfall deficiency of pastoral leases and is determined by decile analysis applied to a certain area.[49] Historical climatic records are now sufficiently reliable to profile climate variability taking into account expectations for regions.[50] State Governmentsare responsible for declaring a region drought affected and the declaration will take into account factors other than rainfall.[48]
[edit]Cyclones

Cyclone Monica near peak intensity

Australia is affected by tropical cyclones which primarily occur between December and April but have developed in November and May, as well.[51]Cyclones over mainland Australia occur on average five to six times each year.[3] The region between Broome and Exmouth are most prone to cyclones.[52] Tropical cyclones are known to bring destructive winds, heavy rain with flooding creating storm surges along the coast, causing inundation in low lying areas. The strongest Australian region cyclone was Cyclone Monica in 2006 which had wind gusts in excess of 350 km/h (220 mph). Cyclones can also move inland, decaying to a rain depression, which dump heavy rain in these areas and causing flooding.[53] The worst cyclones of Australia have caused billions of dollars of damage and many deaths. Cyclone Tracy crossed directly over Darwin

in 1974, 71 people were killed. Adjusted for inflation it was Australia's most damaging cyclone.[54] Cyclone Mahina in 1899 brought a storm surge to Far North Queensland reaching 13 m (43 ft) high, causing 400 deaths and making it the worst natural disaster to befall Australia.[55] Cyclone Larry struck North Queensland and passed over Innisfailin 2006 causing damages estimated at A$1.5 billion but no lives were lost. Cyclone Yasi caused severe flooding and had a total estimated cost of A$3.5 billion making it the second most costliest cyclone to strike Australia.[54]
[edit]Blizzards

Blizzards are not common in mainland Australia, but occur frequently in the Snowy Mountains in New South Wales and Victoria. When blizzards do occur, they can affect the Tasmanian Highlands and, particularly, Mount Wellington, which towers over the Tasmanian capital Hobart. Blizzards do not affect any major towns or cities, because there are no populated areas located in the mountains except for the ski resort towns of New South Wales and Victoria.
[edit]Dust

storms

See also: 2009 Australian dust storm A dust storm or sandstorm, a meteorological phenomenon common in arid and semi-arid regions, arises when a gust front passes or when the wind force exceeds the threshold value where loose sand and dust are removed from the dry surface. Particles are transported by saltation and suspension, causing soil erosion from one place and deposition in another. The term sandstorm is used[by whom?] most often in the context of desert sandstorms, especially in the Sahara, when, in addition to fine particles obscuring visibility, a considerable amount of larger sand particles moves closer to the surface. The term dust storm is more likely to be used when finer particles are blown long distances, especially when the dust storm affects urban areas. Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Australia and Immigration to Australia

Nearly three quarters of Australians live in metropolitan cities and coastal areas. The beach is an integral part of the Australian identity.[218]

For almost two centuries the majority of settlers, and later immigrants, came from the British Isles. As a result the people of Australia are primarily of British and/or Irish ethnic origin. The 2011 Census asked respondents to provide a maximum of two ancestries with which they most closely identify. The most commonly nominated ancestry was English (36.1 per cent), followed by Australian (35.4 per cent),
[219]

Irish (10.4 per cent), Scottish (8.9 per cent), Italian (4.6 per cent), German (4.5 per
[221]

cent), Chinese (4.3 per cent), Indian (2.0 per cent), Greek (1.9 per cent), and Dutch (1.7 per cent).
[220]

Asian Australians make up 12% of the population.

Australia's population has quadrupled since the end of World War I.

[222]

Nevertheless, its population

[148]

density, 2.8 inhabitants per square kilometre, remains among the lowest in the world.

Much of the

population increase came from immigration. Following World War II and through to 2000, almost 5.9 million of the total population settled in the country as new immigrants, meaning that nearly two out of every seven Australians were born in another country.
[223] [224]

Most immigrants are skilled,

[224] [225]

but the

immigration quota includes categories for family members and refugees. population is currently projected to reach around 42 million.

By 2050, Australia's

In 2011, 24.6% of Australians were born elsewhere and 43.1% of people had at least one overseas-born parent;
[226]

the largest immigrant groups were those from the United Kingdom, New Zealand, China, India,
[227]

Italy, Vietnam, and Philippines.

Over 80 percent of Australia's population is of European ancestry, and most of the rest are of Asian heritage, with a smaller minority of indigenous (Aboriginal) background. Following the abolition of the White Australia policy in 1973, numerous government initiatives have been established to encourage and promote racial harmony based on a policy of multiculturalism.
[230] [231] [228]

In 200506, more than

[229]

131,000 people emigrated to Australia, mainly from Asia and Oceania. 13 is 190,000, compared to 67,900 in 199899.

The migration target for 2012

The Barossa Valley is a wine-producingregion in South Australia. Fewer than 15 per cent of Australians live in rural areas.

The Indigenous populationmainland Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanderswas counted at 548,370 (2.5 per cent of the total population) in 2011, census.
[233] [232]

a significant increase from 115,953 in the 1976

The increase is partly due to the fact that previously, many people with Indigenous heritage

were overlooked by the census due to undercount and cases where their Indigenous status had not been recorded on the form. Indigenous Australians experience higher than average rates of imprisonment and unemployment,
[234]

lower levels of education, and life expectancies for males and females that are 11 17
[216][235][236]

years lower than those of non-indigenous Australians.

Some remote Indigenous communities

have been described as having "failed state"-like conditions.

[237][238][239][240][241]

In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2004, the average age of the civilian population was 38.8 years. 03;
[243] [242]

A large number of Australians (759,849 for the period 2002

[244]

1 million or 5% of the total population in 2005

) live outside their home country.

Environment
Main article: Environment of Australia See also: Fauna of Australia, Flora of Australia, and Fungi of Australia Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, it includes a diverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests, and is recognised as a megadiverse country. The fungi typify that diversity; the total number that occur in Australia, including those not yet discovered, has been estimated at around 250,000 species, of which roughly 5% have been described.
[170]

Because of the

continent's great age, extremely variable weather patterns, and long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's biota is unique and diverse. About 85 per cent of flowering plants, 84 per cent of mammals, more than 45 per cent of birds, and 89 per cent of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are endemic.
[171] [172]

Australia has the greatest number of reptiles of any country, with 755 species.

The koala and the eucalyptus form an iconic Australian pair

Australian forests are mostly made up of evergreen species, particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid regions, wattles replace them in drier regions and deserts as the most dominant species.
[173] [173]

Among well-

known Australian animals are the monotremes (the platypus and echidna); a host ofmarsupials, including the kangaroo, koala, and wombat, and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra. Australia is home
[174]

to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world.
[176]

The dingo was

[175]

introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE. animal and plant species became extinct soon after first human settlement,

Many

including the Australian

[177][178]

megafauna; others have disappeared since European settlement, among them the thylacine.

Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and introduced animal, chromistan, fungal and plant species.
[180] [179]

The federal Environment Protection and

Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species. Numerous protected areas have been created under the National Strategy for the
[181][182] [183]

Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity to protect and preserve unique ecosystems; 65 wetlands are listed under the Ramsar Convention,
[184] [185]

and 16 natural World

Heritage Sites have been established.

Australia was ranked 51st of 163 countries in the world on the

2010 Environmental Performance Index.

Climate change has become an increasing concern in Australia in recent years, and protection of the environment is a major political issue.
[186][187]

In 2007, the Rudd Government signed the instrument of

ratification of the Kyoto Protocol. Nevertheless, Australia's carbon dioxide emissions per capita are

among the highest in the world, lower than those of only a few other industrialised nations.
[189]

[188]

Rainfall in

Australia has slightly increased over the past century, both nationwide and for two quadrants of the nation, According to the Bureau of Meteorology's 2011 Australian Climate Statement, Australia had

lower than average temperatures in 2011 as a consequence of a La Nina weather pattern, however, "the country's 10-year average continues to demonstrate the rising trend in temperatures, with 20022011 likely to rank in the top two warmest 10-year periods on record for Australia, at 0.52 C above the longterm average".
[190]

Water restrictions are frequently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in

response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought.
[191][192]

Throughout much of the continent, major floodingregularly follows extended

periods of drought, flushing out inland river systems, overflowing dams and inundating large inland flood plains, as occurred throughout Eastern Australia in 2010, 2011 and 2012 after the 2000s Australian drought.

Geography and climate

Main articles: Geography of Australia, Climate of Australia, and Geology of Australia

Climatic zones in Australia, based on theKppen climate classification.

Australia's landmass of 7,617,930 square kilometres (2,941,300 sq mi) Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans,
[133] [N 5]

[131]

is on the Indo-Australian Plate.

it is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas,

[134]

with the Coral Sea lying off the Queensland coast, and the Tasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand. The world's smallest continent
[136]

and sixth largest country by total area,

[135]

Australiaowing to

its size and isolationis often dubbed the "island continent", largest island.

and is sometimes considered the world's

Australia has 34,218 kilometres (21,262 mi) of coastline (excluding all offshore

islands),

[137]

and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8,148,250 square kilometres

(3,146,060 sq mi). This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory.
[138]

Excluding Macquarie Island, Australia lies between latitudes 9 and 44S, and

longitudes 112 and 154E. The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef,
[140] [139]

lies a short distance off the north-east coast and

extends for over 2,000 kilometres (1,240 mi).Mount Augustus, claimed to be the world's largest monolith, is located in Western Australia. At 2,228 metres (7,310 ft), Mount Kosciuszko on theGreat

Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland. Even taller are Mawson Peak (at 2,745 metres or 9,006 feet), on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island, and, in the Australian Antarctic Territory, Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies, at 3,492 metres (11,457 ft) and 3,355 metres (11,007 ft) respectively.
[141]

Everlastings on Mount Hotham, located inVictoria

Australia's size gives it a wide variety of landscapes, with subtropical rain forests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and dry desert in the centre. continent,
[143] [142]

It is the flattest

with the oldest and least fertile soils;

[144][145]

desert or semi-arid land commonly known as The driest inhabited continent, only its southThe population density, 2.8 inhabitants per

the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land. east and south-west corners have a temperate climate. square kilometre, is among the lowest in the world, along the temperate south-eastern coastline.
[149] [148]

[146]

[147]

although a large proportion of the population lives

Eastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range, which runs parallel to the coast of Queensland, New South Wales and much of Victoria. The name is not strictly accurate, because parts of the range consist of low hills, and the highlands are typically no more than 1,600 metres (5,249 ft) in height.
[150]

The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the
[150][151]

mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland.

These include

the western plains of New South Wales, and the Einasleigh Uplands, Barkly Tableland, and Mulga

Lands of inland Queensland. The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested Cape York Peninsula.
[152][153][154][155]

Topographic map of Australia

The landscapes of the northern part of the countrythe Top End and the Gulf Country behind the Gulf of Carpentaria, with their tropical climateconsist of woodland, grassland, and desert.
[156][157][158]

At the

north-west corner of the continent are the sandstone cliffs and gorges of The Kimberley, and below that the Pilbara. To the south of these and inland, lie more areas of grassland: the Ord Victoria Plain and the Western Australian Mulga shrublands.
[159][160][161]

At the heart of the country are the uplands of central

Australia; prominent features of the centre and south include the inland Simpson, Tirari and Sturt Stony, Gibson, Great Sandy, Tanami, and Great Victoria deserts, with the famousNullarbor Plain on the southern coast.
[162][163][164][165]

The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents, including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Nio-Southern Oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low-pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia.
[168] [166][167]

These factors cause

rainfall to vary markedly from year to year. Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical, predominantly summer-rainfall (monsoon) climate. a Mediterranean climate.
[169]

The southwest corner of the country has

[168]

Much of the southeast (including Tasmania) is temperate.

Coral Sea Islands

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Map of the Coral Sea Islands

Map of the Coral Sea Islands Territory

The Coral Sea Islands Territory includes a group of small and mostly uninhabited tropical islands and reefs in the Coral Sea, northeast of Queensland, Australia. The only inhabited island is Willis Island. The territory covers 780,000 km2, extending east and south from the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef, and including Heralds Beacon Island, Osprey Reef, the Willis Group, and fifteen other reef/island groups.[1]
Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Geography

o o o o o

2.1 Northwestern Group 2.2 Mellish Reef 2.3 Southeasterly Group 2.4 Extreme South 2.5 Overview of islets and cays

3 Man-made structures 4 See also 5 Notes 6 External links

[edit]History
The Coral Sea Islands were first charted in 1803; in the 1870 and 1880s the islands were mined for guano but the absence of a permanent supply of fresh water prevented long-term habitation.[1] The territory was created in 1969 by the Coral Sea Islands Act (before, the area was considered part of Queensland) and extended in 1997 to include Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs nearly 800 km further South, already in the Tasman Sea. The two latter reefs are much closer to Lord Howe Island, New South Wales (about 150 km) than to the southernmost island of the rest of the territory, Cato Island. The islands, cays and reefs of the Great Barrier Reef are not part of the territory, belonging to Queensland instead. The outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef is the boundary between Queensland and the Coral Sea Islands Territory. The territory is a possession of Australia, administered from Canberra by the Attorney-General's Department[2] (before 29 November 2007[3] administration was carried out by the Department of Transport and Regional Services). Defence is the responsibility of Australia, and the territory is visited regularly by the Royal Australian Navy. Australia maintains automatic weather stations on many of the isles and reefs, and claims a 200-nautical-mile (370 km) exclusive fishingzone. There is no economic activity (except for a significant but as yet unquantified

charter fishing and diving industry), and only a staff of three or four people to run the meteorological station on Willis Island (South Islet), established in 1921.[citation needed] In November 2011 the Australian government announced that a 989,842 square kilometres (382,180 sq mi) protected area was planned in the Coral Sea.[4]

[edit]Geography
There are about 30 separate reefs and atolls, twelve being wholly submerged or drying only during low tide, and 18 others with a total of about 51 islets and cays (18 alone on the atoll Lihou Reef), some of which are vegetated. The atolls exhibit a wide range of size, from a few kilometres in diameter to perhaps the second largest atoll in the world by total area (including lagoon): Lihou Reef, with a lagoon size of 100 by 30 km and an area of 2,500 km2, which compares to a combined land area of the 18 individual islets of only 0.91 km2. The islands are all very low. The territory's FIPS 10-4 code is CR, whereas ISO 3166 includes it in Australia (AU). The Willis Islets are important nesting areas for birds and turtles, but their natural resources are negligible. They comprise less than three square kilometres of land. There is no port or harbour, only offshore anchorage. Most of the atolls fall into two groups, while Mellish Reef to the east, and Middleton Reef and Elizabeth Reef to the south are grouped separately:

[edit]Northwestern

Group

1. Osprey Reef (submerged atoll roughly oval in shape, measuring 25 by 12 km, covering around 195 km2, with lagoon up to 30 m deep) 2. Shark Reef (small elongated submerged reef 15 km South of Osprey Reef, with a least depth of 7.8 m) 3. Bougainville Reef (small submerged atoll, 2.5 by 4 km, area 8 km2 with lagoon, dries at half tide) 4. East Holmes Reef (submerged atoll, about 14 by 10 km, area 125 km2 with lagoon) 5. West Holmes Reef (submerged atoll 6 km East of East Holmes Reef, about 18 by 7 km, area 125 km2 with lagoon that is open on the West side, two small cays) 6. Flora Reef (small submerged atoll, 5 by 4 km, about 12 km2) 7. Diane Bank (sunken atoll, depths of less than 10 m over an area of 65 by 25 km, or 1300 km2, along the northern edge 3 m deep, with Sand Cay in the Northwest, 3 m high) 8. North Moore Reef (small submerged atoll, 4 by 3 km, area 8 km2 including lagoon that is open on the Northwest side) 9. South Moore Reef (small submerged reef 5 km South of North Moore Reef) 10. Willis Islets (sunken atoll, bank 45 by 19 km, bank area more than 500 km2, 3 islets on the Northwestern side: North Cay, Mid Islet almost 8 m high, South Islet or Willis Island 10 m high) 11. Magdelaine Cays & Coringa Islets (one large, partially sunken atoll structure, almost 90 by 30 km, bank area about 1500 km2, 2 islets of the Magdelaine Cays in the North: North West Islet (area

approximately 0.2 km2) and South East Cay (area 0.37 km2); 2 islets of the Coringa Islets 50 to 60 km further Southwest: Southwest Islet or Coringa Islet (area 0.173 km2), and Chilcott Islet (area 0.163 km2)) 12. Herald Cays, Northeast Cay (encircled by a reef of 3 by 3 km, total area 6 km2, land area 0.34 km2) 13. Herald Cays, Southwest Cay (4 km Southwest of Northeast Cay, encircled by a reef of 2 by 2 km, total area 3 km2, land area 0.188 km2) 14. Lihou Reef and Cays (largest atoll in the coral sea, with a size of 2500 km2, land area 0.91 km2) 15. Diamond Islets & Tregosse Reefs (large, partially sunken atoll, 100 by 52 km, area of the bank over 3000 km2, with 4 islets and 2 small submerged reefs in the Northeast and Southeast: West Diamond Islet, Central Diamond Islet, East Diamond Islet on the Northeastern rim of the former atoll, and South Diamond Islet, East Tregosse Reef and West Tregosse Reef on the Southern rim) 16. North Flinders Reef (large atoll, 34 by 23 km, area 600 km2, with 2 islets, Flinders Cay being the larger one with a length of 200 m and a height of 3 m) 17. South Flinders Reef (atoll, 15 by 5 km, 60 km2) 18. Herald's Surprise (small submerged reef North of Flinders Reefs, 3 by 2 km) 19. Dart Reef (small submerged reef Northwest of Flinders Reefs, 3 by 3 km, area 6 km2 including small lagoon that is open to the North) 20. Malay Reef (small submerged reef, not clearly defined, no breakers, difficult to see) 21. Abington Reef (submerged reef, nearly awash, 4 by 2.5 km, area 7 km2) 22. Marion Reef (large circular atoll formation that is composed of three main units located on the Eastern side: Marion, Long and Wansfell; and a number of smaller reefs on the west. The formation sits atop a submarine feature known as the Marion Plateau which is separated from the larger Coral Sea Plateau to the north by the Townsville Trough. Three small sand cays are located on the eastern side of Marion Reef: Paget Cay, on Long Reef, Carola Cay, south of Long Reef, and Brodie Cay, on Wansfell Reef. The atolls of the Northwestern Group, except Osprey Reef and Shark Reef in the North, and Marion Reef in the South, are located on the Coral Sea Plateau (Queensland Plateau), a contiguous area of depths less than 1000 m.

Flinders Reefs (North and South), Herald's Surprise and Dart Reef form a cluster of reefs of 66 by 26 km.

Magdelaine Cays, Coringa Islets and Herald Cays are part of the 8856 km2 Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve, created on 16 August 1982 and located around 400 km east of Cairnsand 220 to 320 km

from the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef. The 6 islets of the nature reserve have areas from 0.16 to 0.37 km2, for a total of 1.24 km2.

Lihou Reef was declared a Nature Reserve on 16 August 1982, with an area of 8440 km2.

The Nature Reserves were created to protect wildlife in the respective areas of the territory; together they form the Coral Sea Reserves Ramsar Site.

[edit]Mellish

Reef

1. Mellish Reef, being about 300 kilometres to the east of the Northwestern Group, thus the most distant from the Australian continent of all the reefs and atolls of the Coral Sea Islands Territory, is not considered to be part of any group. It has the outline of a boomerang-shaped platform around 10 km in length and 3 km across, area 25 km2. The surrounding reefs, which enclose a narrow lagoon, are completely submerged at high tide. Near the centre of the lagoon is the only permanent land of the reef - Heralds-Beacon Islet. The island is a small cay measuring 600 m by 120 m, area 57,000 m2, only rising a few metres above the high water mark.[5]

[edit]Southeasterly

Group

1. Frederick Reefs: The reefs form a semi-enclosed lagoon, known as Anchorage Sound, with an opening on the North side. The complex measures about 10 by 4 km, with an area of 30 km2. On the southern side of the reef lies Observatory Cay, the only permanently dry land, although there are a few of others cays that can be awash at high tide. 2. Kenn Reefs, submerged atoll of about 15 by 8 km, area 40 km2, islet Observatory Cay in the Southeast, 2 m high 3. Saumarez Reefs, southernmost reefs to be located on the Coral Sea Shelf; three main reefs and numerous smaller reefs that form a large crescent-shaped formation open to the northwest, about 27 by 14 km, area less than 300 km2. There are two sand cays: North East Cay and South West Cay. 4. Wreck Reefs: atoll 25 by 5 km, area 75 km2, open on the North. Islets found on the reefs include Bird Islet, West Islet and Porpoise Cay. 5. Cato Reef: Cato bank 21 by 13 km, area 200 km2 of depths less than 17 m; Cato Reef encircles an area of 3.3 by 1.8 km, area 5 km2 including lagoon; Cato Island, in the West of the lagoon, 650 by 300 m, area 0.15 km2, 6 m high. Close to the Southeast corner of Cato bank is Hutchison Rock, with 1 m depth over

[edit]Extreme

South

Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, together with reefs around Lord Howe Island (New South Wales) 150 km to the south, are regarded as the southernmost coral reefs in the world. Their location, where tropical and temperate

ocean currents meet, contributes to an unusually diverse assemblage of marine species. These mostly submerged atolls which dry only during low tide were added to the territory only in 1989. They are located on the Lord Howe Rise in the Tasman Sea which joins the Coral Sea in the South. Already on 23 December 1987, they were protected as theElizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Nature Reserve, which has an area of 1880 km2. 1. Middleton Reef, atoll about 8.9 by 6.3 km, area 37 km2 including lagoon, one islet: The Sound, 100 by 70 meters (area 5,000 m2), highest point close to the Northern end 1.5 metres. At low tides much of the reef flat is exposed. 2. Elizabeth Reef, atoll about 8.2 by 5.5 km, area 51 km2 including lagoon, one islet: Elizabeth island (Elizabeth cay), no vegetation, 600 metres by 400 metres (area 0.2 km2), highest point 0.8 metres. At low tides much of the reef flat is exposed.