I.

T LAB REPORT

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
3

2. COMPONENTS OF COMPUTERS
10

3. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
21

4. ASSEMBLING AND DEASSEMBLING OF COMPUTERS

25

1. ASSEMBLNG OF COMPUTERS
25

2. DEASSEMBLING OF COMPUTERS
37

5. OPERATING SYSTEM
43

6. TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

46

7. LINUX INSTALLATION
50

8. WINDOWS INSTALLATION
55

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Evolution of computers

The Jacquard loom was one of the first programmable devices.

The first use of the word "computer" was recorded in 1613, referring to a
person who carried out calculations, or computations, and the word
continued to be used in that sense until the middle of the 20th century. From
the end of the 19th century onwards though, the word began to take on its
more familiar meaning, describing a machine that carries out
computations.[3]

The history of the modern computer begins with two separate technologies—
automated calculation and programmability—but no single device can be
identified as the earliest computer, partly because of the inconsistent
application of that term. Examples of early mechanical calculating devices
include the abacus, the slide rule and arguably the astrolabe and the
Antikythera mechanism (which dates from about 150–100 BC). Hero of
Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD) built a mechanical theater which performed a play
lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and
drums that might be considered to be a means of deciding which parts of the
mechanism performed which actions and when.[4] This is the essence of
programmability.

The "castle clock", an astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, is

considered to be the earliest programmable analog computer.[5] It displayed
the zodiac, the solar and lunar orbits, a crescent moon-shaped pointer
travelling across a gateway causing automatic doors to open every hour,[6][7]
and five robotic musicians who played music when struck by levers operated
by a camshaft attached to a water wheel. The length of day and night could
be re-programmed to compensate for the changing lengths of day and night
throughout the year.[5]

The end of the Middle Ages saw a re-invigoration of European mathematics

and engineering. Wilhelm Schickard's 1623 device was the first of a number
of mechanical calculators constructed by European engineers, but none fit
the modern definition of a computer, because they could not be
programmed.

In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard made an improvement to the textile loom by

introducing a series of punched paper cards as a template which allowed his
loom to weave intricate patterns automatically. The resulting Jacquard loom
was an important step in the development of computers because the use of
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punched cards to define woven patterns can be viewed as an early, albeit
limited, form of programmability.

It was the fusion of automatic calculation with programmability that

produced the first recognizable computers. In 1837, Charles Babbage was
the first to conceptualize and design a fully programmable mechanical
computer, his analytical engine.[8] Limited finances and Babbage's inability to
resist tinkering with the design meant that the device was never completed.

In the late 1880s Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a

machine readable medium. Prior uses of machine readable media, above,
had been for control, not data. "After some initial trials with paper tape, he
settled on punched cards ..."[9] To process these punched cards he invented
the tabulator, and the key punch machines. These three inventions were the
foundation of the modern information processing industry. Large-scale
automated data processing of punched cards was performed for the 1890
United States Census by Hollerith's company, which later became the core of
IBM. By the end of the 19th century a number of technologies that would
later prove useful in the realization of practical computers had begun to
appear: the punched card, Boolean algebra, the vacuum tube (thermionic
valve) and the teleprinter.

During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs
were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a
direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for
computation. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked
the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.

George Stibitz is internationally recognized as a father of the modern digital

computer. While working at Bell Labs in November of 1937, Stibitz invented
and built a relay-based calculator he dubbed the "Model K" (for "kitchen
table", on which he had assembled it), which was the first to use binary
circuits to perform an arithmetic operation. Later models added greater
sophistication including complex arithmetic and programmability.[10]

Defining characteristics of some early digital computers of the 1940s (In the
history of computing hardware)
Turing
Numer Computin
Name First Programming complet
al g
e
operatio syste mechanis
nal m m
Zuse Z3 May 1941 Binary Electro- Program-controlled by Yes
(Germany) mechanica punched film stock (1998)

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l
Atanasoff–
Berry Not programmable—
1942 Binary Electronic No
Computer single purpose
(US)
Program-controlled by
Colossus February
Binary Electronic patch cables and No
Mark 1 (UK) 1944
switches
Program-controlled by
Harvard Electro-
Decima 24-channel punched
Mark I – IBM May 1944 mechanica No
l paper tape (but no
ASCC (US) l
conditional branch)
Program-controlled by
Colossus
June 1944 Binary Electronic patch cables and No
Mark 2 (UK)
switches
Program-controlled by
Decima
ENIAC (US) July 1946 Electronic patch cables and Yes
l
switches
Manchester
Small-Scale Stored-program in
Experimenta June 1948 Binary Electronic Williams cathode ray Yes
l Machine tube memory
(UK)

Program-controlled by
patch cables and
switches plus a
Modified Septembe Decima primitive read-only
Electronic Yes
ENIAC (US) r 1948 l stored programming
mechanism using the
Function Tables as
program ROM
Stored-program in
EDSAC (UK) May 1949 Binary Electronic mercury delay line Yes
memory
Stored-program in
Williams cathode ray
Manchester October
Binary Electronic tube memory and Yes
Mark 1 (UK) 1949
magnetic drum
memory
Stored-program in
CSIRAC November
Binary Electronic mercury delay line Yes
(Australia) 1949
memory
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A succession of steadily more powerful and flexible computing devices were
constructed in the 1930s and 1940s, gradually adding the key features that
are seen in modern computers. The use of digital electronics (largely
invented by Claude Shannon in 1937) and more flexible programmability
were vitally important steps, but defining one point along this road as "the
first digital electronic computer" is difficult (Shannon 1940). Notable
achievements include:

EDSAC was one of the first computers to implement the stored program (von
Neumann) architecture.

• Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was the

first working machine featuring binary arithmetic, including floating
point arithmetic and a measure of programmability. In 1998 the Z3 was
proved to be Turing complete, therefore being the world's first
operational computer.
• The non-programmable Atanasoff–Berry Computer (1941) which used
vacuum tube based computation, binary numbers, and regenerative
capacitor memory. The use of regenerative memory allowed it to be
much more compact then its peers (being approximately the size of a
large desk or workbench), since intermediate results could be stored
and then fed back into the same set of computation elements.
• The secret British Colossus computers (1943),[11] which had limited
programmability but demonstrated that a device using thousands of
tubes could be reasonably reliable and electronically reprogrammable.
It was used for breaking German wartime codes.
• The Harvard Mark I (1944), a large-scale electromechanical computer
with limited programmability.
• The U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory ENIAC (1946), which
used decimal arithmetic and is sometimes called the first general
purpose electronic computer (since Konrad Zuse's Z3 of 1941 used
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electromagnets instead of electronics). Initially, however, ENIAC had an
inflexible architecture which essentially required rewiring to change its
programming.

Several developers of ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up with a far more
flexible and elegant design, which came to be known as the "stored program
architecture" or von Neumann architecture. This design was first formally
described by John von Neumann in the paper First Draft of a Report on the
EDVAC, distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers
based on the stored-program architecture commenced around this time, the
first of these being completed in Great Britain. The first to be demonstrated
working was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or
"Baby"), while the EDSAC, completed a year after SSEM, was the first
practical implementation of the stored program design. Shortly thereafter,
the machine originally described by von Neumann's paper—EDVAC—was
completed but did not see full-time use for an additional two years.

Nearly all modern computers implement some form of the stored-program

architecture, making it the single trait by which the word "computer" is now
defined. While the technologies used in computers have changed
dramatically since the first electronic, general-purpose computers of the
1940s, most still use the von Neumann architecture.

Microprocessors are miniaturized devices that often implement stored

program CPUs.

Computers using vacuum tubes as their electronic elements were in use

throughout the 1950s, but by the 1960s had been largely replaced by
transistor-based machines, which were smaller, faster, cheaper to produce,
required less power, and were more reliable. The first transistorised
computer was demonstrated at the University of Manchester in 1953.[12] In
the 1970s, integrated circuit technology and the subsequent creation of
microprocessors, such as the Intel 4004, further decreased size and cost and
further increased speed and reliability of computers. By the 1980s,
computers became sufficiently small and cheap to replace simple
mechanical controls in domestic appliances such as washing machines. The
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1980s also witnessed home computers and the now ubiquitous personal
computer. With the evolution of the Internet, personal computers are
becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the household.

Modern smartphones are fully-programmable computers in their own right,

and as of 2009 may well be the most common form of such computers in
existence.

COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER
A typical PC contains the following hardware:

Case Power Supply Motherboard CPU

Memory Hard Disk Floppy Disk CD-ROM
Video Adapter Sound Card Modem Mouse
Keyboard Monitor
There are many other possible hardware components, such as a DVD,
CD-RW, Zip drive or network card. There are also many subcomponents of a
PC, such as the cooling fan, printer port or reset switch to name a few. This
article focuses on the basic PC hardware. The hardware in the list above is
nearly universal to a basic PC.
While a PC is built up from hardware components, the hardware is only
half of the equation. The other vital part of a PC is the software. Without
software, the hardware is useless; and vice versa.
The fundamental software for a PC is called an "operating system".
Without an operating system or "OS", a PC can't do much. The operating
system tells the components of a PC what to do and when to do it. Windows,
MAC OS, Linux and Unix are all examples of operating systems.

The Parts of a Personal Computer

The Case:
The case is the box that houses the PC. All of the hardware,
except for the peripherals, is housed inside the case. There are two common
styles of cases: "desktop" and "tower." The desktop case usually sits under
the monitor and is roughly the size of two or three shoe boxes side by side.
The tower case stands upright on one end and is usually placed on the floor.
Tower cases can be the same size as a desktop case but often range up
much larger. Another, less common, case style is the "rack mount" case
which slides in and out of an equipment rack.

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The Power Supply:

Where the power cord connects to the back of the PC is the
power supply. The power supply converts AC current from the wall outlet to
the appropriate DC voltages for the various components of the computer.
The power supply has a fan built into it to keep itself and the PC cool. Most
PC's have at least one additional cooling fan, often mounted directly on the
CPU. The power supply or its internal fan can wear out. Fortunately, the
entire unit is easily replaced.

The Motherboard:
The motherboard is the largest and most fundamental
component of a PC. Every other hardware component is somehow attached
to the motherboard. The motherboard is the common link for every
component to communicate and work together.
The motherboard has a series of slots, sockets and connectors
for connecting the various components of a PC. The memory, accessory
cards, and CPU are installed directly onto the motherboard in most cases.
The drives and peripherals communicate with the motherboard through
wired connections.

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 I.T LAB REPORT

It is becoming increasingly common for motherboards to

integrate features that used to require separate accessory cards. Most
motherboards integrate drive controllers and communication ports; and with
greater frequency they integrate sound, video and network features as well.
There are a wide range of motherboards to choose from. They differ in
features, speed, capacity and the CPU supported. They also differ in size,
shape and layout, this is commonly referred to as the "form factor".
The CPU
The CPU, which stands for Central Processing Unit, is the brain of
the PC. It is often referred to as the "processor" or "chip". The CPU directs,
coordinates and communicates with the hardware components and performs
all of the "thinking". What a CPU actually does is perform mathematical
calculations. It is the software that people write that translates those
calculations into useful functions for us.
The speed of the CPU, generally speaking, is the number of
calculations it can perform in one second. It is more complicated than that,
but it is a reasonable way to think of the speed. A 500 MHz (megahertz) CPU
performs about 500,000,000 mathematical calculations per second. As the
speed of new CPUs increase, the difference is becoming less obvious to
computer users. A CPU that is twice as fast as another one will not result in a
PC running twice as fast. The CPU has to wait for other, slower components
and for the user too. The CPU spends a lot of time sitting idle, waiting for
something to do. CPUs have something called a "cache" or memory cache.
The memory cache is where information is stored that the CPU is likely to
need soon. This memory is in addition to the normal memory installed in a
PC. The difference is that the cache is built right onto the CPU (and/or very
near the CPU), and it is much faster than conventional memory. Cache
memory was developed to reduce the time the CPU had to wait while
information was retrieved from the standard memory.
The RAM Memory
The memory chips store information, temporarily, for short term
use. A PC's memory is an entirely different thing from the hard disk
"memory". The hard disk stores information "permanently" for long term use.
A PC's memory only contains information when the PC is on.
When the PC is turned off, the information in the memory chips disappears.

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The information in memory is similar to a thought, it gets replaced when you
start thinking about something else. Hard disk memory is like writing down
the information and storing it in a filing cabinet.

The Hard Disk Drive

A hard disk (also called a "hard drive") is much like a filing
cabinet. The programs and data are stored on the hard disk and the
computer accesses them as needed. When the computer accesses the hard
drive, it is reading the stored information into memory. That memory is the
temporary workspace. The original file on the hard disk is left undisturbed.
When the computer stores information, it writes the data to the hard disk.
That process results in the old file being replaced or modified with the new
information. If you save data to a new file, or install new software, the
information is written to the disk in an available, unused portion of the disk.

The Floppy Drive:

The floppy disk drive is a device that records data onto a
removable storage disk called a floppy disk. Floppy disks, also called
"floppies", are the most basic storage medium for data. However their
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limited capacity, typically 1.44 megabytes, makes them of limited use. A
floppy disk can be used to copy files from one PC to another PC or for making
backup copies of files. Replacing a floppy drive is very easy and inexpensive
to do, should the need arise.

The CD-ROM
The CD-ROM drive is a device that reads information or music off
of a compact disk (CD). CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc Read Only Memory.
Most software is distributed on CDs because of their low cost and large
capacity (650MB or more). The CD is spun at high speed inside the drive
while a laser is directed at the surface to read the data or music. The CDROM
speed is referenced as 12X or 12 speed (or any other number). This simply
means that it spins the CD that many times faster than the original industry
specification. So, a 48X CD-ROM spins the CD up to 48 times faster than the
original specification. Faster is better.
Many PCs are now built with a CD-RW drive, which stands for
Compact Disc, Read-Write. Unlike a standard CDROM, you can write data
onto a CD with a CD-RW drive. CD-R disks allow you to write to the CD once
and read it an unlimited number of times. With the use of RE-writable CDs
(CD-RWs) you can reuse the disk and rewrite over it again many times. The
speeds of a CD-RW are expressed like this, 4X 4X 32X. This means it can
write to the CD up to 4 times the spec speed, rewrite the CD up to 4 times
spec speed and read the CD up to 32 times the spec speed.

The Graphics Card or Video Card:

The video adapter card or graphics adapter translates
information into graphics and text that appear on the monitor screen. The
graphics adapter plugs into a slot on the motherboard or is incorporated
directly into the electronics of the motherboard. Most motherboards now
include a slot specifically designed for the graphics adapter called the AGP
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 I.T LAB REPORT
slot (Advanced Graphics Port). Modern graphics adapters usually incorporate
some memory right on the card to improve their performance. To further
improve the performance of the video output, a second graphics accelerator
card can be used in tandem with the graphics adapter.

The Sound Card

Most PCs are typically equipped for multimedia. They can play
sounds, music, and speech. The sound card processes the information and
outputs the signal to the speakers. The sound card plugs into a slot on the
motherboard or is incorporated directly into the the motherboard. With a
basic sound card a microphone, speakers, joystick and an auxiliary sound
source can be connected to it. More advanced cards may offer additional
input and output features.

The Modem:
The modem is a device that enables the PC to use a telephone
line to communicate with other PCs and devices. The name comes from
"MOdulation DEModulation". The modem plugs into a slot on the
motherboard or is incorporated directly into the electronics of the
motherboard. It converts data into signals that can be transmitted over the
telephone line and receives data to convert back for the PC to use.

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 I.T LAB REPORT

Keyboard – The keyboard is used to type something or input information to

the computer. There are different designs and models of the keyboards in the
market. The most common layout of the keyboard is QWERTY layout. A
standard keyboard has 101 keys and embedded keys.

Mouse – Every modern computer requires a mouse for faster operations.

Generally a mouse has two buttons left and right to perform different
functions. One type of the mouse has a round ball under the bottom. Another
type of the mouse use optical system to track the movement of the mouse.

Monitors – The monitor is used to display the information on the screen. All
the activities of a computer, functions and tasks are seen on the computer
screen and this is called outputting information. Monitors come in many sizes
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 I.T LAB REPORT
and shapes, monochrome or full colors. Today most computers use LCD
screens. It is light weight and consumes less power as compared to the
monitors.

Printers – The printer takes the information from the PC and transfers it to
the paper of different sizes, which are placed in the printer device. There are
three basic types of a printer such as dot matrix, inkjet and laser.

Scanners- Scanners allow you to transfer pictures and photographs to your

computer. A scanner is used to scan the images and pictures. You can then
send the image to someone, modify it or take a print out of it. With optical
character recognition software you can convert printed documents into the
text that you can use in the word processor.

Digital camera- You can take the digital photographs with the digital
cameras. The images are stored on the memory chip of the digital cameras
and you can transfer them to your computer with the USB drive.

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 I.T LAB REPORT

Case – Case or casing covers the whole computer’s circuitry. There are two
types of casings desktop and tower casing. There is room inside the casing to
add or remove components. Cases come in many sizes like desktop, mini,
midi and tower. There are some additional empty slots inside the cases such
as IDE, USB, ASI, PCI and firewire slots.

Classification of Computers
Personal computer: A single user Computer running with a traditional size
of memory (RAM) and based on a medium speed microprocessor.
It is used in homes for personal usage. A personal computer
(PC) is any general-purpose computer whose size,
capabilities, and original sales price make it useful for
individuals, and which is intended to be operated directly
by an end user, with no intervening computer operator.
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 I.T LAB REPORT

Workstation: A powerful single user Computer. A workstation is like a

personal computer, but it has an extra powerful processor and a larger size
of RAM. It can also have a large size of memory. A workstation is a high-end
microcomputer designed for technical or scientific applications. Intended
primarily to be used by one person at a time, they are commonly connected
to a local area network and run multi-user operating systems. The term
workstation has also been used to refer to a mainframe computer terminal or
a PC connected to a network.

Minicomputer: It is a multi user Computer. It is capable

of supporting
hundreds of users at the same time. It runs with a very
fast microprocessor and it contains huge memory (RAM).
Minicomputers are much smaller than mainframe computers and they are
also much less expensive. The cost of these computers can vary from a few
thousand dollars to several hundred thousand dollars. They possess most of
the features found on mainframe computers, but on a
more limited scale. They can still have many terminals,
but not as many as the mainframes. They can store a
tremendous amount of information, but again usually not
as much as the mainframe. Medium and small businesses
typically use these computers.

Mainframe: It is a very powerful multi user Computer. It can support

thousand of users simultaneously. Mainframe computers are very large, often
filling an entire room. They can store enormous of information, can perform
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many tasks at the same time, can communicate with many users at the
same time, and are very expensive. . The price of a mainframe computer
frequently runs into the millions of dollars. Mainframe
computers usually have many terminals connected to them.
These terminals look like small computers but they are only
devices used to send and receive information from the
actual computer using wires. Terminals can be located in the same room
with the mainframe computer, but they can also be in different rooms,
buildings, or cities. Large businesses, government agencies, and universities
usually use this type of computer.

Supercomputer: It is an extremely fast Computer and can execute millions

of instructions in a second. A supercomputer is a computer that is at the
frontline of current processing capacity, particularly speed of calculation.
Supercomputers introduced in the 1960s were designed primarily by
Seymour Cray at Control Data Corporation (CDC), and led the market into the
1970s until Cray left to form his own company, Cray Research. He then took
over the supercomputer market with his new designs, holding the top spot in
supercomputing for five years (1985–1990). In the 1980s a large number of
smaller competitors entered the market, in parallel to the creation of the
minicomputer market a decade earlier, but many of these disappeared in the
mid-1990s "supercomputer market crash".

PC ASSEMBLING AND DISEMBLING

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ASSEMBLING OF A COMPUTER
When it comes time to put a computer together, it's usually just a
matter of reversing the order in which you took it apart. Here you're going to
visualize each step because there may be an easier way. Is it easier to install
the motherboard or the power supply first? Are the RAM DIMMs (or SIMMs)
easier to access before, or after the power supply is in. If the motherboard
pops out the back on a tray, then install the CPU and the RAM before
replacing the tray. If you install the power supply first, then you may be able
to clip the power connectors on as you install the motherboard and tray.

Tools
When putting the computer back together (or disassembling), there
are some basic tools that you'll find handy. Of course, you'll need your ESD
protection equipment and a phillips screwdriver (keep a flat-head screwdriver
nearby, too. A small flashlight and a magnifying glass may come in handy, as
well as needle nose pliers. A useful device for any kind of computer work is a
small srewdriver with a phillips head on one end and a flat-head on the other
(I have no idea what the proper name is for the tool). Once again, you're not
in a race. A good carpenter measures twice, and cuts once. When working on
computers you want to double-check everything you install or connect.
Before you start, make sure you have taken all your ESD precautions. As you
continue, make a conscious effort to remain aware of these precautions.

The Power Supply

A fairly basic installation, just lineup the holes and screw it on. Don't
plug it in yet. Remember, the cable going to the remote switch on the front
of the case carries 110 volts AC. If you took the wires off the switch, make
sure you connect them just as they were before. A wrong connection here
can burn up your PC. After your power supply is installed, do not plug it in,
you may not be able to tell if the switch is on or off and you don't want to
turn the power supply on without a load.

The Ram
DIP memory modules are the hardest to install. Luckily, it's not done
much anymore. SIMMs are inserted at about a 45 degree angle then stoand
up until they clip into place. If they don't clip in properly, maybe you have
them in backwards. They'll usually have a key cut into one side. DIMMs are
keyed on the edge connector side, they can only be inserted one way. Once
they are lined up, push them down until the locking tabs on the side come
up. You may have to support the motherboard from underneath if it looks as
though its going to flex too much. COAST modules are also keyed on the

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 I.T LAB REPORT
bottom and insert much like an adapter card (Coast On A STick memory is
cache SRAM).

The CPU
Luckily, CPU sockets aren't friction fit anymore. If you have a PGA
Central Processor (Pentium MMX or Celeron, Cyrix or AMD), it will fit into a
ZIFF (zero insertion force) socket. Pin#1 on the chip has to be lined up with
pin#1 on the socket. This can be indicated on the socket with an arrow, a #1
silk-screened on the board, or a flattened corner. Usually the CPU will
indicate pin#1 with a flattened corner (and, or a dot on top, and, or an arrow
on the bottom center of the chip). Unclip and lift the handle, insert the chip,
lower the handle and clip it in. If it's a Pentium II or a Pentium III, it will fit into
a Slot 1 socket. These are rectangular in shape and have 242 pins in two
rows. They're keyed, and the cartridge should only fit in one way. Check any
documentation that came with the motherboard or CPU, and refer to your
notes.

The Motherboard
Most PC cases will allow you to remove the metal tray that the
motherboard attaches to by removing 2 or more screws. If you didn't do that
during disassembly then you should familiarize yourself with it now. The
plastic standoffs on the motherboard are to keep the solder-side of the board
from touching the metal case and shorting out. Usually, it's better to install
the RAM and CPU first to avoid the possibility of flexing the board and
cracking solder connections or traces. Orient the motherboard properly and
either clip in, or slide in the standoffs until the mounting screw holes line up.
Insert the screws that hold the board in place. The screws need to be snug,
but do not twist them into the motherboard. You may be able to connect the
power to the system board as you install the tray. A power supply with a
baby-AT form factor will have two motherboard connectors (P8 and P9).
These connectors are keyed but can be reversed. Make sure the black wires
on the two connectors are beside each other. Clip the keyed edge in at an
angle, then straighten the connector up and slide it on. ATX power
connectors slide in until the tab clicks. Once the motherboard and tray are
secured in place, you can re-install the wires for the front of the case (refer to
your documentation). At this point, you can install the video card. Do a final
check on everything installed. Re-check all installations and connections,
attach and plug in the monitor. Turn the computer on. Watch for lights on the
front panel. How far does the BIOS POST routine get? Are there any error
messages? Is this expected?
One thing that I don't like to do is to completely re-assemble a
computer and then just turn it on. If it doesn't work at that point, then you
have to tear it all apart again to find the problem. Once you've installed the
power supply, motherboard, CPU and RAM, install the video card, hook up

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 I.T LAB REPORT
the keyboard and cables and start your computer. Of course, there's no
drives installed and some expansion cards are missing, so you're going to
get errors. But if it recognizes your video card, counts the memory and
allows access to you CMOS setup program, then you know everything
installed to that point is working. Now, turn your computer on after installing
each new device. If you get an unexpected error, then it should be due to the
last device you installed.
CPUs have something called a "cache" or memory cache. The memory
cache is where information is stored that the CPU is likely to need soon. This
memory is in addition to the normal memory installed in a PC. The difference
is that the cache is built right onto the CPU (and/or very near the CPU), and it
is much faster than conventional memory. Cache memory was developed to
reduce the time the CPU had to wait while information was retrieved from the
standard memory.

DISEMBLING OF A COMPUTER
The steps and the precautions to be followed to dissemble a computer are
given below
⇒ Keep a supply of antistatic bags to place components in as they are
removed.
⇒ Leaving the computer plugged in is a recommended procedure.
However, make sure it's switched off and remember that the cable
going to the remote switch on the front of the case carries AC current
at house voltage. Also, ATX motherboards have power to them all the
time, even when the switch is off.
⇒ Before beginning to remove a power supply or an ATX motherboard,
always make sure your computer is unplugged. You want to make sure
you have what you need. Your wrist strap is attached to the computer,
you don't want to have to run to the other side of the room or to
another room to get something. Forget about the strap and your
computer may follow you.
⇒ The standard way of removing tower cases used to be to undo 4-6
screws on the back of the case, slide the cover back about an inch and
lift it off. Manufacturers are beginning to come up with trickier and
more intricate methods of assembling these cases all the time. If there
is no manual, then a little time taken for careful inspection may be in
order.
Removing the case
⇒ Don't Force Anything. If it has to be forced, it will probably break.
If there are no screws on the back of the case for the cover, check the
plastic faceplate on the front. Some pry off to reveal screws or release
levers (remember, careful inspection). If everything on the front has its
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own bezel around it (including the LEDs) then maybe the plastic front
pops off (or maybe the case slides off the front).
⇒ If you notice a separation between the sides and the top, then they
must come off separately. My favorite ATX case allows you to remove
two screws from the back, then slide the side panel to the rear an inch
and remove it. The other side removes the same way. It's a good, solid,
well built case.
⇒ Make sure any screws removed are for the cover. You don't want to
unscrew the power supply by accident and have it fall inside your
computer. That's a bad thing.
⇒ After the case is removed, place it in a safe place, where it won't get
knocked of a table, kicked or stepped on and bent.
Removing Adapter Cards

⇒ 16-bit ISA card will probably work in any 16-bit ISA slot, but there may
be a reason it's in that particular one. Document the type of card and
which slot it comes from.
⇒ Check the card for any cables or wires that might be attached and
decide if it would be easier to remove them before or after you remove
the card.
⇒ Undo the screw that holds the card in place.
⇒ Grab the card by its edges, front and back, and gently rock it
lengthwise to release it. Do not wiggle it side to side as you can break
the card, the slot, or the solder. Sometimes it helps to grasp the inside
corner of the card with one hand and place a finger from the other
hand under the associated port out the back of the computer to pry up
the one end of the card.
⇒ Once the card is removed, you may want to record any jumper settings
you see, just in case one is accidentally dislodged. Try to store the card
in an antistatic bag. If you don't plan on replacing the card then a
cover should be installed over the slot opening.

Removing Drives:
⇒ Removing drives is not that difficult. They usually have a power
connector and a data cable attached from the device to a
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controller card or a connector on the motherboard. CD-ROMs
may have an analog cable connected to the sound card.
⇒ The power will be attached using one of two connectors, a large
Molex connector or a smaller Berg connector for the floppy drive.
The Molex connector may need to be wiggled slightly from side
to side while applying gentle pressure outwards. The Berg
connector may just pull straight out or it may have a small tab
that has to be lifted with a tiny flat screwdriver.
⇒ The data cables need to be documented. Remember the pin one
rule. Know where each one goes before you pull it out and record
its orientation (which side is the stripe on, where is pin 1?). Pull
data cables gently and carefully. In other words, don't yank them
off, and pull level and in the direction of the pins.
⇒ Now you need to do a little more inspection, can the entire drive
bay be removed? Does that particular drive come out the back of
the bay or does it slide out the front before the bay is removed. If
a bay is removable, you may have to remove some screws or
unclip a lever then slide the bay back and off. If the bay is not
removable, there should be access ports on the other side of the
case that allow for access to those screws (there should be, I've
seen some that you just about have to remove the motherboard
to access these screws).
⇒ Now you can remove the screws and slide the drive out the back
of the bay. If the drive slides out the front of the case, then
remove the screws and gently slide it forward.

Removing the Memory Modules

⇒ Memory modules are one of the chips that can be
damaged by as little as 30 volts. Be careful of ESD and
handle them only by the edges. SIMMs and DIMMs are
removed differently:.
⇒ SIMM - gently push back the metal tabs holding the SIMM
in the socket. Tilt the SIMM away from the tabs to about a

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45% angle. It should now lift out. Put each SIMM in its own
protective bag.
⇒ DIMM- There are plastic tabs on the end of the DIMM
socket. Push the tabs down and away from the socket. The
DIMM should lift slightly. Now you can grab it by the edges
and place it in a separate antistatic bag.
Removing the Power Supply
⇒ Make sure it's unplugged.
⇒ All power connectors should be removed, including the
connection to the motherboard and any auxiliary fans.
⇒ Watch the little plastic tabs on ATX connectors (you'ld
rather not break them). AT power supplies have a twopiece
power connector that may be labeled P-8 and P-9. Make
note of the orientation. The black wires shouldbe in the
middle, black to black.
⇒ Remove the connection to the remote power switch at the
front of the case. Orientation of the colored wires atthis
switch is critical. If you remove them, make sure you
document well, and during re-assembly plug the computer
into a fused surge protector before turning it on (this could
save your motherboard and componentsfrom melting if
you've reconnected improperly). If you're putting the same
power supply back, it's better toremove the entire switch
and leave the connectors entact. The remote switch on an
ATX form factor attaches to the motherboard.
⇒ Remove the four screws at the back of the case and gently
slide the power supply out of the case. While removing
these screws, hold onto the power supply. You don't want it
falling into the case.
⇒ Removing the Motherboard
⇒ Document and remove all wire attachments to the
motherboard. (Some of these have Pin 1 designations
also.)
⇒ Most cases have a removable panel that the motherboard
is attached to. By removing a couple of screws thepanel
can be taken off and you can gain much better access to
the motherboard. Again, a little investigation cansave a lot
of trouble.
⇒ There is usually 2 or 3 screws holding down newer
motherboards. Make sure you've got the right ones and
remove them.
⇒ Motherboards sit on plastic or brass standoffs that keep the
traces and solder from touching the metal case
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andgrounding out. Once the screws are removed you can
lift the motherboard out. In other cases, the
motherboardhas to be slid horizontally towards the bottom
of the case to unclip the plastic standoffs and then lifted
out.
⇒ Place the motherboard in an antistatic bag.

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What is an Operating system

An operating system (commonly abbreviated to either OS or O/S) is

an interface between hardware and user; it is responsible for the
management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the limited
resources of the computer. The operating system acts as a host for
applications that are run on the machine. As a host, one of the purposes of
an operating system is to handle the details of the operation of the
hardware. This relieves application programs from having to manage these
details and makes it easier to write applications. Almost all computers,
including handheld computers, desktop computers, supercomputers, and
even video game consoles, use an operating system of some type. Some of
the oldest models may however use an embedded operating system that
may be contained on a compact disk or other data storage device.

Operating systems offer a number of services to application programs

and users. Applications access these services through application
programming interfaces (APIs) or system calls. By invoking these interfaces,
the application can request a service from the operating system, pass
parameters, and receive the results of the operation. Users may also interact
with the operating system with some kind of software user interface (UI) like
typing commands by using command line interface (CLI) or using a graphical
user interface (GUI, commonly pronounced “gooey”). For hand-held and
desktop computers, the user interface is generally considered part of the
operating system. On large multi-user systems like Unix and Unix-like
systems, the user interface is generally implemented as an application

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program that runs outside the operating system. (Whether the user interface
should be included as part of the operating system is a point of contention.)

Common contemporary operating systems include Microsoft Windows,

Mac OS, Linux, BSD and Solaris. Microsoft Windows has a significant majority
of market share in the desktop and notebook computer markets, while
servers generally run on unix or Unix-like systems. Embedded device
markets are split amongst several operating systems.

Operating systems can be classified as follows:

Multi-user: Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time.
Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent
users.

Multiprocessing: Supports running a program on more than one CPU.

Multitasking: Allows more than one program to run concurrently.

Multithreading: Allows different parts of a single program to run

concurrently.

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Types Operating System

Microsoft Windows is a series of software operating systems and

graphical user interfaces produced by Microsoft. Microsoft first introduced an
operating environment named Windows in November 1985 as an add-on to
MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces
(GUIs). Microsoft Windows came to dominate the world's personal computer
market, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced previously. At the
2004 IDC Directions conference, it was stated that Windows had
approximately 90% of the client operating system market. The most recent
client version of Windows is Windows Vista; the most recent server version is
Windows Server 2008. Vista's successor, Windows 7 (currently in public beta)
is slated to be released between July 1, 2009 and June 30, 2010.

Linux (commonly pronounced /links/ in English; variants exist) is a

generic term referring to Unix-like computer operating systems based on the
Linux kernel. Their development is one of the most prominent examples of
free and open source software collaboration; typically all the underlying
source code can be used, freely modified, and redistributed by anyone under
the terms of the GNU GPL and other free licenses. Linux is predominantly
known for its use in servers, although it is installed on a wide variety of
computer hardware, ranging from embedded devices and mobile phones to
supercomputers. Linux distributions, installed on both desktop and laptop

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computers, have become increasingly commonplace in recent years, owing
largely to the popular Ubuntu distribution and to the emergence of
notebooks.

The name "Linux" comes from the Linux kernel, originally written in 1991 by
Linux Torvalds. The rest of the system, including utilities and libraries, usually
comes from the GNU operating system announced in 1983 by Richard
Stallman. The GNU contribution is the basis for the Free Software
Foundation's preferred name GNU/Linux.

Red Hat, Inc. (NYSE: RHT) is a company in the free and open source
software sector, and a major Linux distribution vendor. Founded in 1995, Red
Hat has its corporate headquarters in Raleigh, North Carolina with satellite
offices worldwide.

Red Hat has become associated to a large extent with its enterprise
operating system Red Hat Enterprise Linux and with the acquisition of open-
source enterprise middleware vendor J Boss. Red Hat provides operating-
system platforms along with middleware, applications, and management
products, as well as support, training, and consulting services.

Mac OS is the trademarked name for a series of graphical user

interface-based operating systems developed by Apple Inc. (formerly Apple
Computer, Inc.) for their Macintosh line of computer systems. The Macintosh
user experience is credited with popularizing the graphical user interface.
The original form of what Apple would later name the "Mac OS" was the
integral and unnamed system software first introduced in 1984 with the
original Macintosh, usually referred to simply as the System software.

Apple deliberately downplayed the existence of the operating system

in the early years of the Macintosh to help make the machine appear more

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user-friendly and to distance it from other operating systems such as MS-
DOS, which was more arcane and technically\ challenging. Much of this early
system software was held in ROM, with updates typically provided free of
charge by Apple dealers on floppy disk. As increasing disk storage capacity
and performance gradually eliminated the need for fixing much of an
advanced GUI operating system in ROM, Apple explored cloning while
positioning major operating system upgrades as separate revenue-
generating products, first with System 7 and System 7.5, then with Mac OS
7.6 in 1997.

Earlier versions of the Mac OS were compatible only with Motorola 68000-
based Macintoshes. As Apple introduced computers with PowerPC hardware,
the OS was upgraded to support this architecture as well. Mac OS X, which
has superseded the "Classic" Mac OS, is compatible with both PowerPC and
Intel processors.

Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD, sometimes called Berkeley Unix) is

the Unix operating system derivative developed and distributed by the
Computer Systems Research Group of the University of California, Berkeley,
from 1977 to 1995. Ology companies of this era.Though these commercial
BSD derivatives were largely superseded by the UNIX System V Release 4
and OSF/1 systems in the 1990s (both of which incorporated BSD code), later
BSD releases provided a basis for several open source development projects
which continue to this day.

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LINUX INSTALLATION
Beginning the Installation
Let's get started. If you are using CDs, put disc 1 into your CD-ROM. If
you are using the DVD, insert that disc now.
 A blue screen will appear after a few moments, with a menu.
Select the INSTALLATION option (by pressing the down arrow),
and press ENTER:

 You will see a progress bar for a few seconds that says “Loading
Linux kernel”, after which the screen will go black. After a
moment, another blue screen will appear, This screen may
remain for several minutes while the Installation system is
loading.
 After a few minutes, you will see the LANGUAGE screen appear.
This is the first step of the installation. From this screen, select
your preferred language, and click NEXT. You are taken to a
screen that suggests you do a media check. If you wish to do
this, click START CHECK. When you are ready, click NEXT.

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 The next screen you see is a license agreement. Make the

appropriate selection at
the bottom of this screen. Then, click NEXT. The Installation program will
probe several of the parts of your computer. It will stop on a screen entitled
"Installation Mode". Select the "New Installation" option.

 On the next screen, select your region and time zone. In the
drop-down called “Hardware Clock set to,” pick “Local Time.”
Then, click NEXT. You are taken to a screen where you will select
your desktop, choose either KDE or GNOME depending on your
purpose (hereKDE is chosen)

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 The next screen, called "Installation Settings," will take a few

seconds to load. When it does, you will see three sections:
Partitioning, Software, and Language. Since we want to make
sure that only Linux is installed on this computer, we're going to
change the partitioning.If you are sure that this is what you want
to do, continue. Go ahead and click on the blue PARTITIONING
link at the top of this screen
 On the next screen, called “Suggested Partitioning,” there is a
“Partitioning” box down in the center of the screen. Inside this
box, select the “Create Custom Partition setup” radio button.
Click NEXT:

 The next screen is called “Preparing Hard Disk: Step 1.” On this
screen there is one box. This box is called “Hard Disk.” In this
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box, simply select the very first radio button. Don't even worry
about what it says. Then click NEXT.
 The next screen is called “Preparing Hard Disk: Step 2.” On this
screen also, there is only one box. It is called “Installing on:.” If
you see a button that says “Use entire hard disk, click it (if not,
that is ok). Then, click NEXT.
 Then, we come back to the “Installation Settings” screen where
the installer thinks for a few minutes. When this process finishes,
click ACCEPT.
 The Installation program asks you if you want to start installing
the system to the hard drive. If you are sure you want to do this,
click INSTALL:

 Your system then formats your hard drive. Shortly after this,
the installer begins installing the Linux operating system to
the hard drive.
 Your computer may reboot itself during this installation
process.
 The whole installation may take about 30 to 45 minutes.
 After we install the linux into the system then we are asked to
create host name and domain name and after that we are
asked to create a password for the root user.

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INSTALLING WINDOWS
Step #1: Plan your installation
When you run the Windows XP Professional Setup program, you must provide
information about how to install and configure the operating system.
Thorough
planning can make your installation of Windows XP Professional more
efficient by
helping you to avoid potential problems during installation. An understanding
of the
configuration options will also help to ensure that you have properly
configured your
system.
I won't go into that part right now but here are some of the most important
things you
should take into consideration when planning for your XP installation:
⇒ Check
 System Requirements
⇒ Check
 Hardware and Software Compatibility
⇒ Determine
 Disk Partitioning Options
⇒ Choose  the Appropriate File System: FAT, FAT32, NTFS
⇒ Decide  on a Workgroup or Domain Installation
⇒ Complete  a Pre-Installation Checklist
After you made sure you can go on, start the installation process.
Step #2: Beginning the installation process
You can install Windows XP in several methods - all are valid and good, it all
depends
upon your needs and your limitations.
⇒ Manual  installations usually come in 3 flavors:
⇒ Boot  from CD - No existing partition is required.
⇒ Boot from the 6 Setup Boot Disks, then insert the CD - No existing
partition is required (see the Create Setup Boot Disks for Windows XP
page).
⇒ Boot from an MS-DOS startup floppy, go to the command prompt,
create a 4GB FAT32 partition with FDISK, reboot, format the C partition
you've created, then go to the CD drive, go into the I386 folder, and
run the WINNT.EXE command.
⇒ Run  an already installed OS, such as Windows NT 4.0 Server. From
within NT 4.0 go to the I386 folder in the W2K installation CD and run
the WINNT32.EXE command.

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⇒ If
 you want to upgrade a desktop OS such as Windows 98 into
Windows 2000 Professional you can follow the same procedure as
above (You cannot upgrade Windows 98 into W2K Server).
⇒ There are other non-manual installation methods such as using an
unattended file along with a uniqueness database file, using Sysprep,
using RIS or even running unattended installations from within the CD
itself, but we won't go into that right now. It doesn't matter how you
run the setup process, but the moment it runs - all setup methods look
alike.
Step #3: The text-based portion of the Setup program
The setup process begins loading a blue-looking text screen (not GUI). In that
phase
you will be asked to accept the EULA and choose a partition on which to
install XP,
and if that partition is new, you'll be asked to format it by using either FAT,
FAT32 or
NTFS.
1. Start the computer from the CD.

2. You can press F6 if you need to install additional SCSI adapters or other
mass storage devices. If you do you will be asked to supply a floppy disk with
the drivers and you CANNOT browse it (or a CD for that matter). Make sure
you have one handy.

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3. If you want, you can press F2 to run the ASR sequence. For that you need
a good backup created by the Windows XP backup program, and the ASR
floppy disk. If you plan to install a new copy of XP - don't do anything.
4. Setup will load all the needed files and drivers.
5Select To Setup Windows XP Professional Now. If you want, and if you have a
previous installation of XP, you can try to fix it by pressing R. If not, just press
ENTER.

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6. Read and accept the licensing agreement and press F8 if you accept it.

7. Select or create the partition on which you will install Windows XP

Professional. Depending upon your existing disk configuration choose one of
the following:
⇒ If the hard disk is unpartitioned, you can create and size the partition
on which you will install Windows XP Professional.
If the hard disk is already partitioned, but has enough
unpartitioned disk space, you can create an additional partition
in the unpartitioned space.
⇒ If  the hard disk already has a partition that is large enough, you can
install Windows XP Professional on that partition. If the partition has an
existing operating system, you will overwrite that operating system if
you accept the default installation path. However, files other than the
operating system files, such as program files and data files, will not be
overwritten.
⇒ If  the hard disk has an existing partition, you can delete it to create
more unpartitioned space for the new partition. Deleting an existing
partition erases all data on that partition.
⇒ Then after the completion of the partition one has to choose if he has
to format the disk using the NTFS normal format of the NTFS Quick
format.

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After the formatting the files are loaded into the system by the setup
and then the system asks for rebooting.

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Step #4: The GUI-based portion of the Setup program

The setup process reboots and loads a GUI mode phase.

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After this screen goes there comes another screen which shows the
time left for it to install the windows into the system and then it asks
for date, time location and it also asks for the license product key. The
key would be present on the cover of the windows XP installation c.d
then the system completes the installation and the system asks for the
names of the users that are using the system after entering the names
if the users the system the system starts an introduction to the
windows X.P.

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The system after completion of the total installation then shows us the
products of the given particular windows

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