Lifting Force of an Airplane Wing

Joseph Stanovsky PhD

2012 by J S ABSTRACT The weight of an airplane, its fuel, contents and passengers are all supported by the lifting force of a wing. This article begins with a review of a 19th century flying enthusiast who designed and built models, gliders and performed other significant experiments about flight including the lifting force of an airplane wing. Additional sources of wing lift are selected from 20th century documents about flying airplanes and birds. INTRODUCTION Figure 1 shows an airplane flying in straight and level flight and is also a free body diagram showing the resultant weight, thrust and drag. No description of airplane wing lift is possible without the two 18th Century (i.c.e.) equations of motion. These force and moment equations require a right hand coordinate axis system like that shown in Fig 1 with origin at the center of gravity.
Weight Thrust

(
`

Center of Gravity z

Drag

Figure 1: The positive x-axis points in the direction of motion, the y-axis is not shown but it is orthogonal to the x-z plane and points from center of gravity toward the right wing. The center of gravity is located on the longitudinal x-axis of the fuselage and the z-axis is perpendicular to the x-y plane (pointing from the center of gravity to the surface of Earth for a straight and level flight condition). The flight of birds has influenced the development of flight and produced many useful, encouraging and interesting stories about the possibility of flight. There is an ancient story about birds by Archimedes. The Chinese invention of a flying kite is also significant as are the fictional flights of Pegasus and the story of Icarus who intended his escape from Crete by flying. Among the birds observed to fly are the dabbling and diving ducks of family anatidae, the pigeons (columbidae) and gulls (laridae) seen almost everywhere, the squadrons of pelicans (pelecanidae) that fly centimeters above the sea, skimmers (rhynochopidae) that find food using the lower mandible to cut the surface of water while flying to scoop small creatures into their open mouths, and finally, there is the lammergeir vulture (of the family acciptridae) that carries a found bone aloft and while at altitude drops the bone onto a rock surface in order to break the bone and expose the marrow (ossifrage). Some of the drawings of birds made by Egyptian artists show hunters throwing sticks into flocks of birds resting or feeding on the river Nile. These pictures are on the walls of rooms carved into rock in the Valley of the Kings. Birds are common

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THE LIFTING FORCE OF AN AIRPLANE WING

subjects in these drawings: among them are the duck, kite and vulture. These birds are so well drawn that the varieties displayed are recognizable today. The boomerang was invented by natives of the continent of Australia. Although not a part of the development of flight this device with asymmetric wings makes its rotational motion stable and its translational motion useful. The shape or form of its wing are unusual because a boomerang, when thrown into a flock of birds and misses its targets returns to the thrower. It can be concluded that watching birds and their ability to fly has occurred over long periods of time and that birds have been a food source for many. Early hunters learned that some birds ate seeds, some fed on fruit, while others ate insects, fish or meat and that some birds floated on water, or flew under water and in the air. The Egyptian stick throwers and the bird hunters of Australia were all skilled in the killing of birds for food. During the time of hunt, all or most of the hunters must have learned that birds are beautiful to view, can fly from place to place without hesitation and fly with confidence and an abundance of control. On Aerial Navigation contains George Cayleys 19th century observations about birds. It was published in the Nicholson Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Navigation. In it Cayley says that it may be frequently observed that (large) birds extend their wings, and without waving them, continue to skim for some time in a horizontal path. George Cayley (1773-1857) must be publicly acknowledged by every citizen of the world as the father of aviation. George Cayley performed and recorded the results of 19th Century experiments that established the essential conditions for flight, invented and built gliders large enough for passengers, and did all of this before the invention of the gasoline powered internal combustion engine. In 1849 a ten year old boy was a passenger in a Cayley glider while an 1853 glider carried Cayleys coachman as a passenger. In an 1804 experiment Cayley rotated a rod in a horizontal plane. Attached to the rod was a lifting surface (a wing). In that experiment Cayley measured both lift and drag and defined the essence of powered flight: weight, lift, drag and thrust. Cayley suggested that the center of gravity of airplanes should be below the wing (for stability) and that wing dihedral improves flight stability, suggestions not generally used by manufacturers of high capacity, modern aircraft. In 1876 Cayley built a toy helicopter. A similar toy, perhaps even made by Cayley was given to Reuchlin, Lorin, Orvil and Wilbur by their father Milton Wright (1828-1917). During the time Cayley was active, William Samuel Henson (18121888) and John Stringfellow (17991883) were building and flying steam powered model airplanes. Several powered airplane flights took place before 1900. Two of the pilots were Felix du Temple (1823-1904) and Clement Ader (1841-1925). WING LIFT When automobiles were black and slow and windows could be rolled down it was common for children in a car to put their arm out of a window into the wind with their palms parallel to the roadway. Then, by rotating the palm up or down, a child could feel her or his arm pushed up or down and back. This game is not played today because children are strapped into seats, automobiles are not all black, are faster and rear windows can not be rolled down all the way, a design flaw often promoted as a safety feature.

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THE LIFTING FORCE OF AN AIRPLANE WING

Wing lift is typically introduced with the reduced air pressure on the upper surface of an airplane wing. This is formally explained by Bernoullis Principle (developed by Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) in Saint Petersburg Russia at the Russian Academy of Sciences) Figure 2 shows the forces that act on the upper surface of a wing.

Airplane velocity Wing

Figure 2: Force vectors are shown distributed over the upper wing surface. The lift space is often represented by the envelop of these force vectors. The drag forces act opposite to the direction of airplane velocity. It is implied from the force vector marked that a lift force contributes to thrust (air in tension is impossible). One topic introduced to students in aeronautical engineering is the concept of lift. The early lectures are mostly about lift and not about the cause of lift. Thus, it is that causes of lift are often deferred until mathematical skills are better developed. In the interim, lift diagrams like the one in Fig. 2 are introduced as if correct (occasionally a student will ask how it is that lift appears to be due to air in tension). Students expecting the lift force concept to be diligently discussed later find that lift was often a reading assignment because the slowly developed mathematical skills were then in use and thus needed to attack and solve even more complex problems. The following figure graphically and conveniently shows the lift forces that are opposite to down forces over only a portion (for convenience) of the upper surface of a wing. This theory of lift is associated with Newtons 3rd law.

Aircraft velocity Wing

Figure 3: The down force is shown along with the lift force. These forces are equal in magnitude but oppositely directed, a condition of Newtons 3rd Law. This version of the lifting force is not discussed further because air on the upper surface of a wing is in tension (an impossible phenomena). Bernoullis 18th century Principle is a theoretical proof that a lower pressure exists on the upper wing surface but calculating it is neither easy or simple. Even so, a lower pressure on the top surface of a wing does not explain the lifting force of a wing. Consider two comments of lift: Klaus Weltner and Martin InglemanSundberg wrote in The European Journal of Physics (The Physics of Flight - Reviewed) that the cause of a lifting force is due to the downward acceleration of air by the airfoil while John D. Anderson of The University of Maryland says that the wing exerts a force on the air, pushing the flow downward. These two comments are consequences of lift and not its cause. However, both comments imply a force acts on the underside of a wing. George Cayley says lift is generated by a region of low pressure on the upper -3-

THE LIFTING FORCE OF AN AIRPLANE WING

surface of a wing and that weight (airplane, model or glider) is supported by lift. Neither Bernoullis Principle, or comments of Weltner, InglemanSundberg, Anderson or those by Cayley explain the lifting force of an airplane wing. CONSIDER A NEW THEORY OF WING LIFT The forces that act on a wing while an airplane is in flight are shown in Fig 4. The forces (which are products of air pressure and area) act on both upper and lower wing surfaces. Drawing the sketch is significantly simplified by showing the forces on only a portion of the upper and lower surface of a wing.
air speed

Down force vectors

airplane velocity

Up force vectors

Figure 4: Positively directed down-force vectors act on the upper surface of a wing while negatively directed up-force vectors act on the under surface of the wing. These forces are due to pressure on a surface and act perpendicular to the wing surface. The drag force, not shown, can be compared to the force of a friction force F acting on weight W that slides on a surface with a coefficient of friction so that F = W. The forces on the top and bottom surfaces of a wing and the associated drag force are shown in Fig 5 on the wing of an airplane that is at constant velocity in straight and level flight.
Top Velocity

CG z
Bot

Drag

Figure 5 : A view of the wing structure of the airplane showing the forces Top and Bot acting on the surfaces of a wing together with the drag force. = The terms F, M, a, I and in plane motion equations F = m a and M I are the force vector, moment (torque) vector, centroidal acceleration, mass distribution or moment of inertia and the angular acceleration, respectively. It is the summation of forces parallel to the x-axis of the free body diagram in Fig 5 that define the 1-component of force equation eq. (1) while the forces that parallel the z-axis form the 3-component of eq. (1). Equation (1) also defines the summation of moment or torque for an airplane flying in straight and level flight. Fx Thrust Drag 0 0 0 0 = 0 = 0 and M = My = 0 (1)) Fz Weight +Top Bot 0 0 0 Lift is the result of a lower pressure in the air above the wing while the pressure in the volume of air below the wing is higher. Thus, lift is Weight +Top Bot = 0. The magnitude of the resultant in the 3-component is negative when the magnitude of Bot is greater than the sum of Top and Weight (refer to Fig 1).

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THE LIFTING FORCE OF AN AIRPLANE WING

The use of a straw to drink water from a glass is mentioned here because the lifting of water from glass to mouth is due to a difference in air pressure. Water is pushed up a straw by the atmospheric air pressure that acts on the surface of the water in a glass because a drinker reduces the air pressure in the top of the straw. CONCLUSION The lifting force of a wing is due to the reduced air pressure in the volume of air above the surface of the upper wing together with the higher air pressure in the volume of air under the wing. The resultant lift force for an airplane in straight and level flight is defined by the sum of the vertical or z-axis components of force acting on a wing surface. Children of all ages will understand a simple theory of lift that says the weight of an airplane is lifted by forces that are due to the higher air pressure under the wing than that on the top surface of a wing and that these forces are not unlike those in a straw used to drink water from a glass. The forces that act on the wing of an airplane are comparable to those imagined by a child in a moving automobile when her or his arm is forced up, down or back by the force of wind. Compare the explanation of lift to the buoyancy of boats and ships that move from port to port on lakes, rivers and oceans of the world. Buoyancy is not unlike the lifting force of an airplane wing. Buoyancy is a consequence of the buoyancy of water under a ship at rest or in motion whereas wing lift is a consequence of the atmospheric gases that envelop an airplane or a bird. Birds depend on both kinds of buoyancy while flying in air or floating on water. The same is true of airplane buoyancy. Buoyancy of airplane and bird are equivalent and identical phenomena. ADDENDUM One of the maneuvers that small airplanes perform is straight and level flying while inverted. Inverted flying is also a feature of military airplanes. The airfoil of wings on both small and military aircraft are those designed for level flight. The typical shape of an airplane wing is a flat under surface with a bulge on the upper surface. Small airplanes fly normally and inverted even if shape of the wing is cordwise symmetric. A cordwise symmetric wing profile is shown in Fig 5. Up
Forward velocity Axis of symmetry

Down Figure 5: A symmetrical wing produces acceptable flying conditions while flying upright or inverted. What is so unusual about a symmetrically shaped wing is best understood when the airplane is flown in straight and level flight conditions and inverted as shown in Fig 6. The reduced air pressure occurs on the upper wing surface for both normal and inverted flying conditions. The low air pressure is on the surface of the wing marked Up for normal flying conditions but for an inverted flight it is on the wing surface marked Down. If a low pressure area always occurs on the wing surface marked Up in Fig 5 then while flying inverted the lifting force of a wing is downward to the surface of earth. If the air pressure reversal did not occur in an airplane flying inverted then

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that inverted airplane is apparently lifted into the ground. Normal and inverted flight is shown in Fig 6.
355/113

(a) Normal flight, straight and level

(b) Inverted flight, straight and level Figure 6: Normal and inverted flight of an airplane with a cordwise symmetric airfoil. In a schematic of normal flight in (a) the pilot faces low air pressure at whereas inverted in (b) it is a region of high air pressure, at . The wing surface pressure changes between a normal or an inverted flight may be due to a small angular position of the wing cord relative to the fuselage that is installed during the manufacturing procedure or the pilot maintains a level flight condition in an inverted airplane by flying with nose up and tail down. The effect of a pressure reversal occurring during inverted flying is not visible in an experiment. The confirming experiment of Bernoullis Principle is shown in Fig 7. This device explains a lower air pressure due to an increase in air speed and may explain the pressure, velocity and temperature changes in the transition section of the 1888 steam conditioning nozzle.
Transition Air Flow

Low pressure

Pressure Differential Water manometer

Figure 7: The velocity of air flow in the venturi meter is increased by a reduction of the diameter produced by the transition section. The pressure in the low speed air in the large diameter cylinder is greater than the pressure in the small diameter tube. The water manometer confirms the pressure differential between the two sections.

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LAGNIAPPE
CAYLEY (lagniappe) George Cayley (1773-1857) was a very creative individual interested in a variety of phenomena. Cayley performed important and early experiments about flight and is therefore recognized as the father of aviation. Cayley also invented the universal railway (a caterpillar tractor drive), wire spoke wheels (glider, airplane, bicycle and motorcycle), a toy helicopter, seat belts (glider, airplane, automobile and truck) and the first internal combustion engine, this one fueled by gunpowder.

ENCHANTED HORSE [Lagniappe] Conflicts between people and elected representatives have existed for a long time. An enemy established by government is often described harshly, called by unflattering names, by deliberately mispronouncing or mistranslating a name. One individual hurt by brutish words was a native human known then as Crazy Horse. Instead of Crazy Horse, his name was more likely Enchanted Horse!

SIMPLE (Opinion) Happy men dont volunteer!

BATTERED WOMEN (Opinion) Save us from men who prey! The battering of women is an act of cowards.

DE LAVAL (lagniappe) Carl Gustaf Patrik de Laval (1845-1913) invented a steam conditioning nozzle in 1888. While high pressure steam passes through a Laval nozzle the steam pressure decreases rapidly, so too does the steam temperature while steam velocity increases to supersonic speeds. Laval-type nozzles vector hot missile exhaust gasses and thus control the launch of missiles into space.

LEWIS CARROLL (Fantasy) Many readers of Dodsons wonderland stories are pleased by characterizations, symbols and the peculiar multiplication of 4 x 5 = 12. It has since been discovered that the rabbit hole is a small stairway at the back of the main hall at Christ Church College and above the entrance to that stairway down is a carving of a rabbit. The answer 12 to the multiplication of 4 x 5 may be correct for numbers not in base 10. For example, the octal base 12 is 2 x 80 +1 x 81 = 10 in base 10. So how or why does Dodson say 4 x 5 = 12? Perhaps Dodson plays a number game with the children. The number 4 in base 3 is 3 while the number 5 in base 4 is 4. Dodson shows 6 fingers but Alice sees 8. Dodson shows 4 fingers and thumb and sings 4 and with both hands up says 8. Happy Alice sees 10. If the game then turns to multiplication: 4 in base 3 times 5 in base 4 is 12. This is a result of a clever teacher and a bright pupil, both necessary and required in a learning conversation. Otherwise, a teacher says good job to nothing going on. -7-