Entry 1: World War 1 in Canada

Summary of all events:

(For War Measures Act, please see section on Government)
The First World War was a global conflict that occurred across the globe, but mostly within Europe, from 1914-1918. The wars beginning is often attributed to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of the Austro-Hungarian Empire on a visit to Serbia, the latter of which was associated with an Alliance (The Allies) that opposed Austria-Hungary and its ally, Germany. In reality, the declaration of war is generally attributed to the rising social tensions that were occurring throughout Europe prior to the wars beginning as well as trends of imperialism, colonialism, and industrialization that were occurring across the globe. Prior to the war, Europe aligned itself into two factions; The Triple Entente (Russia, Britain, France, later sometimes called the Allies), and the Triple Alliance (Germany, AustriaHungary, Italy (The last of these had made a secret pact with France, and did not actually support the Austro-German forces. Suck it, expectations)) These alliances were likely meant to create power blocs to prevent war, but in reality the presence of such alliances, as well as the increasing potential of weaponry because of industrialization, increased tension. The German Empire, which had been militarized underneath the leadership of Supreme Chancellor Otto Von Bismarck, was especially warlike. Shortly after Franzs death and the end of negotiations, Germany launched their invasion of Belgium on August 2nd, 1914, Britain quickly declared war along with France on the pretense of defending Belgium. One day later, the government of Canada, under the leadership of Conservative Prime Minister Robert Borden, declared war on Germany. Most Canadians eagerly supported the war effort, believing it was their duty to serve the British motherland. Canada immediately began mobilizing its forces, bringing its army from 3,000~ to over 30,000~ in a few short months as men flocked to enlistment offices. There were some issues with the initial war efforts. The men trained at CFB-Valcartier, a swampland near Quebec City. As a result, many men fell ill during training. Furthermore, the incompetent Minister of Defence, Sam Hughes, burdened the armys preparation by attempting to patent and distribute useless equipment from companies he had shares in, commonly called profiteering. One example of a Hughes invention is a shovel that could also be a rifle stand, but had no handle, making it useless for trench digging. Another example was the Ross rifle, a gun that shot marvelously, but would break down or jam upon contact with mud, which was all too plentiful in the European trenches.

Trenches became necessary in the First World War because the invention of the machine gun and more efficient rifles made cavalry and infantry charges obsolete. Meanwhile in Europe, things had crawled to a near standstill. The initial German invasion plan, called the Schlieffen Plan, called for German troops to purposely draw back French forces west, then launch a massive attack on their eastern flank with a heavy concentration of troops, defeating the French and letting them focus their forces on the Eastern Front against Russia. However, the plan failed due to lack of commitment from German officers, who believed drawing back the French would cause the attack to fail. The result was the Battle of the Marne and the Race to the Sea, which created a massive field of trenches and enemy lines across northern and western France. Trench warfare had begun. The Germans, who knew they were attempting to hold a position, were able to further reinforce their lines with the construction of the Hindenburg Line, heavy fortifications built behind the German trenches. In the trenches, poor conditions, disease, flooding, infection, wounds, exhaustion, and death were all too common. Vermin invaded and destroyed stocks of food (when there was any), going over the trench was likely to lead to certain death because of enemy snipers, and rats, lice and insects spread disease. Gangrene and other such infections became common. In 1915, the Canadian Expeditionary Force (composed of two Canadian Corps, which would become four in 1916) landed in Europe underneath the command of Lieutenant General E.A.H Alderson, a British commanding officer. The Canadians first saw battle at Neuve Chapelle, a small French town, in March 1915. The battle was short but immediately taught the Canadians that their enemy was tough, wily, and well fortified. The 1st Canadian Corps saw their first large battle at the Second Battle of Ypres in April 1915. While reinforcing a defensive line outside the Belgian stronghold of Ypres with British Troops, a large German Chlorine Gas attack, the first in the war, hit the Canadians. Chlorine gas causes suffocation, extreme pain to the eyes, disfigurement, and eventual death. The Canadians were the only regiment in that battle who were able to resist the following German attack, for two reasons. First, and this was a trend throughout the war, the Canadians were natural shock troops. Many came from farming backgrounds that made them physically strong. Furthermore, their faith in the motherland and young age gave them naturally high morale. Secondly, a Canadian soldier discovered that a chemical in human urine could negate the effects of the gas in suffocation, and quickly shared this secret with his comrades. Shortly after this battle, in 1916, command of the Canadian Forces was passed to Sir Julian Byng, the governor general of Canada.

In the spring/summer of 1916, the Germans had begun a huge assault on the crucial point of Verdun with the goal of Bleeding France white. It was working. Verdun was a terrible position to defend, and the French found themselves taking unacceptable losses. To take pressure away from the French, the British conceived an attack near the Somme, taking along the Canadian Corps (Who now numbered 4). The battle lasted throughout the summer of 1916, and claimed more lives than any other single battle in the war, including over 24,000 Canadians. Meanwhile, things on the home front were only worsening. A lack of fresh recruits and heavy losses overseas left only the option of conscription, beginning the conscription crisis of 1917 Initially, Borden tried to start a recruiting drive in Quebec. French Canadians felt no loyalty to Britain nor France, and so there were very few French units (5% of the forces were from Quebec while 23% of the population lived in Quebec). The debate over conscription created a huge rift between the French and English populations, as well as making Borden extremely unpopular among French Canadians. Back to the war! Following the Somme, Byng was promoted to a higher office of command, and control of the Canadian Forces was passed to a Canadian commander, Arthur W. Currie, previously commander of the First Canadian Corps. Currie would lead the Corps on their most successful mission; the battle of Vimy Ridge. In April of 1917, as part of the Battle of Arras, all four Canadian Corps were ordered to attack the German stronghold at Vimy. This is the first time in recorded history a purely Canadian force fought underneath a Canadian commander. Using methods such as the creeping barrage (Timing artillery so that it is just a few hundred metres ahead of troops, covering the advancing line) and shock troops (fast, deadly mass attacks of troops), Currie and his men were able to secure the ridge and defeat enemy forces well ahead of schedule. Vimy Ridge has come to represent an evolution in Canadas identity as a nation and is a source of national pride. The Vimy Ridge memorial at the site of the battle is beloved by Canadians to this day. However, the Canadians would soon find a cause for mourning. The Battle of Passchendaele, also called the Third Battle of Ypres, was an offensive launched by the Allies in June 1917 to secure vital ridges near Ypres, with the target being the small village of Passchendaele. However, wet weather, a resistant German Fourth Army, and the diversion of French reinforcements to the Austro-Hungarian front resulted in a devastating, drawn out battle. Artillery shells leveled practically all the villages between Ypres and Passchendaele, and the little town itself was a crater when the Canadian Corps finally reached it.

One particular campaign of the battle, the Flanders Campaign, is highly controversial for poor elements of planning in its execution, and is notorious due to the famous poem written by Canadian physician John McRae. In 1917, the Russian Revolution relieved German forces on the Eastern Front for deployment in the West. But Germany, having being blockaded for the duration of the war, was starvingtheir reserves of food would expire before their army did. Operation Michael, a last-ditch attempt at victory in the late months of 1917, was the result. A massive German attack occupied much of Northern France. However, the Germans did not have the discipline nor the supply lines to maintain this hold. Before long, a counterattack, led by the Canadian Corps and aided by the new British tanks, broke the fortified Hindenburg Line. This is known as the 100 Days Offence (They pushed the line back over that course of time), and marked the end of the war. However, back home, the Quebec situation had intensified. Upon the draft being introduced as part of Bordens War Measures Act, large scale rioting broke out in Quebec in 1918. These became known as the Easter Riots. They were quickly (and harshly) stamped out, but became a defining mark of the divide between French and English Canada. The war ended on the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month. The last soldier killed on the Western Front as part of an organized battle was George Lawrence Price, a Canadian. At the Paris Peace Conferences that followed, Canada represented herself as a nation, showcasing the new independence the war had given her. Bordens signature was independent from that of Britain on the resulting Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty of Versailles contained many restrictions and sanctions on the German people, especially economically and politically. The harshness of these sanctions is generally listed as the cause of the rise of Nazism and the onset of WW2.

The Second World War:

The Second World War was a global conflict between 1939 (1932 in the Pacific Front)-1945. The war pitted ideologies of fascism and absolute power against democracy and

communism. The roots of the conflict are found in the 1920s. While the 20s were a time of economic prosperity throughout most of the world, the former Central Powers suffered greatly. The limits on their powers from the Treaty of Versailles led to hyperinflation, devaluing the German currency to the point where the paper it was printed on was more valuable. This economic hardship, coupled with resentment towards the Allies and a need for a powerful central government, led to the formation of dictatorships across Europe, namely Adolf Hitler of the Nazi Party in Germany, Benito Mussolini in Italy, and Franco in Spain. Meanwhile, after her tumultuous revolution, Russia had become the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics underneath the iron fist of former Bolshevik military commander Joseph Stalin, notorious for his practices of purging his government when he suspected disobedience, the creation of a police state, and for rapidly and forcibly industrializing his nation. (Stalinization) In Japan, the rise of Japanese Imperialism and the explosion of Japanese economic and military power that came as a result of industrialization led to the annexation of Korea (1910) and the Invasion of Manchuria, China (1931), as well as implications they would expand to take more of the Pacific. They also proved themselves brutal; in the Rape of Nanking (1937) Japanese soldiers raped and murdered over 200,000 people and virtually laid waste to the city. The Japanese, combined with the Germans and Italians, as well as some other dictatorships, became known as the Axis Powers. Taking advantage of the weakness that many of the former Allies suffered as a result of the great depression in the 1930s, Hitler annexed Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 in an appeasement deal with British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, who believed Hitler would not escalate his expansion. In 1939, Hitler invaded Poland in Operation White Case, and the Second World War ignited in Europe. Introducing the strategy of Blitzkrieg, a massive series of lightning fast bombings, tank assaults, and infantry invasions, Hitler secured most of Poland in only 6 weeks, with help from the USSR, which was Allied to Germany on the wars onset. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany. Canada, under Prime Minister Mackenzie King, waited one week before giving their declaration of war. France quickly fell through the course of 1940 as a result of Sitzkrieg. Expecting the same style of invasion that had so quickly felled Poland, French troops entrenched themselves in the northeast section of the country, only to find...nothing. The conflict was nicknamed the Phoney War, because nothing happened... until German armor snuck through the Ardennes Forest in Belgium to outflank the unsuspecting troops in May of 1940. The attack was so successful

that the British Expeditionary Force was forced to withdraw at the port of Dunkirk. On June 5th, Operation Red Case launched another wave of attacks at France, and by June 22nd the nation had fallen. Hitler seemed unstoppable. Meanwhile, Winston Churchill assumed the position of Prime Minister as Britain found itself in a perilous position. German U-Boats were destroying ships carrying valuable provisions to the island, beginning the Battle of the Atlantic. Churchill eventually resolved to have military vessels, some of them Canadian, escort them in the convoy system. In the air, the German Luftwaffe (Airforce) began to mercilessly bombard London and other key point across Britain, hoping to weaken the nation for an amphibious assault (Operation Sea Lion). The Battle of Britain saw a fierce showdown between the Royal Air Force, including many Canadian pilots and planes, and the Luftwaffe. It raged throughout 1940, and while the damage to London was excessive, the home field advantage and superior pilots resulted in a decisive British victory. Things were less cheery in Europe. Most of the East of the continent had already fallen to Hitler. Together with Mussolini, Hitler effectively controlled all the land from the shores of France to the Ukraine. British forces had prevailed in the air and were holding their water at sea, but could not seem to claim a victory over the Wehrmacht and the elite S.S division. In North Africa, the Allies found themselves outclassed by German General Erwin Rommel and his Afrika Korps. And in China and the East Pacific, the Japanese seemed an unstoppable wave. However, Germany made one fatal flaw; they aspired to occupy Russia. While the two appeared to be Allies, in reality they both realized that a war between them was inevitable. Hitler considered the Russians and slaves to be subhuman in comparison to the Aryan Race. Stalin realized that Hitler would not be satisfied with just the West, and began industrializing and mobilizing his forces in preparation. In 1941, Operation Barbarossa, the Nazi Invasion of Russia, began with a massive Blitzkrieg on the Ukraine with support from Slovakia and Hungary. The assault had huge initial success. The German forces got within 100 miles of Moscow, but were slowed by a harsh winter and overextended supply lines. This allowed the (massive) Red Army to mobilize and launch a counterattack. Elsewhere in Europe, Hitler began implementing the final solution in full force. Jews were mercilessly slaughtered in newly occupied territory, and in Axis-controlled lands were sent en masse to concentration camps like Auschwitz and Dachau where Jews and other undesirables were forced to work, starved, beaten, and eventually gassed. Other undesirable included Slavs, Jehovahs Witnesses, prostitutes, gays, communists and political prisoners, some criminals, and gypsies.

Later that same year on December 8th, Japan attacked the U.S Navy at Pearl Harbor. This brought the United States into the war on the side of the Allies. Naval and aerial battles began to rage between the two foes. In 1942, at the Battle of Midway, the U.S returned the blow they were dealt at Pearl Harbor with a decisive victory over the Imperial Navy. Later, in 1942-1943, the Wehrmacht suffered the greatest defeat in their history at the Battle of Stalingrad. While trying to secure the valuable Volga Oil Fields, Hitler diverted his forces force to occupy Stalingrad, where they were met with huge resistance. The tight, compact urban environment and cold temperatures made the usual Wehrmacht tactics useless. Slaughter was so prevalent that Soviet troops were sometimes not given a weapon, knowing they could pick one up from a corpse. A million casualties were seen on both sides, and the German 6th army was annihilated. The battle marks the turning point of the war. Meanwhile, in the west, the Allies (Including Canadians) launched an attack on Dieppe, France, to test out the logistics of a landing assault. The attack was a failure, but gave them valuable insight for their next operation- D-Day. On the 6th of June, 1944, British, American, and Canadian troops landed on the beaches of Normandy, France. The Canadian troops landed primarily on Juno Beach. They managed to storm the beaches, defeat S.S forces, and reclaim France with due speed. The attack on Juno is noted for its extremely successful outcome. This effectively was the last operation in which Canadians had relevance. As a result of the Second World War, the United Nations was formed to try and prevent future international conflicts as well as to unite the international community in stated goals of international development and the preservation of human rights.

Quebec: Separation:
The history of Quebecs interactions with anglophone Canada over the course of the 20th century is a history of nationalism, language rights, rebellion, terrorism, and conflicting social and cultural interests.

Conflicts arguably began during the conscription crisis of 1917, which made the Conservative party so unpopular in Quebec they were not elected for approximately 80 years. After, this the Quebecois struggled to resist anglophone efforts to assimilate their population by restricting accessibility of the French language. French Separatism arguably originated with the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, in which rates of education shot up across Quebec, and political opinions became more pronounced as a result. Throughout the thirties to the sixties, Quebec was underneath premier Maurice Duplessis, who was a member of Union Nationale, a Quebec political party that emphasized Quebec nationalism and protection of the French Language. However, soon the aim of many of the Quebecois began to spread beyond protection of the language. After Charles De Gaulles 1967 visit to Quebec (Vivre le Quebec libre!), the Union Nationale became torn between nationalists and separatists, the latter of which would become the defining part of Quebec politics in the coming years. The notorious Parti Quebecois, a provincial party which aims for the separation of Quebec, was founded in 1969 by members of the Union Nationale. The PQs founding member was Rene Levesque. The Parti Quebecois creation was arguably linked to the Front De Liberation du Quebec (FLQ). The Parti Quebecois has twice held referendums in attempts to achieved sovereignty. First in 1980, in which only 40% of the electorate were in favor of separation. The second referendum, held in 1995, found 50.6% in the no camp, barely winning the referendum. Two vocal groups who voted no were Anglophone residents and those of First Nations origin. A budget review would later find the no camp exceeded the spending limit by half a million dollars. In 1990, the Meech Lake Accord, which was an appeasement document drafted by Prime Minister Brian Mulroney to persuade the Quebecois to remain in Canada by recognizing them as a distinct society was defeated as a result of protests from First Nations representatives such as Elijah Harper, who criticized that the French should receive rights when the First Nations people had been so frequently wronged without compensation. In 1991, the Bloc Quebecois- a federal counterpart to the PQ- was created in response to the failure of the Meech Lake Accord, which would have had Quebec endorse the 1982 constitutional amendment. The current leader of the Parti Quebecois is Pauline Marois

The current leader of the Bloc Quebecois is Daniel Paille

The October Crisis:

The October Crisis was a state of emergency in October of 1970 through the province of Quebec, in which members of the Front de Liberation du Quebec, a pro-separation terrorist organization, kidnapped British Trade Commissioner James Cross and Quebecois Minister of Labor Pierre Laporte. In response to the kidnappings, governor general Roland Michener, at the direction of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and at the request of Montreal mayor Jean Drapeau and Quebec Premier Robert Bourassa, invoked the War Measures Act, effectively beginning martial law in Quebec as troops stormed the province. This is the only peacetime use of the War Measures Act in Canadian history. Powers were officially invoked on October 15th, 10 days after the kidnapping of Cross (Laporte was kidnapped on the 10th). The FLQ had previously engaged in other acts of terror throughout Quebec, such as the 1969 bombing of the Montreal Stock Exchange, the the goal of inciting rebellion across Quebec. The group received support from student and radical groups during the October Crisis in the form of protests, however, the group became reviled by both separatists and federalists following the October Crisis, who viewed their violent approach to separation as barbaric. Prior to the War Measures Act being invoked, the government of Quebec had already requested and received military aid from the federal government, and many letters from captivity, had been released by the CBC from Pierre Laporte, courtesy of the FLQ. The letters made it clear the FLQ wanted the release of political prisoners in exchange for the two hostages. Prominent Quebec politicians, including Rene Levesque, support the idea. Levesque later criticized Trudeaus use of the War Measures Act, saying it was unnecessary. In a famous CBC interview where Trudeau was asked just how far he would go [to protect Quebec officials], he responded Just watch me. On October 17th, Laportes body was found strangled near an airport. The FLQ stated Cross would also be killed if they did not receive their demands, which included the publishing of their manifesto, the release of 23 political prisoners, safe passage to a friendly nation, half a million dollars, and the names of any traitors in the FLQ. On November 7th, one of the three FLQ members responsible for the kidnappings was arrested. On December 4th, five FLQ members were granted safe passage to Cuba in exchange for James Cross. On December 28th, the remaining 3 FLQ members were arrested.

Government:
The Canadian government works in a parliamentary system and operates through its legislative, executive, and judicial branches to create and enforce bills and laws. The legislative branch is divided into the House of Commons and the Senate. Its duty is to vote on and pass laws. The executive branch is composed of the Prime Minister, the Governor General, and Cabinet. Its duty is to execute the laws by giving them their approval, as well as creating laws for the review of the legislative branch (Namely Cabinet). The judicial branch is composed of the Supreme Court and all other legal systems beneath it. Members of Parliament (The House of Commons) are elected in federal ridings throughout the country. MPs can belong to a number of political parties. Parties hold a common set of ideological and political interests and typically vote in unison on bills to create political change, as well as

proposing their own bills. The ridings are based off of population- thus, some provinces or territories with dense populations might have many more MPs than others. There are currently 308 members of the House of Commons. There are several stages to their election; first, parties nominate and select representatives for each respective riding, after which the selected candidate begins campaigning to receive support in the next election. Elections are called by the Governor General of Canada and are held every four years. As a result of an election there can be a minority or a majority government. In a minority government, one party has more elected MPs than any other party but does not possess the majority of MPs in the House. The leader of the ruling party is called the Prime Minister. Once elected, the Prime Minister is the most powerful individual in government. S/he directs his/her party, represents the party in televised debates and internationally, and appoints the cabinet. The Cabinet is a selection of MPs for the purpose of creating legislation in committees for the review of the House through the reading process. Bills pass through the House of Commons in three stages, or readings. In the first reading, the bill is read out to the House for their reviewing and thought and its purpose is stated. In the second reading, feedback is given to the bill and amendments to the bill are made. A similar thing happens in the third reading, after which the bill progresses to the Senate. The voting process is heavily dictated by party loyalty. Party Whips ensure that MPs are present for the vote to maximize their influence. There are two kinds of voting on bills, and which method will be used is decided by the Speaker of the House. The first kind is called a party vote, in which all members of a party must vote in unison or cross the floor. The only way to avoid crossing the floor is to be absent from the election, in which case party whips will crack down on the MP. The second kind of vote is a vote of conscience or a free vote. These are influenced purely by the thoughts of the MP and their obligation to those within their riding. Free votes include serious issues like declarations of war, among other events. The Senate is not an elected but an assigned position, with entry to the Senate being a lifetime position. Senators are selected by the Prime Minister. Senators have the power to make minor adjustments or amendments to bills, as well as the power to send bills back to the House. However, the latter of these powers has never been used.

Special Bills, events, and occurrences contributing the formation of the Canadian political system:

Order in Council: A special kind of bill that goes straight from the Cabinet to the executive branch, skipping the House of Commons. Usually used in emergency situations. Amendment Clause/Formula: A list of circumstances and situations in which a federal or provincial power can amend the Canadian Constitution. The clause is heavily debated because of the way provincial and federal powers are distributed in Canada. The current amending formula, part of the Canadian Constitution, dictates that the constitution can only be changed if the House of Commons and the Senate, as well as 7/10 provinces and territories, the latter of which must represent over half of the Canadian population, agree to modify the document. Canadian Constitution: The constitution of Canada defines which powers are held by the federal or provincial governments, the Charter of Rights and Freedoms to protect the rights of Canadian citizens, and an amending formula to change the constitution. The final draft of the Constitution was asserted in the Canada Act of 1982. King-Byng Crisis: A crisis over the independance of Canadian government and the powers of the Governor General in 1926. Mackenzie Kings Liberal party had recently lost an election to Arthur Meighans Conservatives, but King had not yet left office. After further scandals were discovered in Kings government, King requested that Byng dissolve parliament and call another election in which King could recover, to which Byng refused, despite King having an order in council and other legislation. Meighans conservatives took power, but quickly lost it as a result of some very dubious legislation which caused them to lose the support of the progressive conservatives. King was re-elected, and Byng was disgraced. As a result, no Governor General since has refused the request of a Prime Minister, and the position is largely ceremonial. Notwithstanding Clause: The Notwithstanding clause is a controversial clause in the Canadian Constitution which allows provinces or the federal government to temporarily override the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the Canadian Constitution. A relevant example is the redefinition of marriage to opposite-sex only by the province of Alberta in 2000. War Measures Act: Introduced on the 22nd of August, 1914. The act gives the Canadian government special powers in times of war or crisis, including the censoring of the media to protect information, confiscation of goods for the purposes of the war effort, martial law, and conscription. It has only been used three times; World War One, World War Two, and during the October Crisis in Quebec. Halibut Treaty (1923) : A treaty established by Prime Minister King negotiating over the rights of halibut fishing in relation to the United States, notable for the lack of involvement of British authorities in the drafting of the document. It has since become a symbol of Canadas independence from Britain.

Current Politicians: Prime Minister/Conservative Party Leader: Stephen Harper NDP Leader: Thomas Mulcair Liberal Leader: Justin Trudeau Bloc Quebecois Leader: Daniel Paille Governor General: David Lloyd Johnson Past Prime Ministers: 1911-1917: Robert Borden (WW1) 1920-1921: Arthur Meighen (Lame, didn't do shit) 1921-1926: Mackenzie King (Chanak Affair, Halibut Treaty, King-Byng Affair) 1926~: Arthur Meighen (King-Byng Affair, still didnt do shit.) 1926-1930: Mackenzie King (Great Depression) 1930-1935: R.B Bennett (Great Depression) 1935-1948: Mackenzie King (WW2, Conscription Crisis (again), Gouzenko Affair) 1948-1957: Louis St. Laurent (Suez Canal) 1957-1963: John Diefenbaker (Avro Arrow Cancellation, Cuban Missile Crisis, Aboriginals get the vote) 1963-1968: Lester B. Pearson (Universal Health Care, troops not sent to Vietnam) 1968-1979: Pierre Trudeau (October Crisis, Multiculturalism, Relations with China) 1979-1980: John Clark (No Confidence motion) 1980-1984: Pierre Trudeau (NEP introduced, Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms) 1984~: John Turner 1984-1993: Brian Mulroney (NEP cancelled, NAFTA, Iraq War, Oka Crisis, Meech Lake, Charlottetown Accord) 1993~: Kim Campbell 1993-2003: Jean Chretien (Youth Criminal Justice Act)

Cold War:
Following the Second World War, the Soviet Union and the United States became the dominant superpowers of the world, competing for technology, influence, and political power across the globe, forming power blocs of loyal nations, and weakening each other in proxy wars. This conflict, because of its indirect nature, is called the Cold War. As a whole, the Cold War was a clash between the ideas of capitalism and communism, of the individual being free to decide their fate vs. the society acting as a controlled whole. Canada assumed the position of a middle power in the cold war, joining NATO but never directly aligning itself with either superpower, often denying the demands of the United States (While other times being its stooge), and assuming a role as a peacekeeping nation. Because of the nature of the Cold War and its effects in Canada, it is best viewed as a series of

events: Detection of the Gouzenko Spy Ring (1945): Igor Gouzenko was a researcher associated with Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States in developing nuclear weapons. In 1945, he revealed himself as a Soviet agent, as well as stating that Joseph Stalin had planted numerous sleeper agents to steal American and Canadian nuclear secrets. Gouzenko initially was dismissed as insane, but after threats on his life from Soviet agents (Including an invasion of his apartment) his claims were taken seriously; the Cold War had begun, the truce between the two superpowers over.

The Blockade of Berlin and the Berlin Airlift (1948-49): After the final Battle of Berlin in 1944, Berlin was divided into Eastern (Soviet) and Western (United States/New German Government) sectors, separated by the Berlin Wall. In 1948, Soviet workers engaged in a blockade of West Berlin, refusing to let supplies come in, under the guise of canal repairs. In reality, the Soviets were attempting to strongarm the western part of Berlin into joining the Soviet Bloc. In response, the United States (with help from Canada) began a massive airlift to ferry supplies to West Berlin. The event could have easily resulted in war, but instead only increased tensions between the two states and in Berlin. The Korean War (1950-1953): Since the end of the Second World War and the expulsion of Japanese forces, Korea was divided into Northern (Communist, liberated by the USSR) and Southern (Democratic, liberated by U.S) factions. However, the division of Korea and the separation of many families led to increasing tension between the two states, amplified by the fact that the Soviet Union backed and occupied the North while U.S forces underneath General MacArthur supported the South. Furthermore, failed elections held in the South and the communist status of the North created ideological friction between the two. In 1950, North Korea, with support from the USSR and China in the form of planes, tanks, guns, and soldiers, launched an invasion of South Korea. Shortly thereafter, a UN Security Council approved military intervention in Korea in support of the South. The USSR was unable to veto this arrangement because they were boycotting the UN over the misrepresentation of Taiwan in Chinas place.

The Korean War was the first proxy war of the Cold War. A proxy war is a conflict in which proxy states fight on the behalf of and with the support of other powers within their own nation(s). In this case, the United Nations and United States provided troops and weaponry for the Southern forces, while the USSR (and later, China) supplied them for the North. The war was extremely tumultuous in its progression. Prior to the arrival of U.S forces, the North almost claimed victory over the South, but eventually the conflict reached a virtual stalemate. In 1953, UN Peacekeepers supported a ceasefire with the new border being drawn on the 38th parallel. The Korean War is notable for being the first actual conflict in the Cold War, as well as for dramatically elevating tensions between the two superpowers. The Suez Canal Crisis (1956): The Suez Canal is a waterway through the state of Egypt, constructed and maintained by France and Britain during their occupation of that region prior to WW2. The Canal ferries huge amounts of supplies from Africa and Egypt to European states and vice versa. The Suez Crisis is a political crisis that occurred as a result of Egyptian president Gamal Nasser to nationalize the Suez Canal on the 26th of July, 1956. Prior to the crisis, Nasser had exploited Egypts undecided position in the Cold War by accepting gifts and military support from both the United States and the Soviet Union, causing both superpowers to doubt his loyalty. Furthermore, Nasser had threatened previously to nationalize the canal, making him unpopular with France and Britain, and his nations participation in the Arab-Israeli wars vilified him in Israel. Upon Nassers nationalization, France, Britain, and Israel began their mobilization for immediate invasion. On October 7th, 1956, Israel (With Anglo-French support corps) invaded the Sinai with great success, easily defeating Egyptian soldiers. Because the U.S was associated with Israel, the Soviets began supplying Egypt with weaponry and supplies, creating another effective proxy war. Recognizing the potential escalation that could occur in the conflict, Canadian diplomat Lester B. Pearson approach the United Nations with a proposal; Canadian Peacekeeping Corps would be stationed along the Canal, creating an effective buffer zone between opposing forces. Neither army could secure the canal without attacking peacekeepers, thus an effective end to the conflict was reached and a treaty was signed in 1947. The event is documented as one of the first successful uses of Peacekeepers and asserted Canadas identity as a peacekeeping force. Lester B. Pearson would later become the Prime Minister of Canada.

Avro Arrow (1958): The Avro Arrow was a powerful and dynamic aircraft designed by Canadian Engineers during the Cold War. Despite being the best plane available on the market, the design was scrapped by Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, who wanted to avoid possible competition with the United States. This is one example of Canada having a policy of appeasement with the United States.

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): The Cuban Missile crisis was a two week long confrontation in the October of 1962 between the United States and the Soviet Union/Cuba over the positioning of Soviet nuclear weapons in Cuba. Cuba had been a socialist state affiliated with the USSR since its revolution many years prior. The Soviets had supplied Cuba with valuable supplies and trade partners, as well as weapons and even air support. In contrast, the relationship between the U.S.A and Cuba was extremely tense. The Cuban Revolution had ousted the United Fruit Company, which many prominent U.S politicians held prominent stock in, as well as toppling the U.S-backed and controlled Batista Dictatorship. In 1961, the CIA even sponsored an invasion of Cuba by former Batista soldiers and loyalists, the Bay of Pigs Invasion, which was unsuccessful. After it came to light through spy plane photographs that Cuba had nuclear launch sites, President John F. Kennedy demanded the removal of said missiles, going as far as to place an embargo around Cuba. It should be noted a missile stationed in Cuba could destroy the city of Miami in a mere two minutes. Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev allegedly later told Kennedy in negotiations that he would Hurtle the world into a nuclear abyss. The crisis as a whole is the closest the world has ever come to total nuclear war, namely when Russian ships began to approach the embargo line and even received the order to fire on U.S ships due to a malfunction. Had the Russian captain not ignored the false order, nuclear war would have begun. An end to the crisis was reached via secret communications between Kennedy and Khrushchev. The missiles were removed from Cuba in exchange for the U.S removing their silos from Turkey. Later, the Red Line, a private telephone linking directly to the Kremlin, was built in the White House.

Canadas position in the crisis was largely neutral. Prime Minister Diefenbaker disliked Kennedys gung-ho attitude, and requested that Kennedy send independant intelligence officials to first survey the Cuban launch sites before declaring a crisis, and Diefenbaker himself deliberated for many days before eventually putting Canadian troops on a state of alert. Vietnam War (1965): Canadas involvement in the Vietnam War consists of a lack of involvement; more specifically, the war serves of an example of Canada as a non-belligerent force, or neutral power. Canada did not deploy any forces to Vietnam nor provide other means of military support. Canada officially became non-belligerent in 1965, when Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson gave a speech denouncing the war and declaring Canada would never be involved. The next day, in a meeting with U.S President Lyndon B. Johnson, the President allegedly grabbed Pearson by the scruff of my neck and screamed in his face You think you can come in my house and piss on my rug?. The two argued for several hours afterwards. It should be noted that Canadian companies were involved in the production of Agent Orange and napalm which they sold to the U.S Military.

Canadian Peacekeeping:
Cyprus (1964, 1974): The Peacekeeping operation in Cyprus is a UN Peacekeeping mission to prevent the reemergence of violence between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. Canada has played a significant role in the operation since its inception. In 1974, following political unrest on the island because of a coup detat and a Turkish Invasion, the operation expanded to encompass a large buffer zone between the two groups. The zone has successfully prevented any further violence on the island. Iraq (1991): In response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, NATO forces under the direction of the United States were deployed to Iraq via Saudi Arabia to liberate the country and defeat dictator Saddam Hussein. Prime Minister Mulroney did not deploy the Canadian Army to the conflict, but allowed volunteers to accompany the U.S troops. He also supplied air and naval support in the conflict, with a focus on minimizing casualties. Rwanda (1994):

The Rwandan Genocide was a mass slaughter of the Tutsi people by the Hutu government of Rwanda in 1994. It started as a result of the murder of Hutu Prime Minister Juvenal Habyarimana in June and claimed approximately one million lives. To end the conflict, UN Peacekeepers underneath Canadian General Romeo Dallaire were deployed, but had little to no success in ending the slaughter. Conflict had been rising in Rwanda ever since the invasion of the Tutsi/Ugandan Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1990 from Uganda. The RPF planned to topple the Hutu controlled government and install a Tutsi leader. This resulted in the formation of Hutu militia and a rising Hutu power movement, even after the ceasefire in 1993. After Habyarimanas assassination, Hutu militia began slaughtering the Tutsi. Because UN Peacekeepers could not create a buffer zone in a conflict with no borders, techniques like those used in Cyprus were largely useless. They were also unable to directly oppose government forces- even though the Hutu government were the instigators of the genocide. Finally, UN Forces were largely divided, with the Francophone soldiers aiding Hutu refugees and Belgian Peacekeepers, who had lost comrades to the Hutu, engaging in violent action against them. The Peacekeeping operation was declared an abject failure, and Dallaires famous book, Shaking Hands with the Devil, was written to showcase the bloodshed. Yugoslavia (1990s, specifically Kosovo War (1998)): After the collapse of the Iron Curtain, the many ethnic groups that were forced to co-exist in the state of Yugoslavia erupted into violent Civil Wars, with many genocides taking place as part of ethnic cleansing. The wars are numerous, and so only the basics will be covered, namely the Kosovo War in which Serbian forces attempted to commit genocide against Albanians. NATO (Including Canadian) peacekeeping forces failed in their mission to prevent ethnic cleansing, largely because of a series of highly unsuccessful bombing raids. NATO believed that executing bombings on population centers would result in Serbs out, Peacekeepers in, refugees back. The actual result was more along the lines of Serbs out, Peacekeepers in, refugees dead, city burning. NATO bombings claimed as many of 6,000 civilian lives and caused incredible amounts of property and infrastructure damage to the already impoverished province. The bombings ultimately did not prevent mass slaughter, and the mission is typically regarded as being a failure. Somalia (1991~): After the effective collapse of the military Somali regime at the hands of tribal forces , warlords and mercenaries began to take control of the country, and mass violence erupted. UN Peacekeepers were sent to seek peace and provide aid to the starving Somalis. However, the

absolute anarchy of the environment- no combat lines, the massive free-for-all, and the fact most of the tribes saw UN Peacekeepers as enemies meant that aid was difficult to administer, and that casualties mounted high from the start. In 1993, an incident occurred that would go on to become perhaps the greatest national shame in Canadas history. Two Canadian soldiers beat, tortured, and killed a 15 year old Somali boy, largely on the empty assumption that he was a threat. The incident was filmed and distributed, much to the shock and horror of the world. The UN has classified the Somali mission as a success as aid was distributed, but the civil war is still ongoing.

First Nations
Residential Schools: Residential Schools were boarding facilities created and financed by the Government of Canada in associate with the Catholic Church to house and educate First Nations Youth. The facilities were in existence from 1864 until 1993. The last one in British Columbia was in Mission, and closed in 1980. The schools became notorious and reviled for their brutal treatment of First Nations children and their role in attempted cultural assimilation. Corporal punishment would regularly be administered to children aged approximately 6-15 for any expression of their heritage, whether it was use of traditional language, hand gestures, or ceremonies. Additionally, poor nutrition provided at the schools, the use of starvation as punishment, emotional and physical brutality, and sometimes harsh weather conditions led to a mortality rate near 50%. High rates of depression, suicide, poverty, unemployment, alcoholism, domestic violence, crime, and child abuse on First Nations reservations are often also attributed to residential schools. White Paper (1969): The White Paper was a document drafted by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and his Minister of Indian Affairs Jean Chretien that aimed to destroy the Indian Act, effectively dismantling all special rights (and limits) on the First Nations peoples, achieving what Trudeau considered to be equality. The bill was not passed and was responded to with the Red Paper. Red Paper (1970): The Red Paper was a response to the White Paper, drafted by many Albertan First Nations Tribes, that increased rights and allowances to the First Nations as well as lifting many prohibitions and limits on them as citizens.

Meech Lake Accord (1987): The Meech Lake Accord was a document introduced by Brian Mulroney, which aimed to give Canadian provinces, especially Quebec, many rights and privileges. Quebec would have been recognized as a distinct society, provinces would have input on Supreme court judges, and constitutional vetoing for all provinces. The accord was drafted to attempt to persuade Quebec to endorse the 1982 Constitutional Amendment. The Accord was defeated largely as a result of Cree Member of Parliament Elijah Harpers campaigning against it. Harper pointed out it was immoral to recognize Quebec as a distinct society without first recognizing First Nations sovereignty and society. The defeat of the bill largely invigorated both Quebec and First Nations sovereignty efforts.

Oka Crisis (1990): The Oka Crisis was a conflict between Mohawk protesters and Canadian forces over the expansion of a golf course in sacred Mohawk land near the town of Oka. At the height of the crisis, armed Mohawk protesters from across the nation barricaded the Mercier bridge and created a defensive perimeter around the golf course. One soldier died in fire exchanges between the two parties. The conflict gradually de escalated over the course of 3 months, ending with the Mohawk withdrawing. Delgamuukw VS. British Columbia (1997): This court case was instrumental in asserting First Nations title over the lands that encompassed British Columbia. Furthermore, the case raised the point that with some exceptions, namely the Nisgaa and Vancouver Island, all the land in BC was property of the First Nations but was being used by Canadians without any due compensation. This is why in many formal assemblies and events, speakers will recognize the event is happening on a particular tribes grounds (Coast Salish for Vancouver).

Nisgaa Treaty (1999): The Nisgaa Treaty is a document officially recognizing Nisgaa sovereignty over 200,000 acres of land in Northern BC, as well as allowing the creation of Bear Lake Provincial Park to safeguard wildlife. It is the result of many decades of Nisgaa legal action against the governments of Canada and Britain, and represents one of the few First Nations victories in the fight for sovereignty.

Rights, Freedoms, Ideologies, and other assorted bullshit (Misc.)

Womens Rights Communism : Communism is a political ideology that focuses on the creation of a classless society in which the means of production are owned by the working class. It is associated with the Red Scare, a fear of communist ideologies spreading during and before the Cold War, as well as the USSR. Mackenzie King refused to negotiate with leaders of the Winnipeg General Strike largely because he felt they would attempt to put communist policies into place. Chanak Affair (1926): The Chanak Affair refers to Prime Minister Mackenzie Kings refusal to provide troops to Great Britain for their use in a possible invasion of Chanak, Turkey. It is one of the first major incidents in which a Canadian Prime Minister has defied the wishes of the British state.

Youth Criminal Justice Act (2003): The Youth Criminal Justice Act is an act giving special status to criminal offenders who have not yet reached the age of 18. These rights include that the name of the accused or any associated youth will not be distributed to the press, the record will be destroyed upon them reaching adulthood, and punishment, if administered, will focus on reparations and community service, not imprisonment. Multiculturalism (1982): Multiculturalism became the social mantra of Canada after Pierre Trudeau adopted it in 1982. The pivotal goal of it was to create a society in which many different cultures exist in harmony underneath the common name of Canada. This encouraged heavy immigration, especially from Asia into Canada, helping the population increase.

CRTC and Massey Commision: The Canadian Radio-television Telecommunications Commission was created in 1976 with the goal of regulating content on Canadian airwaves, namely mandating that all Canadian

channels must dedicate a certain percentage of their airtime to Canadian artists or producers. The commission was created in the hopes of protecting Canadian cultural identity against excessive American influence. The Massey Commision, also known as the Royal Commission on the National Development in the Arts, Letters, and Sciences is part of Canadian cultural protectionism. The commission aims mostly to study foreign influence on the culture of Canada. NEP: The National Energy Program was founded by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau in 1980 in response to the international oil and energy crisis. The program intended to survey Canadas oil reserves and redirect them to where they were required. The program resulted in the alienation of western Canada, as western oil reserves were slated to be distributed to the more populous provinces of Quebec and Ontario, which arguably would have been a violation on the rights of the province as outlined by the 1982 Canada Act. The program was discontinued in 1985. The New Deal (1930s): During the Great Depression, unemployment soared across the world as jobs vanished in droves. To employ the masses, Prime Minister R.B Bennett and many other leaders of the time created New Deals, acts that employed Keynesian economics by investing in development of infrastructure to increase the power of a nation and employ its people. The deal is widely seen as a very successful policy in its provision of cheap labor.

Human Geography
Population Pyramid, Birth and Death Rate Graphs: Population Pyramids and Birth/Death rate graphs are ways of showcasing which stage of industrialization and progression a given society is in. The pyramid is built on an axis of population vs. age. Stage 1: Rural: Population largely farming/rural. Large families are needed to sustain population because of high death and birth rates. Pyramid is short, with a long base (Young population). SEE: Tribes

Stage 2: Industrializing: People begin migrating to cities. Death rate begins to plummet because of advances in medical and agricultural technology, but birth rate remains high. Population begins to explode, and infrastructure cannot keep up. Pyramid is taller, with a huge base. SEE: Kenya Stage 3: Industrial Increased education, literacy, and a stronger infrastructure that can handle the new population means the birth rate begins to fall, but is still above the death rate. Pyramid is even taller, with a huge amount of people in their working years. Example: China Stage 4: Stable (Post-industrial, and Im not talking Kanye West) The birth rate has now almost reached the death rate. A baby boom or similar phenomenon can be noted in the population pyramid from the initial industrialization. Pyramid is taller and narrower. Example: Canada Stage 5: Contracting The Birth rate is below the death rate. A huge portion of the population is elderly and is dying quickly. The dependency ratio increases as a result. The pyramid is short at the base, large in the middle, and very, very tall. Example: Japan, Canada without immigration.

Doubling Time Doubling time is the amount of time it takes for a nations population to double. It is found by dividing the growth percentage into the number 70. GDP vs. GDP/Person: Gross domestic product is the value of all goods and services produced in a given nation per annum. It is not an accurate way of evaluating a nations wealth, because a few wealthy individuals may control virtually all of that wealth. Instead, GDP per person is used to evaluate

the financial health of a nation. Dependency ratio: The dependency ratio is the ratio of individuals in a nation who work vs. those who do not (E.g, the elderly and children.) It can be used to evaluate a nation's relative working state and power. Examples: China has a very impressive dependency ratio (Lots of young folks), Japan has an extremely poor one (too many old people)