THERMAL SENSORS

Measure temperature by detecting changes of

various temperature-dependent properties

Resistance RTDs, Thermistors
Voltage Thermocouples
Length Bimetallic Strips
Volume Liquid column Thermometers
Pressure Gas & Vapor-Pressure Thermometers
Radiation Radiation Thermometers (pyrometers)
Spectrum Infra Red Detectors.
Temperature Sensitivity of doped semiconductor
devices

temperature sensors not
always in direct contact
with process medium
if medium aggressive -
thermowells used.
thermowells allow
sensor to be replaced without having to shut off or drain
process lines. Disadvantage - heat transfer between
process medium and sensor not good.

VARYING RESISTANCE DEVICES
(RTDs AND THERMISTORS)

RTDs depend on the increase of metallic resistance
with temperature.
Thermistors based on the decrease of semiconductor
resistance with temperature.

RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS (RTDs)

The most accurate devices in practical use
Metal resistance increases almost linearly with
temperature.

RTDs have a linear
variation of their
resistance with temp over
a limited range. A linear
approximation can be
made:
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
o o o
T T T R T R + = o 1

where R(T) = resistance
at T; R(T
o
) = resistance at reference T
0
; = fractional
change of resistance per degree of temperature at T
o
(the
static sensitivity or temperature coefficient)
If R(T
o
) = 0 at T
o
=0 then
( ) ( ) T T R T R
o o
o + =


( )
( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

= =
1 2
1 2
o
1
or T at slope
1
T T
R R
T R T R
o
o
o
o
o o

where R
2
is the resistance at T
2
and R
1
at T
1

o
= 0.00385//
o
C for platinum (R in ohms T in
o
C)
- sensitivity very low

A quadratic approximation is more accurate
( ) ( )| |
2
2 1
1 T T T R T R
o
A + A + = o o

where R(T) = resistance at T; R(T
o
) = resistance at T
0
;

1
= linear fractional change of resistance with
temperature;
2
= quadratic fractional change of
resistance with temperature; AT = T - T
o

Characteristics

Sensitivity: For platinum
o
= 0.004/
o
C (change of
0.4 for 100 RTD if temp is changed by 1
o
C).
For nickel
o
= 0.005/
o
C

Response time: Time constants (0.55 s) specified
either for a free-air condition (poor thermal contract -
slow response) or oil-bath condition (good thermal
contact - fast response). An RTD in thermowell reacts
more slowly than if immersed directly into a process


Construction: RTD is a length of wire wound on a form
(in a coil) for small size and high thermal conductivity.
Coil protected by sheath or protective tube.

Dissipation Constant (Self-Heating): To measure
resistance, it is necessary to pass a current through the
RTD. The resultant voltage drop across the resistor
heats the device (I
2
R, Joule heating). The sensor's
indicated temperature is therefore slightly higher than
the actual temperature.

D
P
P
T = A

where
T = temp rise due to self heating
P = power dissipated in the RTD
P
D
= dissipation constant of the RTD

Signal Conditioning: Very small value of (change in
resistance with temperature is small). Use bridge
circuit with high gain null detector


THERMISTOR

Based on the decrease of semiconductor resistance with
temperature

Thermistors are non-linear temperature devices that
show a great sensitivity to temperature changes.
Advantage - very cheap and small, and easy to install

Thermistor resistance versus temperature is highly
nonlinear and usually has a negative slope.

[(

)]


Characteristics

Sensitivity: The Temperature Coefficient is
~10%/C (for nominal resistance of 10 k, changes by
1 k for a 1
o
C change) allowing the thermistor circuit
to detect minute changes in temp.

Construction: Fabricated in many forms (discs, beads,
coils) varying in size. By varying doping and
semiconductor material, can provide wide range of
resistance values at any particular temperature.

Range: limited by (1) melting or deterioration of the
semiconductor (< 300
o
C) (2) deterioration of
encapsulation material (3) insensitivity at higher
temperatures
Lower limit (-50
o
to 100
o
C) resistance becomes very
high.
At high temperatures sensitivity very low (slope0)

Response Time: Thermistors can be made very small -
will respond quickly to temperature changes

Signal conditioning: The high sensitivity of the
thermistor is a measurement advantage. Susceptible to
self-heating errors.
THE THERMOCOUPLE
utilizes thermoelectric effect

the net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a
function of the junction temperature and the
composition of the two metals


If two different metals are joined together to form two
junctions exposed to different temperatures, a potential
difference occurs across the junctions. The potential
difference depends on the metals used and the
temperatures of the junction.

= (T
2
T
1
) where is the emf produced in volts;
(the Seebeck coefficient) is a constant in V/K; and T
1

and T
2
are the junction temperatures in K
A thermocouple is a complete circuit involving two
junctions.

Consider the thermocouple circuit shown: junction 1 is
at temp T
1
and 2 at T
2
. If T
1
T
2
a finite emf will be
measured proportional to the difference in temperatures
and the particular metals

If temperature of one junction known (the reference
temperature), then temperature of other junction can be
calculated using thermoelectric properties of the
materials.




Thermocouple Measurement


Te leads from the measurement device with A are the
same material. Since both voltmeter terminal junctions
are copper-A, and are kept at the same temperature the
same voltage is generated at each measurement point
and this cancels out.

The reading V on the voltmeter is proportional to the
temperature difference between J
1
and J
2
.
Now the voltmeter reading is
V = (V
1
- V
2
)

Thermocouple tables give the voltage that result for a
particular type of thermocouple when the reference
junctions are at a particular temperature (usually 0
o
C)
Characteristics

Sensitivity: Type J : 0.05 mV/
o
C
Type S : 0.006 mV/
o
C

Construction: Welded or twisted junction between two
metals. Sometimes sheathed or sealed in glass

Range: Greatest range of all temp sensors, Type J from
-150
o
C to 745
o
C; type S up to 1 765
o
C.

Time Response: Large industrial thermocouples using
thick wire or encased in SS sheathing - 10-20 s.

Signal Conditioning: Small output voltage
(< 50mV) susceptible to electrical noise.
Amplification necessary. Used with high gain
differential amplifier.

Reference Compensation: Variations in ref temp show
up as errors. Techniques employed for ref junction
compensation
1. Controlled temp ref block: All ref junctions are
brought to a temp-controlled block in control room.
2. Reference compensation circuits: ICs add or subtract
the correction factors to the thermocouple output.
These ICs called cold junction compensators or ice
point compensators are temp sensors that measure the
ref junction temp.

3. Software reference correction: Ref junction temp
measured by thermistor or IC tempo sensor and input to
computer. software corrects thermocouple signal to
computer

Noise: Thermocouple signal very small (<5 mv).
Hundreds of millivolts of electrical noise generated by
electrical machines. Thermocouple forms an antenna
picks up noise from radio, TV
Noise reduction techniques
- extension wires twisted and wrapped in a grounded
foil sheath
- measurement junction grounded at point of
measurement
- instrumentation amplifier with excellent common
mode rejection used
Selection guides

RTDs are more stable than thermocouples - their
temperature range is not as broad: RTDs operate from
about -250 to 850C, whereas thermocouples range
from about -270 to 2,300C. Thermistors have a more
restrictive span, being commonly used between -40 and
150C, but offer high accuracy in that range.

Thermistors and RTDs - limitation, resistive devices,
- function by passing a current through a sensor -
though very small current, it creates a certain amount
of heat - thus can throw off the temperature reading.

This self heating in resistive sensors can be significant
when dealing with a still fluid ( i.e.,one that is neither
flowing nor agitated), because there is less carry-off of
the heat generated. This problem does not arise with
thermocouples, which are essentially zero-current
devices.


Infrared Temperature Measurement Devices

Infrared sensors are noncontacting devices. They infer
temperature by measuring the thermal radiation emitted
by a material.

Bimetallic Temperature Measurement Devices

Use difference in rate of thermal expansion between
different metals. Strips of two metals are bonded
together. When heated, one side will expand more than
the other, and the resulting bending is translated into a
temperature reading by mechanical linkage to a
pointer. These devices are portable and they do not
require a power supply, but they are usually not as
accurate as thermocouples or RTDs and they do not
readily lend themselves to temperature recording.



Fluid-Expansion Temperature Measurement
Devices

thermometer - mercury type and the organic-liquid
type - gas instead of liquid also available.
do not require electric power, do not pose explosion
hazards, and are stable even after repeated cycling. do
not generate data that is easily recorded or transmitted,
and they cannot make spot or point measurements

Change-of-State Temperature Measurement
Devices

labels, pellets, crayons, lacquers or liquid crystals
whose appearance changes once a certain temperature
is reached - e.g. used with steam traps - when trap
exceeds a certain temperature, a white dot on a sensor
label attached to the trap will turn black - temperature
measurement in kilns - temperature measurement
based on a number of cones with successive melting
points

Response time typically minutes - do not respond to
transient temperature changes - accuracy lower than
with other types of sensors - change in state is
irreversible.
Temperature Sensor Selection Guidelines

- Does the application require contact or noncontact
temperature sensing?
- How accurate must the temperature reading be?
- What temperature range is involved?
- What's the maximum temperature the sensor will be
exposed to?
- How fast must the sensor respond to a temperature
change and deliver an accurate reading?
- How long should the stability and accuracy of the
sensor last?
- What environmental restraints exist?
- Are protective devicessuch as thermowells and
protection tubesrequired to provide sufficient
ruggedness?
- What's the budget?

Sensor Considerations
Consider inherent accuracy in terms of durability,
range of operation, and susceptibility to external noise
influences. Also examine how the sensor will be used
in terms of temperature range, the required level of
accuracy and repeatability, handling/installation
endurance, whether it will be calibrated/grounded, and
the type of environment it will be used in.