2.

Cable and Membrane Elements Geometrically nonlinear cable and membrane finite elements have been developed (Pargana [6]) and integrated into ADAPTIC (Izzuddin [4]). The cable element allows for sliding, which is necessary for modelling cables inside sleeves, achieved through the use of an Eulerian sliding freedom in addition to the three translational freedoms at each of the three element nodes. This element employs quadratic displacement fields and utilises the Green strain-displacement relationship for modelling the influence of large displacement. The membrane element is 6-noded triangular, thus allowing quadratic displacement fields; it is therefore compatible with the sliding cable element. The membrane element is flat in the unstrained state, as required for realistic modelling of TFS, and also utilises the Green strain-displacement relationship. ADAPTIC (Izzuddin [4]) also has beamcolumn and rigid link elements which may be combined with the developed membrane and cable elements. Figure 1: Integrated design procedure in diagrammatic form (Phelan and Haber [7]) 3. Fabric Material Model Fabrics used in the construction of TFS exhibit i) marked differences in the response of the warp and weft directions, ii) gross nonlinearities in the response, and iii) a permanent set after the first application of stress. Their response is also greatly influenced by stress ratio (Bradshaw [2]). These features are attributed to the major deformation mechanisms that prevail when fabrics are subjected to plane stress, including crimp interchange, yarn and coating extension, yarn crushing and friction. The material model developed authentically captures the above major deformation mechanisms, consisting of i) a series of nonlinear elements that run along the length of the yarn, ii) nonlinear crushing elements, iii) rigid links, and iv) an isotropic plate to model the coating, as shown in Figure 2. The elements only offer resistance to axial forces and not to bending, those elements that run along the length of the yarn are constrained to adopt quadratic profiles, which closely resemble the true yarn profile. The model is formulated using unit cell analysis, where the unit cell is subjected to a constant strain-field and the characteristic mechanical response of the material is obtained using an energy approach (Pargana et al. [7]). Figure 2: Material model Base Fabric Unit Cell Applied load analysis Structural definition Initial equilibrium geometry Key:

Boundary of unit cell Nonlinear elastic element Rigid link