Introduction to the Programming Theories and Philosophies of Broadcasting

The question of links between mass media and society has already been approached in several different ways: as an aspect of the historical rise of mass media; by way of the portrayal of mass media as a mediating institution in society; just now through ideas about the functions of mass media in society. Here we turn so-called Normative Theories, which mainly express ideas on how the media ought to, or can be expected to, operate1 under a prevailing set of conditions and values. Each theory is connected with a particular form of political theory or set of political-economic circumstances and it would seem as if each kind of political system and even each society has its own separate press theory even if it may not deviate far from a general type. The first attempt at a comparative statement of major theories of the press dates from 1956 (Siebert et al.) and it remains the main source and point of reference for work of this kind. The four-fold division of made by Siebert et al. has been retained, although supplemented by two further types, in recognition of more recent in development thinking, if not in practice. In beginning, with the four original theories, it is not the intention to summarize the original versions, but to try to express the permanent basic of truth that they contained.

The Classic Four Theories of the Press AUTHORITARIAN, LIBERTARIAN, SOVIETCOMMUNIST and SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY attempted to classify the relative freedom of the worlds media system as they existed in 1956. However, a more relevant global perspective on national media freedom in the geopolitical and technological environment of the 1980s has been provided by William A. Hachten , whose derivative Five Concepts of the Worlds Media are better suited to this book purposes. The five are: Authoritarian, Libertarian, Western, Communists, and Revolutionary.

Authoritarian Theory
Developed in the 16th and 17th century in England. The term was given by Fred S.Siebert and since the theory identifies, the arrangements for the press which held in societies when and where the press first began, for the most part monarchies in which the press was subordinated to state the power and the interests of ruling class. Uniting all cases where the theory holds is the lack of any true independence for journalists and their subordination (ultimately by force) to government authority. The AUTHORITARIAN media concept today governs broadcasting in many noncommunist dictatorships and is especially prevalent in Latin America. Authoritarianism, is the worlds oldest and most pervasive political ideal. Media can be owned either privately or by state, with the government maintaining control over content through patenting media monopolies, licensing editorial gatekeepers, and prosecuting violations of censorship laws. Ownership of printing medias are mostly private, while broadcast and cinemas usually remain in the hands of the government. Thus, under authoritarianism, the mass media function as instruments of the state by advancing the policy objectives of the government in power and by manipulating the information and entertainment received by its citizens. The leadership typically regards the media as its agents for establishing social order, keeping the public peace, crushing opposition, and discouraging diversity. The main difference between the Authoritarian Theory and the Soviet-Communist Theory is that while the former allows both private and public media ownership, the latter allows strictly only public media ownership. Also the Authoritarian are mainly use to maintain societal status quo, while Soviet-Communist media is often used to bring about societal changes. Many governments are entirely secular, yet extremely authoritarian. The best example of that is the country formerly known as Burma, now called Myanmar. The Burmese media has always portrayed itself as supportive of the countrys previous military government. News reports gushed over generals, attacked foreign media, and remain uncritical of its military leadership. Journalists who wrote reports that threatened the ruling party were imprisoned. Stiff censorship regulations were in placed as well, and only state-controlled newspapers, usually propaganda-filled, are allowed to publish daily. Privately run news publications published weekly rather than daily due to Myanmars stifling censorship requirements. The main principle of the theory can be briefly summarized: Media should do nothing which could damage established authority Media should always (or ultimately) be lower to established authority

Media should avoid offence to majority, or dominant, moral and political values Censorship can be acceptable to apply these principles

Unacceptable attacks on authority, deviations from official policy or offences against moral codes should be criminal offences Media professionals are not allowed to have any independence within the media organization

Libertarian or Free-Press Theory

The Libertarian Theory originally came from the liberal thought in Europe from the 17th Century. The Libertarian Theory describes societies that provide media with unrestrained freedom, especially from government control, so that they are free to report a variety of news. There is no control or censorship. Under a libertarian media system, ownership of media is mainly private. As a statement of opposition to authoritarianism and as a pure expression of libertarianism, as from, the pen of John Stuart Mill, few such problems arise. Even so, the motives for advancing it have always been somewhat mixed. It has been seen as an expression of opposition to colonialism (first in the American colonies); as a useful safety valve for dissent; as an argument for religious freedom; as a defense against misrule; as an end in itself; as a means of arriving at the truth; as a concomitant and component of commercial freedom; as a practical necessity. The advantage of free-press is that it allows this expression and enables society to know what its members aspire to. Truth, welfare and freedom must go together control of the press can only lead ultimately to irrationality or repression, even if it may seem justifiable in the short term. The media purpose is to inform, entertain, sell and serve as a watchdog, keeping the government in check. Libertarian theory involves some innate distrust of the role of the government and the state, and a belief that everybody has rights to information. The theory also sees people as balanced enough to decide what is good or bad and hence the press should not restrict anything. Even negative contents may provide audiences with knowledge. Libertarian thoughts are exactly opposite of the Authoritarian theory. An example of a country whose media system applies the Libertarian Theory would be Finland. In 2011, the Finnish press was ranked as freest in the world according to Freedom House, an organization promoting freedom around the world. Freedom of expression and access to information is guaranteed under Article12 of the constitution. Every citizen has the right to reply and to have falsely published information corrected. Threats against the journalists are unusual, unlike those working under Soviet-Communist or Authoritarian media system. Also, the internet is open and unrestricted, with around 89.4 % of citizens having regular access in 2011 (Freedom House. 2012). Other countries whose media apply the Libertarian Theory include: The Netherlands, and to a lesser extent, Hungary. The main principle of the theory can be briefly summarized: Publication should be free from any prior censorship by any third party The act of publication and distribution should be open to a person or group without permit or license

Attack on any government, official or political party (as distinct from attacks on private individuals or treason and breaches of security) should not be punishable, even after the event There should be no compulsion to publish anything Publication of error is protected equally with that of truth, in matters of opinion and belief No restriction should be placed on the collection, by legal means, of information for publication There should be no restriction on export or import or sending or receiving messages across national frontiers

Soviet-Communist Theory
Mass communication in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc nations operate under the COMMUNIST concept, a modified form of authoritarianism. Its philosophical assumptions were provided by Hegel and Marx, but its implementation bears the markings of Lenin and Stalin. The Soviet-Communist Theory originated from the Soviet Union from Marxist, Leninist, and Stalinist thoughts after the 17th century. The theory so constituted and gradually furnished with institutional means has continued to provide the main framework for media practice, training and research and has provided the model for most media forms within the soviet sphere of influence. Under the Soviet-Communist Theory, the state owns or in some way controls all forms of mass media directly. The medias authority falls in the hands of a small group of party leaders. The role of the media in countries applying this theory is to act as an instrument of the ruling party to unite people of the state, and to carry out plans of the party and state, bringing about societal change. Although modern communism is more diverse than monolithic, the mass media in Marxist societies function according to totalitarian principles. These principles are often couched in libertarian language, however. The Soviet Constitution, for instance, guarantees its citizens freedom of speech, of the press and of assembly, meetings, street motorcades, and rallies. The catch is that freedom, as defined here, means freedom to say what the state considers to be true. Also under the Soviet-Communist system, the media reports less on the bad things that happen under communism, and emphasizes the bad things that happen in democratic areas. The most important ideas are as follows. Firstly, the working class by definition holds power in a socialist society and, to keep power, has to control the means of mental production. Thus all media should be subject to control by agencies of the working classprimarily the Communist Party. Secondly, socialist societies are, or aspire to be classless societies and thus lacking in class conflict. The press should therefore not be controlled along lines of political conflict. The kind of real diversity and debate does not extend the elements believed to be dated, regressive or dangerous to the basic constitution of society along socialist lines. Thirdly, the press has a positive role to play in the formation of society and the movement towards communism and this suggest a number of important functions for the media in socialization, informal social control and mobilization towards planned social and economic goals. Fourthly, Marxism accepts unbiased laws of history and thus an objective reality that the press should reflect. This reduces the scope for personal explanation and provides a set of news values different from those holding in liberal press systems. Finally, it requires the media to submit to ultimate control by periodicals of the state and to be, in varying degrees, integrated with other instruments of political life. Communist ideology requires that all communication outlets be owned by the government and run by state organizations, with the top administrative and gatekeeping positions occupied by Party officials. Accordingly, the mass media functions as instruments of state power and policy, Party leadership and information, social unity and official knowledge, and propaganda, nervousness and organization. For example, when the Russians media was still under the Soviet-Communist system, the official communist paper Pravda portrayed the ideology that Communist is good by praising Stalins non- violence pact with Hitler, and avoided reporting about the Chernobyl

disaster as it may raise concerns about the safety of Soviet nuclear plant. Pravda reported about the incident only for 2 days later after constant urging from Sweden. The postulates of the theory can be summed as follows: Media should serve the interest of, and be in control of, the working class Media should not be privately owned Media should serve positive functions for society by: socialization to desired rules; education;information;motivation;mobilization Within their overall task for society, the media should respond to wishes and needs of their audiences People have a right to use censorship and other legal measures to prevent, or punish after the event, anti-societal publication.

Media should provide a complete and objective and objective view of society and the world, according to Marxist-Leninist principles

Media should support progressive movements at home and abroad

Western or Social Responsibility Theory

Western or Social responsibility theory owes its origin to an American initiative the Commission on Freedom of the Press. The Western concept is the mirror image of authoritarianism. It synthesizes the libertarian ideals of the Age of Enlightenment with the 20th century notion that freedom and responsibility go hand in hand. The advent of broadcasting imposed new constraints on the libertarian principle of absolute freedom in the government s, as legitimate proprietors of the field, inevitably became evolved in regulating it in the public interest as they would other natural resources. Thus was born the social responsibility interpretation of freedom as being a privilege that carries with it an obligation to tell the truth and offer the public the widest possible range of opinions on all subjects. Whereas the libertarians believed in freedom period, the opponents of social responsibility qualified it as freedom if. However, the Social-Responsibility theory does not assume that anyone can use the media to publish anything like the Libertarian theory. Instead, this theory requires the media to adhere professional standards and codes of conduct when exercising their editorial freedom. Under this theory, ownership of media, particularly the press is mostly private; broadcast is public and practice self-regulation according to standards, codes and guiding principles. The media is relatively free of arbitrary government controls. The main functions of the media under the Western concept are to supply the public with information and entertainment, to assist the free-market economy and media self-sufficiency through advertising, to insure that the media are editorially independent of government controls over news and programming, and to provide a public forum for debate and for responsible criticisms of government. One example of a country that practices this theory is the United States of America. The USA has a Bill of Rights that states that Congress shall make no lawabridging the freedom of speech, or the press. This bill entitles the media to freedom and at the same time, put across a trust the scientists always keep this debate open as how best media could be used to improve functioning of civil society and promotion of democratic sense and practices. The main principles of Western Theory can now be stated as follows: Media should accept and fulfill certain obligations to society These obligations are mainly to be met by setting high or professional standards of informativeness, truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance

In accepting and applying these obligations, media should be self-regulating within the framework of law and established institutions. The media should avoid whatever might lead to crime, violence or civil disorder or give offence to ethnic or religious minorities

The media as a whole should be pluralist and reflect the diversity of their society, giving the access of various points of view and to rights of reply Society and the public, following the first named principles, have a right to expect high standards of performance and intervention can be justified to secure the, ot a, public good

Revolutionary Theory
The Revolutionary concept of mass communication applies to illegal and underground media that are owned and operated by people intent an overthrowing the government they live under because their political, religious, and/or cultural interests are not being served. Revolutionaries of every ideological stripe have used outlaw medias anti-authoritarian tools for subverting the established order, yet there is irony in the fact that the new order which follows is often, though not always, itself authoritarian. Revolutionary media exist in outside of the target country more often than not. In a sense, all shortwave radio services whose propaganda is directed at enemy states or audiences can be thought of as following to Revolutionary rules. Contemporary versions of revolutionary media come in several intriguing forms including the use of photocopying machines, typewriters, and mimeographs for duplicating and distributing unlawful information by way of underground networks of dissidents as in the case with the self-publishing (samizdat) press inside the Soviet Union. The ousting of the Shah of Iran by the Ayatollah Khomeini has been called the first cassette revolution because his recorded revolutionary speeches were smuggled into the country and played in the sanctuary of the mosques. Clandestine radio stations, illegally operated by political and religious groups. Grown during World War II, and more recently were involved in the coups d etat of many black American nations. Today, they are active throughout the Middle East. The pirate stations of Western Europe represent a kind of socioeconomic media rebellion in which unlicensed broadcasters have tried to avoid the authorized radio and TV services by offering new programming formats and commercial competition. There is also an element of the Revolutionary concept at work when cultural minorities protest and even sabotage national broadcasting systems that restrict or banish them and their language from the airwaves. The main principles of Revolutionary Theory can now be stated as follows: Media was owned and operated by people to intent an overthrowing the government they live under because their political, religious, and/or cultural interests are not being served. Using outlaw medias anti-authoritarian tools for subverting the established order

Media come in several intriguing forms including the use of photocopying machines, typewriters, and mimeographs There is also an element of the Revolutionary concept at work when cultural minorities protest and even sabotage national broadcasting systems that restrict or banish them and their language from the airwaves.

10

Summarization of the Programming Theories and Philosophies of Broadcasting

Philosophy Authoritarian Absolute power of monarch, his government or both Support and advance the policies of the government in power and to service the state Libertarian General philosophy of rationalism and natural rights Inform, entertain, sell but chiefly to help discover truth and to check on govt Communist MarxistLeninistStalinist thought Contribute to the success as continuance of Soviet Socialist System and esp. to the dictatorship of party Western Commission on freedom of press and practitioners, media codes Inform, entertain, sell chiefly to raise conflict to the plane of discussion Revolutionary Applies to illegal and underground media

Purpose

Who has right to media

Whoever gets royal patent or similar permission Govt patents, guilds, licensing, sometimes censorship

Anyone with economic means to do so By self righting process of truth in free ,market place of ideas and by courts

Loyal and orthodox party members Surveillance and economic of political action of government

Everyone who has something to say Community opinion. Consumer action and project ethics

Intent an overthrowing the government they live under because their political, religious, and/or cultural interests are not being served. All revolutionaries

How are media controlled

What is forbidden

Criticism of political machinery and officials in power

Defamation, obscenity, indecency, wartime sedition

Criticism of party objective as distinguished from tactics

Ownership

Private or public

Private

Public

Essential difference

Instrument for effecting govt policy through not necessarily govt owned

Free exchange of ideas as an instrument for checking on govt and meeting other needs of society

State owned and closely controlled media existing solely as arm of state

Serious invasion of recognized private rights and vital social interests Private Press Public Broadcast Media must assume obligation of social responsibility

By the use of photocopying machines, typewriters, and mimeographs for duplicating and distributing unlawful information None

People

People are free to broadcast their ideas illegally without any censorship by the government

11

References: Introduction to Mass Communication Theory by (http:www.zeepedia.com/read.php?media theories libertarian theory social responsibility theory introduction to mass communication&b78&c39) (http://www.class.uh.edu/comm/classes/comm4303/section1/fourtheories.html#fourtheo riespress) (http://epiclawyers.wordpress.com/references-2) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Bloc http://tiffaniblog.wordpress.com/2012/05/05/soviet-communist-theory-2/ http://mca-kennedy.blogspot.com/2009/06/soviet-communist-press-theory_16.html

12