Chapter 5

Electrons in Atoms

Models of the Atom

Figure 5.2, page 128 Rutherford model planetary model electrons move on _____________________________

Could not explain ___________ properties of elements

Bohr model electrons move in _______________________________

Each orbit requires e- to have a ________________________________ e- can jump from 1 level to another by ________________________________

A quantum of energy is ________________________________ ________________________________ Levels are not _________ spaced, higher levels are _________________

5.1 Like the rungs of the strange ladder, the energy levels in an atom are not equally spaced. The ______ the energy level occupied by an electron, the _______ energy it takes to move from that energy level to the next higher energy level.

Quantum Mechanical model Schrodinger Electron Cloud model

Describes a ________, (not an exact path), where e- is ____________________ Based on ________________ Region is a certain volume of space where e- is located described as ___________ Cannot tell a precise location at any instant

5.1

The Quantum Mechanical Model

Austrian physicist Erwin Schrdinger (1887 1961) used new theoretical calculations and results to devise and solve a mathematical equation describing the behavior of the electron in a hydrogen atom. The modern description of the electrons in atoms, the quantum mechanical model, comes from the mathematical solutions to the Schrdinger equation.

5.1

The Quantum Mechanical Model

The propeller blade has the same probability of being anywhere in the blurry region, but you cannot tell its location at any instant. The electron cloud of an atom can be compared to a spinning airplane propeller.

5.1

The Quantum Mechanical Model

In the quantum mechanical model, the probability of finding an electron within a certain volume of space surrounding the nucleus can be represented as a fuzzy cloud. The cloud is more dense where the probability of finding the electron is high.

Quantum Numbers

Each electron in an atom is indicated by a set of _____________________ No 2 electrons have the same __________________________ Quantum numbers indicate an ________________________________ ________________________________

Quantum Numbers

First Quantum Number

represents the ________________ designated by __, where n = 1,2,3.. The number of electrons in any energy level can be determined by ____ Larger atoms have _______________

Energy levels are numbered _______

EACH ENERGY LEVEL CONTAINS A CERTAIN ________________ WHICH EACH CONTAIN VARIOUS ________________________

Second Quantum Number - Sublevels The principal Quantum number is equal to the _______________ within that energy level

QN # 1 is called the ____________________ When n = 1, there is ___sublevel When n = 4, there are ____ sublevels (maximum # of sublevels)

Each sublevel corresponds to an orbital with a ____________________, denoted by different letters Sublevels are represented by letters: ____________

Third Quantum Number orbitals

Each sublevel contains a specific number of _____________ Each orbital has a ______________, denoted by different letters

Fourth Quantum Number represents the ________ of the electron distinguishes between 2 electrons in the same orbital

Shapes of orbitals

Figure 5.5 S sublevel orbital ___________ shape

3 dimensional

P sublevel orbitals ___________ shape with

different orientations in space

3 different possible orientations: ______________

5.1

Atomic Orbitals

Different atomic orbitals are denoted by letters. The s orbitals are spherical, and p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped.

D sublevel orbitals figure 5.6 clover

leaf shapes

_____ orbitals in the d sublevel

F sublevel orbitals more complicated

shapes

_____ orbitals in the f sublevel

5.1

Atomic Orbitals

Four of the five d orbitals have the same shape but different orientations in space.

Atomic Orbitals

Animation 5 Observe the characteristics of atomic orbitals.

Table 5.1
Energy level # sublevels 1 2 3 1 s 2 s,p 3 s,p,d orbitals 1 orbital: 1s 4 orbitals: 2s, 2px,2py, 2pz 9 orbitals: 3s, 3px, 3py, 3pz, 3d(5 orbitals)

Energy level 4

# sublevels orbitals

4 s,p,d,f

16 orbitals: 4s, 4px, 4py, 4pz, 4d (5 orbitals), 4f (7 orbitals)

Each orbital can contain a maximum of _________ # of orbitals = _____ (n = level #) # of electrons = _______

Table 5.2
n 1 2 3 4 # orbitals n2 1 4 9 16 # e2n2 2 8 18 32

Each energy level, each sublevel, each orbital requires an electron to have a specific amount of __________

Higher energy levels require more energy S, p, d, f sublevels require __________ energy All p orbitals require _______energy All d orbitals require ________ energy

Electron Arrangements in Atoms

Atomic Number tells # of electrons to be arranged 3 Rules necessary to determine how electrons are arranged in atoms: Aufbau Principle, Pauli Exclusion Principle, Hunds Rule

Aufbau Principle Electrons fill the ___________ energy orbitals (levels) first Note: levels farther away from the nucleus are closer together Energy sublevels in 1 level can ___________ energy sublevels of another level

Aufbau Principle

According to the aufbau principle, electrons occupy the orbitals of lowest energy first. In the aufbau diagram, each box represents an atomic orbital.

Figure 5.7, page 133 Note: after 3p orbitals, electrons fill in 4s orbital, NOT 3d orbital

Because of overlapping, 4s requires less energy than 3d

Diagonal diagram shows filling order of electrons

5.2

Electron Configurations

Aufbau Principle

Pauli Exclusion Principle There can be a maximum of __ electrons in each orbital If 2 electrons are in an orbital, electrons must spin in ____________ directions: clockwise and counterclockwise (represented by up or down arrows)

Hunds Rule Electrons will fill in all orbitals of p, d, f sublevels before they __________

All orbitals in a sublevel require the same energy, so electrons spread out when they can

Ways to represent electrons

Orbital Filling Diagram and Electron Configurations Orbital Filling Diagrams

Uses an Aufbau-like chart with boxes representing orbitals Up and down arrows represent electrons All 3 rules apply Table 5.3, page 134

Electron configurations

Indicates the energy level and the sublevel, not ______________ Indicates # of electrons in each sublevel as _________________ Sum of superscripts equals the number of ___________ in the atom (atomic number) Table 5.3

5.2

Electron Configurations & Orbital Filling Diagrams

In our text book:

When configurations are written, the sublevels within the same energy level are written together. THIS IS NOT ALWAYS THE ORDER OF THE AUFBAU DIAGRAM or the diagonal diagram. Electrons still use the Aufbau diagram as the order to fill in sublevels. Table B.4, page R50

In our book:

Electron Configurations: Sublevels are written together, but filled in diagonal diagram order Potassium, Atomic Number 19

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d 4s1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2

Cobalt, Atomic Number 27

Lewis Dot Diagram

Show only __________ level electrons Element symbol represents the ______________________ Use dots to show __________ electrons S electrons go on right P electrons fill in according to Hunds Rule on top, left, bottom

Because the levels farther from the nucleus overlap, the Aufbau Rule shows that there will only be s and p electrons in the outer most level.

Exceptional electron Configurations Some configurations differ from those using the Aufbau Principle (diagonal diagram) Exceptions occur because the sublevels are so close together and the energies for the sublevels are also close

Using the exceptions gives the atom more stability through filled or half filled sublevels Examples: Cr and Cu Expected Cr: 1s22s22p63s23p63d44s2 Actual Cr: 3d and 4s are more stable when half filled

Expected Cu: 1s22s22p63s23p63d94s2 Actual Cu: 3d becomes filled and 4s becomes half filled

Similar exceptions occur for Molybdenum, Mo, and Silver, Ag Do expected configurations and actual configurations for these elements. Mo, Z=42 Ag, Z=47

Physics and the Quantum Mechanical Model

Page 138, vocabulary QMM is a result of the study of light energy Physics studies all forms of energy Newton (17th century) felt that light consisted of particles matter 1900, experimental evidence showed that light consisted of waves - energy

5.3

Light

Light waves

5.3

Light

The ______________ of a wave is the waves height from zero to the crest. The __________, represented by (the Greek letter lambda), is the distance between the crests.

5.3

Light

The ____________, represented by (the Greek letter nu), is the number of wave cycles to pass a given point per unit of time. The SI unit of cycles per second is called a _________ (Hz).

5.3

Light

The product of the frequency and wavelength always equals a constant (c), the speed of light.

5.3

Light

Light

How are the wavelength and frequency of light mathematically related?

5.3

Light

According to the wave model, light consists of electromagnetic waves.

All electromagnetic waves are energy waves that travel in a vacuum at a speed of 2.998 108 m/s. Electromagnetic radiation includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet waves, X-rays, and gamma rays.

Visible light is only a part of the electromagnetic spectrum of wavelengths figure 5.10, page 139

Visible light has a wavelength that ranges from 700 380 nm Prisms will break visible light into a spectrum of colors ROYGBIV (longest to shortest wavelength)

5.3

Light

5.3

An Explanation of Atomic Spectra

An Explanation of Atomic Spectra

How are the frequencies of light an atom emits related to changes of electron energies?

Atomic Spectra When atoms absorb energy, electrons move to _________ energy levels temporarily. The electrons then lose the energy by ____________ when they return to the lower energy level The lowest possible energy of an electron is called the _____________

Light emitted by atoms consists of only specific frequencies (not all ROYGBIV frequencies) that correspond to particular colors. This is the atoms _______________________________ Each element has a unique atomic emission spectrum

5.3

An Explanation of Atomic Spectra

The light emitted by an electron moving from a higher to a lower energy level has a frequency directly proportional to the energy change of the electron.

Light from the helium lamp passing through a prism produces discrete lines.

5.3

The frequencies of light emitted by an element separate into discrete lines to give the atomic emission spectrum of the element.

Mercury

Nitrogen

5.3

Quantum Mechanics

Quantum Mechanics

How does quantum mechanics differ from classical mechanics?

5.3

Quantum Mechanics

In 1905, Albert Einstein successfully explained experimental data by proposing that light could be described as quanta of energy.

The quanta behave as if they were particles. Light quanta are called photons.

In 1924, De Broglie developed an equation that predicts that all moving objects have wavelike behavior.

5.3

Quantum Mechanics

Today, the wavelike properties of beams of electrons are useful in magnifying objects. The electrons in an electron microscope have much smaller wavelengths than visible light. This allows a much clearer enlarged image of a very small object, such as the mite on page 144. figure 5.15.

5.3

Quantum Mechanics

Classical mechanics adequately describes the motions of bodies _____________________________, while quantum mechanics describes the motions of _______________________________

5.3

Quantum Mechanics

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to know exactly both the ________ and the _________ of a particle at the same time.

This limitation is critical in dealing with small particles such as electrons. This limitation does not matter for ordinarysized object such as cars or airplanes.

5.3

Quantum Mechanics

Quantum Number Values

Each electron can be described by a set of four quantum numbers 1 - First Quantum Number

designated by n, where n = 1,2,3..

2 Second Quantum Number

Represents the sublevel Designated by l, where l = 0 to n -1 The number of sublevels in each level is equal to the value of n. Level 1 has 1 sublevel, level 2 has 2 sublevels

The first sublevel, s, has the lowest energy. For the s sublevel, l = 0 The second sublevel is the p sublevel. For the p sublevel, l = 1 The third sublevel is the d sublevel. For the d sublevel, l = 2 The fourth sublevel is the f sublevel. For the f sublevel, l = 3

Level Level Level Level

1 2 3 4

has has has has

sublevel s. (0) sublevels s and p. (0,1) sublevels s, p, d. (0,1,2) sublevels s, p, d, f. (0,1,2,3)

3 - Third Quantum Number represents the orbitals within each sublevel

an orbital is the space occupied by 1 pair of electrons

designated by m, where m = -l through +l

Values for m can be: if n = 3, and l = 0(s), m = 0 if n = 3, and l = 1(p), m = -1,0,+1 if n=3, and l=2(d), m=-2,-1,0,+1,+2

4 - Fourth Quantum Number represents the spin of the electron distinguishes between 2 electrons in the same orbital designated by s, where s is equal to +1/2 or - 1/2 electrons can spin either clockwise or counter clockwise

Using Quantum Numbers

1- Pauli exclusion principle - No two electrons in an atom have the same set of four quantum numbers.

10 electrons in Neon
# e1 2 3 4 5 n l m s

# e6 7 8 9 10

Chapter 5 Assessment

Page 149, #24, 26, 28, 29, 31, 33, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41, 47 Page 150, #53, 60, 62, 63 Page 151, #65, 69 Page 153, #2, 3, 5, 11 to 18