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Mathematics
CHAPTER 4 Calculus
Indeterminate form
, , , 0. , , , , ,
Example: Plot y= [x] Here [x] greatest integer not greater than x -2 x < -1 , y = -2 -1 x < 0 , y = - 1 0 x < 1 , y =0 1 x < 2 , y = 2
Various Plots
y y Y =ex Y =In x x
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
Limit of a function Let y = f(x) Then i = i.e, f x |< , | |< 0<| Some standard expansions ......... ......... =1+x+ og og Sin x = x Cos x = 1 Sinh x = x Cosh x = 1 + + =x = x + ......... + ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... as x a i p ies for any (>0), (>0) such that whenever
Chapter 4
Mathematics
L Hospita s Ru e When functions are of limit. or form differentiate Numerator & Denominator and then apply
Existence of limits and Continuity f(x) is defined at a, i.e, f(a) exists. If i f(x) = i f(x) = L , Then, the i If i f x f(x) exists and equal to L. i f x = f(a) then the function f(x) is said to be continuous.
Properties of continuity If f and g are two continuous functions at a; then (f+g), (f.g), (f-g) are continuous at a is continuous at a, provided g(a) 0 |f| or |g| is continuous at a
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
] * * = + +
Solution x < 0, x>0, i Hence i Example f(x) = = 0 Solution i f(x) = i = i f(x) = i = 0 = i = i = when x when x =0 i = x f(x) = 0 = x = 0 =0
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
Ro es theore If (i) f(x) is continuous in closed interval [a,b]. ii f x exists for every va ue of x in open interva a,b . (ii) f(a) = f(b). then there exists at east one point c between a, b such that f c
Geometrically There exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that tangent at c is parallel to x axis.
C2
C1
Lagrange mean value theorem If (i) f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a,b] and ii f x exists in the open interva a,b , then at east one va ue c of x exist in a,b such that f c . Geometrically, it means that at point c, tangent is parallel to the chord line.
Cauchy mean value theorem If, (i) f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a,a+h] and ii f x exists in the open interva a,a h), then there is at least one number (0< <1) such that f(a+h) = f(a) + h f(a+ h) Let f1 and f2 be two functions:
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
f1,f2 both are continuous in [a,b] f1, f2 both are differentiable in (a,b) f then, for a = Example f(x) = cosx Solution f(x) = cos x f x f( -sin x ) = cos (- ) = 0 , a= , b= ; find c fro Ro es theore 0 in (a,b)
f( ) = cos Hence f c c =0 Example Find c using Lagranges Mean value theorem from f(x) = 3 Solution f(1) = 15 f(3) = 49 f x 6x 5 + 5x + 7 in interval [ , ] - sinx = 0
a = 1 , b =3 f (c) = 6c + 5 = 6c + 5 = c = = 2 = 17
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
Example
f(x) = ln x f x f c = = c = e-1 in interval [1 ,e]
Derivative
f x i
fg f . g
. .
f.g
Homogenous function Any function f(x, y) which can be expressed in from xn ( ) is called homogenous function of order n in x and y. (Every term is of nth degree. f(x,y) = a0xn + a1xn-1y + a2xn- y f(x,y) = xn ( ) on ho ogenous function an yn
Eu ers theore
+ 2xy
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
Total derivative If u f x,y ,x t y t = = Example If z = log( ez= x x.ez x +xy+ +y =2.f =2ez +xy + ), show that x +y =2 . + x+ .
ho ogenous,
+ y.ez +y =2
Necessary and sufficient condition, f (x) > 0 2. f(x) is decreasing function if for , f
Maxima-Minima
Two Types a) Global b) Local
Rule for finding maxima & minima If maximum or minimum value of f(x) is to be found, let y = f(x) Find dy/dx and equate it to zero and fro this find the va ues of x, say x is , , ca ed the critical points). Find If If If at x ,
, y has a minimum value ,y has a maximum value , proceed further and find at x ,
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
If But If If If If
, y has neither
axi u
nor
ini u at x
va ue at x ,
, proceed further and find , y has minimum value , y has maximum value , proceed further
Note Greatest / least value exists either at critical point or at the end point of interval. Point of Inflexion If at a point, the following conditions are met, then such point is called point of inflexion
Maclaurian Series f x f x f f
h
Partial differentiation Taylor series f(x,y) = f(a, b) + [(x-a)fx(a, b) + (y-b) fy(a, b)] + fyy a,b ] .. [ fxx(a, b) + 2(x-a)(y-b) fxy(a, b) +
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
Maxima & minima (Two variables) r= 1) 2) ,s= = 0, (i) if rt(ii) if rt(iii) if rt(iv) if rt, t= so ve these equation. Let the so ution be a, b , c, d and r axi u at a, b and r ini u at a, b < 0 at (a, b), f(a,b) is not an extreme value i.e, f(a, b) is saddle point. > 0 at (a, b), It is doubtful, need further investigation.
| |
= - 6 < 0 maximum = + 6 > 0 minimum @x=2 @ x =3 = 16 60 +72 +11 = 39 = 54 135 +108 +11 =173 135 = 38
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
At x = 1, At x = -1,
, =2 = -2 1+
minimum maximum = -2 = 2
Maximum value @ x = -1 = -1 + Minimum value @ x= +1 = Example Find the maxima and minima of 5 Solution 5 5 x =0, 1, 3 6 | = - 10 5 5 5
Minimum value = | =0 6 | = 30
, in interval [-1, 1]
= 1 +i : Monotonous function
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
Integration
Reverse process of differentiation or the process of summation any continuous function. Standard Integral results 1. x dx 2. dx og x , n defines the integral of
3. e dx = e 4. a dx = 5. cos x dx 6. sin x dx 7. sec x dx 8. cosec x dx 9. sec x tan x dx (prove it ) sin x cos x tan x cot x sec x cosec x
dx dx dx
18. sech x tanh x dx 19. cosech x cot h x dx 20. tan x dx 21. cot x dx 22. sec x dx 23. cosec x dx 24. 25. dx dx og sec x og sin x og sec x
og cosec x og x og x x x
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
x dx x dx a dx dx = tan dx = dx = og og
sin x x a a
og x og x
x x
a a
32. sin x dx 33. cos x dx 34. tan x dx 35. cot x dx 36. n x dx 37. e 38. e
39. e [f x
Method of finding Integrals: (A) (B) (C) (D) Integration by INSPECTION Integration by TRANSFORMATION Integration by SUBSTITUTION Integration by PARTS
Integration by parts:
u v dx
u. v dx
v dx dx
I L A T E E
x)
Logarithmic
Chapter 4
Mathematics
Some Other Important Formulae Area = y dx = Vo u e sin x cos x sin x cos x r d r sin d
. sin
x dx
. x dx
/
/
. x dx
/ /
(z = 1 x , dz = -2x dx )
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
3) =0 4) =0 =
=
/
+
/
if f(a-x)=f(x) if f(a-x)=-f(x)
=2
Example ( ) =?
=0
Example =
-----------------------(1)
----------------------(2)
= | =
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
Improper integral Those integrals for which limit is infinite or integrand is infinite in a , then it is called as improper integral. Types of improper integral i) The interval increases without limit x b in case of
B,
B >a. then
is said to converge
+ i
(a) f(x) has infinite discontinuity only at the left end point, then
i 0< <b-a
(b) f(x) has infinite discontinuity at the right end point then
0< <b-a
If either of a or b does not exist then integral does not exist. Note on convergence is said to be convergent if the value of the integral is finite. for all x (ii) converges , then converges for all x (ii) diverges, then also diverges
also
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
and
and
converge or
and diverges when p is converges for any constant p and diverges for p
Example Solution = i = i = i = + [ [ = ] + i ]+ i + i [ ] * . + = +
Chapter 4
Mathematics
Evaluate Solution
if it converges
The integral becomes infinite at x=3 (second type improper integral) = sin ( )| =sin ( )
As t 0 =sin
( ) = sin
Vector calculus
Scalar point function If corresponding to each point P of region R there is a corresponding scalar (P) is said to be a scalar point function for the region R. (P)= (x,y,z)
Vector point function If corresponding to each point P of region R, there corresponds a vector defined by F(P) then F is called a vector point function for region R. F(P) = F(x,y,z) = f1(x,y,z) +f2 x,y,z f3(x,y,z)
=(
Directional derivative The directional derivative of f in a direction is the resolved part of . =| |cos in direction .
Where is a unit vector in a particular direction. Direction cosine: Where, l=cos , m=cos , , n=cos ,
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
Gradient The vector function as grad f. Grad f = = is defined as the gradient of the scalar point function f(x,y,z) and written
is vector function If f(x,y,z) = 0 is any surface, then is a vector normal to the surface f and has a magnitude equal to rate of change of f along this normal. Directional derivative of f(x,y,z) is maximum along | |.
Divergence The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by div. F and is defined by the equation. div. F = . F=f + div.F= . = Curl The curl of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by curl F and is defined by the equation. Curl F = =| | =( + + ) .(f + )
is vector function
Solenoidal vector function If .A = 0 , then A is called as solenoidal vector function. Irrotational vector function If =0, then A is said to be irrotational otherwise rotational.
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
DEL applied twice to point functions 1) div .grad f = 2) 3) 4) 5) curl grad f = div.curl F = . curl curl F = grad div F = f= + =0 =0 F = = + ---------- this is Laplace equation
F F
Vector Identities f, g are scalar functions & F, G are Vector functions 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) f g = f+ g . F G = .F .G F G = F G fg = f g + g f . fG = f. G f . G fG = f G f G F. G F G G F . F G = G.( F F. G F G = F( . G G .F
Also note 1) (f/g)= (g f f g)/ 2) F.G F .G F . G 3) (F G F G + F G 4) (fg) = g f + 2 f. g + f Vector product 1) Dot product of A B with C is called scalar triplet product and denoted as [ABC]
Rule: for evaluating the scalar triplet product (i) Independent of position of dot and cross (ii) Dependent on the cyclic order of the vector [ABC] = A =B =C A 2) ( . = A. B . = B.C . = C.A . ) adjacent) Outer
. = -(B
= (extreme
Chapter 4
Mathematics
( ( (
= ( . ) - ( . ) ) = ( . ) - ( . ) ( )
Example Find directional derivatives of f(x , y , z) =x vector Solution f = at ( 2 , -1 , 1 ) in the direction of + at the point ( 2 , -1 , 1 )in the direction of
Directional derivation of = ( = =
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
Line integral, Surface Integral & Volume Integral Line integral = F R dR If F R dR dx f x,y,z dy = (x,y,z) + x,y,z dz ) Where N is unit outward normal to Surface.
If F(R ) = f(x,y,z) + =
, then
Example If F=3xy -y , evaluate F .dR Where c is the curve in the xy plane y = 2x from (0,0) to (1,2). Solution Since the partic e F. dr = xydx oves in the xy p ane z y dy , we ta e R x y .Then,
Greens theore If R be a closed region in the xy plane bounded by a simple closed curve c and if P and Q are continuous functions of x and y having continuous derivative in R, then according to Greens theorem. P dx dy = ( ) dxdy
Sto es theorem If F be continuously differentiable vector function in R, then F. dr = Gauss divergence theorem The normal surface integral of a vector point function F which is continuously differentiable over the boundary of a closed region is equal to the .N.ds =
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F .N ds
Chapter 4
Mathematics
=
= = 8 = 6 | . .
= 12 x 2 = 24
x2 cos x
Chapter 4
Mathematics
f x dx
/
osxdx
cosx dx
-/2 -
For a given a
Example
/ /
sinx dx y
-/2 /2
Important point for continuity and Differentiability If the function is discontinuous at any point it will be non differentiable at that point. If the function is non differentiable at any point it does not mean that it is discontinuous at that point.
Chapter 4
Mathematics
Maxima and Minima For finding maxima and minima of any function We first find If Example at x , , critical points than we check at x
Basically 2. If at x
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