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1 0
1 1
0 1
(3.1)
38 Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation
a b
C
2
C
3
C
1
Figure 3.2 Capacitive loop
and the equation relating the three state variables to the capacitor voltages:
q
1
q
2
q
3
C
1
0 0
0 C
2
0
0 0 C
3
v
1
v
2
v
3
(3.2)
Using the connection between node and capacitor charges (i.e. equation 3.1):
_
q
a
q
b
_
=
_
1 1 0
0 1 1
_
q
1
q
2
q
3
(3.3)
and
v
1
v
2
v
3
1 0
1 1
0 1
_
v
a
v
b
_
(3.4)
Substituting equations 3.2 and 3.4 in 3.3 yields:
_
q
a
q
b
_
=
_
C
1
C
2
0
0 C
2
C
3
_
1 0
1 1
0 1
_
v
a
v
b
_
=
_
C
1
+ C
2
C
2
C
2
C
2
+ C
3
_ _
v
a
v
b
_
(3.5)
Use of this transform produces a minimum set of state variables, and uses all the
capacitor values at each iteration in the integration routine. However, there is a restric-
tion on the system topology that can be analysed, namely all capacitor subnetworks
must contain the reference node. For example, the circuit in Figure 3.3 (a) cannot be
analysed, as this method denes two state variables and the [C] matrix is singular and
cannot be inverted. i.e.
_
q
a
q
b
_
=
_
C
1
C
1
C
1
C
1
_ _
v
a
v
b
_
(3.6)
This problem can be corrected by adding a small capacitor, C
2
, to the reference node
(ground) as shown in Figure 3.3 (b). Thus the new matrix equation becomes:
_
q
a
q
b
_
=
_
C
1
+ C
2
C
1
C
1
C
1
_ _
v
a
v
b
_
(3.7)
State variable analysis 39
C
1
R
1
R
2
C
1
R
1
C
2
R
2
det =C
1
C
2
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.3 (a) Capacitor with no connection to ground; (b) small capacitor added
to give a connection to ground
However this creates a new problem because C
2
needs to be very small so that it does
not change the dynamics of the system, but this results in a small determinant for
the [C] matrix, which in turn requires a small time step for the integration routine to
converge.
More generally, an initial state equation is of the form:
[M
(0)
] x
(0)
= [A
(0)
]x
(0)
+ [B
(0)
]u + [B
1(0)
] u (3.8)
where the vector x
(0)
comprises all inductor uxes and all capacitor charges.
Equation 3.8 is then reduced to the normal form, i.e.
x
(0)
= [A]x + [B]u + ([B
1
] u . . .) (3.9)
by eliminating the dependent variables.
From equation 3.8 the augmented coefcient matrix becomes:
_
M
(0)
, A
(0)
, B
(0)
_
(3.10)
40 Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation
Elementary row operations are performed on the augmented coefcient matrix to
reduce it to echelon form [3]. If M
(0)
is non-singular the result will be an upper trian-
gular matrix with non-zero diagonal elements. Further elementary rowoperations will
reduce M
(0)
to the identity matrix. This is equivalent to pre-multiplying equation 3.10
by M
1
(0)
, i.e. reducing it to the form
_
I, A, B
_
(3.11)
If in the process of reducing to rowechelon formthe j
th
rowin the rst block becomes
a row of all zeros then M
(0)
was singular. In this case three conditions can occur.
The j
th
row in the other two submatrices are also zero, in which case the network
has no unique solution as there are fewer constraint equations than unknowns.
The j
th
row elements in the second submatrix (A) are zero, which gives an incon-
sistent network, as the derivatives of state variables relate only to input sources,
which are supposed to be independent.
The j
th
row elements in the second submatrix (originally [A
(0)
]) are not zero
(regardless of the third submatrix). Hence the condition is [0, 0, . . . , 0] x =
[a
j1
, a
j2
, . . . , a
jn
]x + [b
j1
, b
j2
, . . . , b
jm
]u. In this case there is at least one non-
zero value a
jk
, which allows state variable x
k
to be eliminated. Rearranging the
equation associated with the k
th
row of the augmented matrix 3.10 gives:
x
k
=
1
a
jk
(a
j1
x
1
+ a
j2
x
2
+ + a
jk1
x
k1
+ a
jk+1
x
k+1
+ + a
jn
x
n
+ b
j1
u
1
+ b
j2
u
2
+ + b
jm
u
m
) (3.12)
Substituting this for x
k
in equation 3.8 and eliminating the equation associated with
x
k
yields:
[M
(1)
] x
(1)
= [A
(1)
]x
(1)
+ [B
(1)
]u + [B
(1)
] u (3.13)
This process is repeatedly applied until all variables are linearly independent and
hence the normal form of state equation is achieved.
3.3.2 The graph method
This method solves the problem in two stages. In the rst stage a tree, T, is found
with a given preference to branch type and value for inclusion in the tree. The second
stage forms the loop matrix associated with the chosen tree T.
The graph method determines the minimal and optimal state variables. This can
be achieved either by:
(i) elementary row operations on the connection matrix, or
(ii) path search through a connection table.
The rst approachconsists of rearrangingthe rows of the incidence (or connection)
matrixtocorrespondtothe preference required, as showninFigure 3.4. The dimension
of the incidence matrix is n b, where n is the number of nodes (excluding the
State variable analysis 41
1
2
3
4
5
n
V
S1
V
S2
. . .
V
S nV
s
C
1
C
2
. . .
C
nc
R
1
R
2
. . .
R
nr
L
1
L
2
. . .
L
nr
I
S1
I
S2
. . .
I
SnI
s
[K] = [K
T
] [K
L
]
Branches
Figure 3.4 K matrix partition
Branches forming tree
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
4
5
n