QM Lecture Notes 046241 PDF

Eyal Buks
Quantum Mechanics (046241) -

Lecture Notes
January 31, 2011
Technion
Preface
The dynamics of a quantum system is governed by the celebrated Schr odinger
equation
i~
d
dt
|i = H|i , (0.1)
where i =

1 and ~ = 1.05457266 10
34
J s is Plancks h-bar constant.
However, what is the meaning of the symbols |i and H? The answers will
be given in the rst part of the course (chapters 1-4), which reviews several
physical and mathematical concepts that are needed to formulate the theory
of quantum mechanics. We will learn that |i in Eq. (0.1) represents the
ket-vector state of the system and H represents the Hamiltonian operator.
The operator H is directly related to the Hamiltonian function in classical
physics, which will be dened in the rst chapter. The ket-vector state and
its physical meaning will be introduced in the second chapter. Chapter 3
reviews the position and momentum operators, whereas chapter 4 discusses
dynamics of quantum systems. The second part of the course (chapters 5-7)
is devoted to some relatively simple quantum systems including a harmonic
oscillator, spin, Hydrogen atom and more. Finally, in chapter 8 we will study
quantum systems in thermal equilibrium and in chapter 9 we will study the
time-independent perturbation theory. Most of the material in these lecture
notes is based on the textbooks [1] and [2].
Contents
1. Hamiltons Formalism of Classical Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Action and Lagrangian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Principle of Least Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Hamiltonian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Poissons Brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2. State Vectors and Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Linear Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Diracs notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Dual Correspondence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 Matrix Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6 Observables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.6.1 Hermitian Adjoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.6.2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.7 Quantum Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.8 Example - Spin 1/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.9 Unitary Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.10 Trace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.11 Commutation Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.12 Simultaneous Diagonalization of Commuting Operators . . . . . 35
2.13 Uncertainty Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.14 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.15 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3. The Position and Momentum Observables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1 The One Dimensional Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1.1 Position Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.1.2 Momentum Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2 Transformation Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3 Generalization for 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Contents
3.5 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4. Quantum Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.1 Time Evolution Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2 Time Independent Hamiltonian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3 Example - Spin 1/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.4 Connection to Classical Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.5 Symmetric Ordering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.7 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5. The Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.1 Eigenstates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2 Coherent States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.4 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6. Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.1 Angular Momentum and Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.2 General Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.3 Simultaneous Diagonalization of J
2
and J
z
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.4 Example - Spin 1/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.5 Orbital Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.7 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7. Central Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.1 Simultaneous Diagonalization of the Operators H, L
2
and L
z
170
7.2 The Radial Equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.3 Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.5 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
8. Density Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.1 Time Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.2 Quantum Statistical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.4 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
9. Time Independent Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
9.1 The Level E
n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
9.1.1 Nondegenerate Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
9.1.2 Degenerate Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Eyal Buks Quantum Mechanics - Lecture Notes 6
Contents
9.4 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
10. Exam 046241 2011 A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
10.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
10.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
1. Hamiltons Formalism of Classical Physics
In this chapter the Hamiltons formalism of classical physics is introduced,
with a special emphasis on the concepts that are needed for quantum me-
chanics.
1.1 Action and Lagrangian
Consider a classical physical system having N degrees of freedom. The clas-
sical state of the system can be described by N independent coordinates q
n
,
where n = 1, 2, , N. The vector of coordinates is denoted by
Q = (q
1
, q
2
, , q
N
) . (1.1)
Consider the case where the vector of coordinates takes the value Q
1
at time
t
1
and the value Q
2
at a later time t
2
> t
1
, namely
Q(t
1
) = Q
1
, (1.2)
Q(t
2
) = Q
2
. (1.3)
The action S associated with the evolution of the system from time t
1
to
time t
2
is dened by
S =
t2
Z
t
1
dt L , (1.4)
where L is the Lagrangian function of the system. In general, the Lagrangian
is a function of the coordinates Q, the velocities

Q and time t, namely
L = L
Q,

Q; t
, (1.5)
where
Q = ( q
1
, q
2
, , q
N
) , (1.6)
and where overdot denotes time derivative. The time evolution of Q, in turn,
depends of the trajectory taken by the system from point Q
1
at time t
1
Chapter 1. Hamiltons Formalism of Classical Physics
t
Q
t
1
t
2
Q
2
Q
1
t
Q
t
1
t
2
Q
2
Q
1
Fig. 1.1. A trajectory taken by the system from point Q1 at time t1 to point Q2
at time t2.
to point Q
2
at time t
2
(see Fig. 1.1). For a given trajectory the time
dependency is denoted as
Q(t) = Q
(t) . (1.7)
1.2 Principle of Least Action
For any given trajectory Q(t) the action can be evaluated using Eq. (1.4).
Consider a classical system evolving in time from point Q
1
at time t
1
to point
Q
2
at time t
2
along the trajectory Q
(t). The trajectory Q
(t), which is
obtained from the laws of classical physics, has the following unique property
known as the principle of least action:
Proposition 1.2.1 (principle of least action). Among all possible trajec-
tories from point Q
1
at time t
1
to point Q
2
at time t
2
the action obtains its
minimal value by the classical trajectory Q
(t).
In a weaker version of this principle, the action obtains a local minimum
for the trajectory Q
(t). As the following theorem shows, the principle of

least action leads to a set of equations of motion, known as Euler-Lagrange
equations.
Theorem 1.2.1. The classical trajectory Q
(t), for which the action obtains

its minimum value, obeys the Euler-Lagrange equations of motion, which are
given by
1.2. Principle of Least Action
d
dt
L
q
n
=
L
q
n
, (1.8)
where n = 1, 2, , N.
Proof. Consider another trajectory Q
0 (t) from point Q

1
at time t
1
to point
Q
2
at time t
2
(see Fig. 1.2). The dierence
Q = Q
0 (t) Q
(t) = (q
1
, q
2
, , q
N
) (1.9)
is assumed to be innitesimally small. To lowest order in Q the change in
the action S is given by
S =
t2
Z
t
1
dt L
=
t
2
Z
t1
dt
"
N
X
n=1
L
q
n
q
n
+
N
X
n=1
L
q
n
q
n
#
=
t2
Z
t1
dt
"
N
X
n=1
L
q
n
q
n
+
N
X
n=1
L
q
n
d
dt
q
n
#
.
(1.10)
Integrating the second term by parts leads to
S =
t
2
Z
t1
dt
N
X
n=1
L
q
n

d
dt
L
q
n
q
n
+
N
X
n=1
L
q
n
q
n
t2
t1
.
(1.11)
The last term vanishes since
Q(t
1
) = Q(t
2
) = 0 . (1.12)
The principle of least action implies that
S = 0 . (1.13)
This has to be satised for any Q, therefore the following must hold
d
dt
L
q
n
=
L
q
n
. (1.14)
t
Q
t
1
t
2
Q
2
Q
1
t
Q
t
1
t
2
Q
2
Q
1
Fig. 1.2. The classical trajectory Q (t) and the trajectory Q
0 (t).
In what follows we will assume for simplicity that the kinetic energy T of
the system can be expressed as a function of the velocities

Q only (namely,
it does not explicitly depend on the coordinates Q). The components of the
generalized force F
n
, where n = 1, 2, , N, are derived from the potential
energy U of the system as follows
F
n
=
U
q
n
+
d
dt
U
q
n
. (1.15)
When the potential energy can be expressed as a function of the coordinates
Q only (namely, when it is independent on the velocities

Q), the system is
said to be conservative. For that case, the Lagrangian can be expressed in
terms of T and U as
L = T U . (1.16)
Example 1.2.1. Consider a point particle having mass m moving in a one-
dimensional potential U (x). The Lagrangian is given by
L = T U =
m x
2
2
U (x) . (1.17)
From the Euler-Lagrange equation
d
dt
L
x
=
L
x
, (1.18)
one nds that
m x =
U
x
. (1.19)
1.3. Hamiltonian
1.3 Hamiltonian
The set of Euler-Lagrange equations contains N second order dierential
equations. In this section we derive an alternative and equivalent set of equa-
tions of motion, known as Hamilton-Jacobi equations, that contains twice the
number of equations, namely 2N, however, of rst, instead of second, order.
Denition 1.3.1. The variable canonically conjugate to q
n
is dened by
p
n
=
L
q
n
. (1.20)
Denition 1.3.2. The Hamiltonian of a physical system is a function of
the vector of coordinates Q, the vector of canonical conjugate variables P =
(p
1
, p
2
, , p
N
) and time, namely
H = H(Q, P; t) , (1.21)
is dened by
H =
N
X
n=1
p
n
q
n
L , (1.22)
where L is the Lagrangian.
Theorem 1.3.1. The classical trajectory satises the Hamilton-Jacobi equa-
tions of motion, which are given by
q
n
=
H
p
n
, (1.23)
p
n
=
H
q
n
, (1.24)
where n = 1, 2, , N.
Proof. The dierential of H is given by
dH = d
N
X
n=1
p
n
q
n
dL
=
N
X
n=1
_
_
_
_
_
_
q
n
dp
n
+p
n
d q
n
L
q
n
|{z}
d
dt
L
q
n
dq
n
L
q
n
|{z}
p
n
d q
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
L
t
dt
=
N
X
n=1
( q
n
dp
n
p
n
dq
n
)
L
t
dt .
(1.25)
Thus the following holds
q
n
=
H
p
n
, (1.26)
p
n
=
H
q
n
, (1.27)
L
t
=
H
t
. (1.28)
Corollary 1.3.1. The following holds
dH
dt
=
H
t
. (1.29)
Proof. Using Eqs. (1.23) and (1.24) one nds that
dH
dt
=
N
X
n=1
H
q
n
q
n
+
H
p
n
p
n
| {z }
=0
+
H
t
=
H
t
. (1.30)
The last corollary implies that H is time independent provided that H
does not depend on time explicitly, namely, provided that H/t = 0. This
property is referred to as the law of energy conservation. The theorem below
further emphasizes the relation between the Hamiltonian and the total energy
of the system.
Theorem 1.3.2. Assume that the kinetic energy of a conservative system is
given by
T =
X
n,m
nm
q
n
q
m
, (1.31)
where
nm
are constants. Then,the Hamiltonian of the system is given by
H = T +U , (1.32)
where T is the kinetic energy of the system and where U is the potential
energy.
Proof. For a conservative system the potential energy is independent on ve-
locities, thus
p
l
=
L
q
l
=
T
q
l
, (1.33)
where L = T U is the Lagrangian. The Hamiltonian is thus given by
1.4. Poissons Brackets
H =
N
X
l=1
p
l
q
l
L
=
X
l
T
q
l
q
l
(T U)
=
X
l,n,m
nm
_
_
_
_
_
q
m
q
n
q
l
|{z}
nl
+ q
n
q
m
q
l
|{z}
ml
_
_
_
_
_
q
l
T +U
= 2
X
n,m
nm
q
n
q
m
| {z }
T
T +U
= T +U .
(1.34)
1.4 Poissons Brackets
Consider two physical quantities F and G that can be expressed as a function
of the vector of coordinates Q, the vector of canonical conjugate variables P
and time t, namely
F = F (Q, P; t) , (1.35)
G = G(Q, P; t) , (1.36)
The Poissons brackets are dened by
{F, G} =
N
X
n=1
F
q
n
G
p
n

F
p
n
G
q
n
, (1.37)
The Poissons brackets are employed for writing an equation of motion for a
general physical quantity of interest, as the following theorem shows.
Theorem 1.4.1. Let F be a physical quantity that can be expressed as a
function of the vector of coordinates Q, the vector of canonical conjugate
variables P and time t, and let H be the Hamiltonian. Then, the following
holds
dF
dt
= {F, H} +
F
t
. (1.38)
Proof. Using Eqs. (1.23) and (1.24) one nds that the time derivative of F
is given by
dF
dt
=
N
X
n=1
F
q
n
q
n
+
F
p
n
p
n
+
F
t
=
N
X
n=1
F
q
n
H
p
n

F
p
n
H
q
n
+
F
t
= {F, H} +
F
t
.
(1.39)
Corollary 1.4.1. If F does not explicitly depend on time, namely if F/t =
0, and if {F, H} = 0, then F is a constant of the motion, namely
dF
dt
= 0 . (1.40)
1.5 Problems
1. Consider a particle having charge q and mass m in electromagnetic eld
characterized by the scalar potential and the vector potential A. The
electric eld E and the magnetic eld B are given by
E =
1
c
A
t
, (1.41)
and
B = A . (1.42)
Let r = (x, y, z) be the Cartesian coordinates of the particle.
a) Verify that the Lagrangian of the system can be chosen to be given
by
L =
1
2
m r
2
q +
q
c
A r , (1.43)
by showing that the corresponding Euler-Lagrange equations are
equivalent to Newtons 2nd law (i.e., F = mr).
b) Show that the Hamilton-Jacobi equations are equivalent to Newtons
2nd law.
c) Gauge transformation The electromagnetic eld is invariant un-
der the gauge transformation of the scalar and vector potentials
A A+ , (1.44)

1
c

t
(1.45)
where = (r, t) is an arbitrary smooth and continuous function
of r and t. What eect does this gauge transformation have on the
Lagrangian and Hamiltonian? Is the motion aected?
1.6. Solutions
Fig. 1.3. LC resonator.
2. Consider an LC resonator made of a capacitor having capacitance C in
parallel with an inductor having inductance L (see Fig. 1.3). The state
of the system is characterized by the coordinate q , which is the charge
stored by the capacitor.
a) Find the Euler-Lagrange equation of the system.
b) Find the Hamilton-Jacobi equations of the system.
c) Show that {q, p} = 1 .
3. Show that Poisson brackets satisfy the following relations
{q
j
, q
k
} = 0 , (1.46)
{p
j
, p
k
} = 0 , (1.47)
{q
j
, p
k
} =
jk
, (1.48)
{F, G} = {G, F} , (1.49)
{F, F} = 0 , (1.50)
{F, K} = 0 if K constant or F depends only on t , (1.51)
{E +F, G} = {E, G} +{F, G} , (1.52)
{E, FG} = {E, F} G+F {E, G} . (1.53)
4. Show that the Lagrange equations are coordinate invariant.
5. Consider a point particle having mass m moving in a 3D central po-
tential, namely a potential V (r) that depends only on the distance
r =
p
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
from the origin. Show that the angular momentum
L = r p is a constant of the motion.
1.6 Solutions
1. The Lagrangian of the system (in Gaussian units) is taken to be given
by
L =
1
2
m r
2
q +
q
c
A r . (1.54)
a) The Euler-Lagrange equation for the coordinate x is given by
d
dt
L
x
=
L
x
, (1.55)
where
d
dt
L
x
= m x +
q
c
A
x
t
+ x
A
x
x
+ y
A
x
y
+ z
A
x
z
, (1.56)
and
L
x
= q
x
+
q
c
x
A
x
x
+ y
A
y
x
+ z
A
z
x
, (1.57)
thus
m x = q
x

q
c
A
x
t
| {z }
qEx
+
q
c
_
_
y
A
y
x

A
x
y
| {z }
(A)
z
z
A
x
z

A
z
x
| {z }
(A)
y
| {z }
( r(A))
x
_
_
,
(1.58)
or
m x = qE
x
+
q
c
( r B)
x
. (1.59)
Similar equations are obtained for y and z in the same way. These 3
equations can be written in a vector form as
mr = q
E+
1
c
r B
. (1.60)
b) The variable vector canonically conjugate to the coordinates vector
r is given by
p =
L
r
= m r+
q
c
A . (1.61)
The Hamiltonian is thus given by
1.6. Solutions
H = p r L
= r
p
1
2
m r
q
c
A
+q
=
1
2
m r
2
+q
=
p
q
c
A
2
2m
+q .
(1.62)
The Hamilton-Jacobi equation for the coordinate x is given by
x =
H
p
x
, (1.63)
thus
x =
p
x
q
c
A
x
m
, (1.64)
or
p
x
= m x+
q
c
A
x
. (1.65)
The Hamilton-Jacobi equation for the canonically conjugate variable
p
x
is given by
p
x
=
H
x
, (1.66)
where
p
x
= m x+
q
c
x
A
x
x
+ y
A
x
y
+ z
A
x
z
+
q
c
A
x
t
, (1.67)
and
H
x
=
q
c
p
x
q
c
A
x
m
A
x
x
+
p
y
q
c
A
y
m
A
y
x
+
p
z
q
c
A
z
m
A
z
x
x
=
q
c
x
A
x
x
+ y
A
y
x
+ z
A
z
x
x
,
(1.68)
thus
m x = q
q
c
A
x
t
+
q
c
A
y
x

A
x
y
A
x
z

A
z
x
.
(1.69)
The last result is identical to Eq. (1.59).
c) Clearly, the elds E and B, which are given by Eqs. (1.41) and (1.42)
respectively, are unchanged since
()
t
= 0 , (1.70)
and
() = 0 . (1.71)
Thus, even though both L and H are modied, the motion, which
depends on E and B only, is unaected.
2. The kinetic energy in this case T = L q
2
/2 is the energy stored in the
inductor, and the potential energy U = q
2
/2C is the energy stored in the
capacitor.
a) The Lagrangian is given by
L = T U =
L q
2
2

q
2
2C
. (1.72)
The Euler-Lagrange equation for the coordinate q is given by
d
dt
L
q
=
L
q
, (1.73)
thus
L q +
q
C
= 0 . (1.74)
This equation expresses the requirement that the voltage across the
capacitor is the same as the one across the inductor.
b) The canonical conjugate momentum is given by
p =
L
q
= L q , (1.75)
and the Hamiltonian is given by
H = p q L =
p
2
2L
+
q
2
2C
. (1.76)
Hamilton-Jacobi equations read
q =
p
L
(1.77)
p =
q
C
, (1.78)
thus
L q +
q
C
= 0 . (1.79)
1.6. Solutions
c) Using the denition (1.37) one has
{q, p} =
q
q
p
p

q
p
p
q
= 1 . (1.80)
3. All these relations are easily proven using the denition (1.37).
4. Let L = L
Q,

Q; t
be a Lagrangian of a system, where Q = (q

1
, q
2
, )
is the vector of coordinates,

Q = ( q
1
, q
2
, ) is the vector of veloci-
ties, and where overdot denotes time derivative. Consider the coordinates
transformation
x
a
= x
a
(q
1
, q
2
, ..., t) , (1.81)
where a = 1, 2, . The following holds
x
a
=
x
a
q
b
q
b
+
x
a
t
, (1.82)
where the summation convention is being used, namely, repeated indices
are summed over. Moreover
L
q
a
=
L
x
b
x
b
q
a
+
L
x
b
x
b
q
a
, (1.83)
and
d
dt
L
q
a
=
d
dt
L
x
b
x
b
q
a
. (1.84)
As can be seen from Eq. (1.82), one has
x
b
q
a
=
x
b
q
a
. (1.85)
Thus, using Eqs. (1.83) and (1.84) one nds
d
dt
L
q
a
L
q
a
=
d
dt
L
x
b
x
b
q
a
L
x
b
x
b
q
a

L
x
b
x
b
q
a
=

d
dt
L
x
b
L
x
b
x
b
q
a
+
d
dt
x
b
q
a
x
b
q
a
L
x
b
.
(1.86)
As can be seen from Eq. (1.82), the second term vanishes since
x
b
q
a
=

2
x
b
q
a
q
c
q
c
+

2
x
b
tq
a
=
d
dt
x
b
q
a
,
thus
d
dt
L
q
a
L
q
a
=

d
dt
L
x
b
L
x
b
x
b
q
a
. (1.87)
The last result shows that if the coordinate transformation is reversible,
namely if det (x
b
/q
a
) 6= 0 then Lagrange equations are coordinate
invariant.
5. The angular momentum L is given by
L = r p = det
_
_
x y z
x y z
p
x
p
y
p
z
_
_
, (1.88)
where r = (x, y, z) is the position vector and where p = (p
x
, p
y
, p
z
) is the
momentum vector. The Hamiltonian is given by
H =
p
2
2m
+V (r) . (1.89)
Using
{x
i
, p
j
} =
ij
, (1.90)
L
z
= xp
y
yp
x
, (1.91)
one nds that
p
2
, L
z
=

p
2
x
, L
z
p
2
y
, L
z
p
2
z
, L
z
=

p
2
x
, xp
y
p
2
y
, yp
x
= 2p
x
p
y
+ 2p
y
p
x
= 0 ,
(1.92)
and
r
2
, L
z
=

x
2
, L
z
y
2
, L
z
z
2
, L
z
= y
x
2
, p
x
y
2
, p
y
x
= 0 .
(1.93)
Thus

f

r
2
, L
z
= 0 for arbitrary smooth function f

r
2
, and con-
sequently {H, L
z
} = 0. In a similar way one can show that {H, L
x
} =
{H, L
y
} = 0, and therefore

H, L
2
= 0.
2. State Vectors and Operators
In quantum mechanics the state of a physical system is described by a state
vector |i, which is a vector in a vector space F, namely
|i F . (2.1)
Here, we have employed the Diracs ket-vector notation |i for the state vec-
tor, which contains all information about the state of the physical system
under study. The dimensionality of F is nite in some specic cases (no-
tably, spin systems), however, it can also be innite in many other cases
of interest. The basic mathematical theory dealing with vector spaces hav-
ing innite dimensionality was mainly developed by David Hilbert. Under
some conditions, vector spaces having innite dimensionality have properties
similar to those of their nite dimensionality counterparts. A mathematically
rigorous treatment of such vector spaces having innite dimensionality, which
are commonly called Hilbert spaces, can be found in textbooks that are de-
voted to this subject. In this chapter, however, we will only review the main
properties that are useful for quantum mechanics. In some cases, when the
generalization from the case of nite dimensionality to the case of arbitrary
dimensionality is nontrivial, results will be presented without providing a
rigorous proof and even without accurately specifying what are the validity
conditions for these results.
2.1 Linear Vector Space
A linear vector space F is a set {|i} of mathematical objects called vectors.
The space is assumed to be closed under vector addition and scalar multipli-
cation. Both, operations (i.e., vector addition and scalar multiplication) are
commutative. That is:
1. |i +|i = |i +|i F for every |i F and |i F
2. c |i = |i c F for every |i F and c C
where C is the set of complex numbers. A vector space with an inner
product is called an inner product space. An inner product of the ordered
Chapter 2. State Vectors and Operators
pair |i , |i F is denoted as h |i. The inner product is a function F
2
C
that satises the following properties:
h |i C , (2.2)
h |i = h |i
, (2.3)
h (c
1
|
1
i +c
2
|
2
i) = c
1
h |
1
i +c
2
h |
2
i , where c
1
, c
2
C , (2.4)
h |i R and h |i 0. Equality holds i |i = 0 .
(2.5)
Note that the asterisk in Eq. (2.3) denotes complex conjugate. Below we list
some important denitions and comments regarding inner product:
The real number
p
h |i is called the norm of the vector |i F.
A normalized vector has a unity norm, namely h |i = 1.
Every nonzero vector 0 6= |i F can be normalized using the transfor-
mation
|i
|i
p
h |i
. (2.6)
The vectors |i F and |i F are said to be orthogonal if h |i = 0.
A set of vectors {|
n
i}
n
, where |
n
i F is called a complete orthonormal
basis if
The vectors are all normalized and orthogonal to each other, namely
h
m
|
n
i =
nm
. (2.7)
Every |i F can be written as a superposition of the basis vectors,
namely
|i =
X
n
c
n
|
n
i , (2.8)
where c
n
C.
By evaluating the inner product h
m
|i, where |i is given by Eq. (2.8)
one nds with the help of Eq. (2.7) and property (2.4) of inner products
that
h
m
|i = h
m
X
n
c
n
|
n
i
!
=
X
n
c
n
h
m
|
n
i
| {z }
=nm
= c
m
. (2.9)
The last result allows rewriting Eq. (2.8) as
|i =
X
n
c
n
|
n
i =
X
n
|
n
i c
n
=
X
n
|
n
i h
n
|i . (2.10)
2.3. Diracs notation
2.2 Operators
Operators, as the denition below states, are function from F to F:
Denition 2.2.1. An operator A : F F on a vector space maps vectors
onto vectors, namely A|i F for every |i F.
Some important denitions and comments are listed below:
The operators X : F F and Y : F F are said to be equal, namely
X = Y , if for every |i F the following holds
X|i = Y |i . (2.11)
Operators can be added, and the addition is both, commutative and asso-
ciative, namely
X +Y = Y +X , (2.12)
X + (Y +Z) = (X +Y ) +Z . (2.13)
An operator A : F F is said to be linear if
A(c
1
|
1
i +c
2
|
2
i) = c
1
A|
1
i +c
2
A|
2
i (2.14)
for every |
1
i , |
2
i F and c
1
, c
2
C.
The operators X : F F and Y : F F can be multiplied, where
XY |i = X(Y |i) (2.15)
for any |i F.
Operator multiplication is associative
X(Y Z) = (XY ) Z = XY Z . (2.16)
However, in general operator multiplication needs not be commutative
XY 6= Y X . (2.17)
2.3 Diracs notation
In Diracs notation the inner product is considered as a multiplication of two
mathematical objects called bra and ket
h |i = h|
|{z}
bra
|i
|{z}
ket
. (2.18)
While the ket-vector |i is a vector in F, the bra-vector h| represents a
functional that maps any ket-vector |i F to the complex number h |i.
While the multiplication of a bra-vector on the left and a ket-vector on the
right represents inner product, the outer product is obtained by reversing the
order
A
= |i h| . (2.19)
The outer product A
is clearly an operator since for any |i F the object

A
|i is a ket-vector
A
|i = (|i h|) |i = |i h |i
| {z }
C
F . (2.20)
Moreover, according to property (2.4), A
is linear since for every |

1
i , |
2
i
F and c
1
, c
2
C the following holds
A
(c
1
|
1
i +c
2
|
2
i) = |i h| (c
1
|
1
i +c
2
|
2
i)
= |i (c
1
h |
1
i +c
2
h |
2
i)
= c
1
A
|
1
i +c
2
A
|
2
i .
(2.21)
With Diracs notation Eq. (2.10) can be rewritten as
|i =
X
n
|
n
i h
n
|
!
|i . (2.22)
Since the above identity holds for any |i F one concludes that the quantity
in brackets is the identity operator, which is denoted as 1, namely
1 =
X
n
|
n
i h
n
| . (2.23)
This result, which is called the closure relation, implies that any complete
orthonormal basis can be used to express the identity operator.
2.4 Dual Correspondence
As we have mentioned above, the bra-vector h| represents a functional map-
ping any ket-vector |i F to the complex number h |i. Moreover, since
the inner product is linear [see property (2.4) above], such a mapping is linear,
namely for every |
1
i , |
2
i F and c
1
, c
2
C the following holds
h| (c
1
|
1
i +c
2
|
2
i) = c
1
h |
1
i +c
2
h |
2
i . (2.24)
The set of linear functionals from F to C, namely, the set of functionals F : F
C that satisfy
2.4. Dual Correspondence
F (c
1
|
1
i +c
2
|
2
i) = c
1
F (|
1
i) +c
2
F (|
2
i) (2.25)
for every |
1
i , |
2
i F and c
1
, c
2
C, is called the dual space F
. As
the name suggests, there is a dual correspondence (DC) between F and F
,
namely a one to one mapping between these two sets, which are both linear
vector spaces. The duality relation is presented using the notation
h| |i , (2.26)
where |i F and h| F
. What is the dual of the ket-vector |i =

c
1
|
1
i +c
2
|
2
i, where |
1
i , |
2
i F and c
1
, c
2
C? To answer this question
we employ the above mentioned general properties (2.3) and (2.4) of inner
products and consider the quantity h |i for an arbitrary ket-vector |i F
h |i = h |i
= (c
1
h |
1
i +c
2
h |
2
i)
= c
1
h
1
|i +c
2
h
2
|i
= (c
1
h
1
| +c
2
h
2
|) |i .
(2.27)
From this result we conclude that the duality relation takes the form
c
1
h
1
| +c
2
h
2
| c
1
|
1
i +c
2
|
2
i . (2.28)
The last relation describes how to map any given ket-vector |i F
to its dual F = h| : F C, where F F
is a linear functional that

maps any ket-vector |i F to the complex number h |i. What is the
inverse mapping? The answer can take a relatively simple form provided that
a complete orthonormal basis exists, and consequently the identity operator
can be expressed as in Eq. (2.23). In that case the dual of a given linear
functional F : F C is the ket-vector |F
D
i F, which is given by
|F
D
i =
X
n
(F (|
n
i))
|
n
i . (2.29)
The duality is demonstrated by proving the two claims below:
Claim. |
DD
i = |i for any |i F, where |
DD
i is the dual of the dual of
|i.
Proof. The dual of |i is the bra-vector h|, whereas the dual of h| is found
using Eqs. (2.29) and (2.23), thus
|
DD
i =
X
n
h |
n
i
| {z }
=h
n
|i
|
n
i
=
X
n
|
n
i h
n
|i
=
X
n
|
n
i h
n
|
| {z }
=1
|i
= |i .
(2.30)
Claim. F
DD
= F for any F F
, where F
DD
is the dual of the dual of F.
Proof. The dual |F
D
i F of the functional F F
is given by Eq. (2.29).

Thus with the help of the duality relation (2.28) one nds that dual F
DD
F
of |F
D
i is given by
F
DD
=
X
n
F (|
n
i) h
n
| . (2.31)
Consider an arbitrary ket-vector |i F that is written as a superposition
of the complete orthonormal basis vectors, namely
|i =
X
m
c
m
|
m
i . (2.32)
Using the above expression for F
DD
and the linearity property one nds that
F
DD
|i =
X
n,m
c
m
F (|
n
i) h
n
|
m
i
| {z }
mn
=
X
n
c
n
F (|
n
i)
= F
X
n
c
n
|
n
i
!
= F |i ,
(2.33)
therefore, F
DD
= F.
2.5 Matrix Representation
Given a complete orthonormal basis, ket-vectors, bra-vectors and linear op-
erators can be represented using matrices. Such representations are easily
obtained using the closure relation (2.23).
2.5. Matrix Representation
The inner product between the bra-vector h| and the ket-vector |i can
be written as
h |i = h| 1 |i
=
X
n
h |
n
i h
n
| i
=

h |
1
i h |
2
i
_
_
_
h
1
|i
h
2
|i
.
.
.
_
_
_ .
(2.34)
Thus, the inner product can be viewed as a product between the row vector
h| =
h |
1
i h |
2
i
, (2.35)
which is the matrix representation of the bra-vector h|, and the column
vector
|i =
_
_
_
h
1
|i
h
2
|i
.
.
.
_
_
_ , (2.36)
which is the matrix representation of the ket-vector |i. Obviously, both
representations are basis dependent.
Multiplying the relation |i = X|i from the right by the basis bra-vector
h
m
| and employing again the closure relation (2.23) yields
h
m
|i = h
m
| X|i = h
m
| X1 |i =
X
n
h
m
| X|
n
i h
n
|i , (2.37)
or in matrix form
_
_
_
h
1
|i
h
2
|i
.
.
.
_
_
_ =
_
_
_
h
1
| X|
1
i h
1
| X|
2
i
h
2
| X|
1
i h
2
| X|
2
i
.
.
.
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
h
1
|i
h
2
|i
.
.
.
_
_
_ . (2.38)
In view of this expression, the matrix representation of the linear operator
X is given by
X =
_
_
_
h
1
| X|
1
i h
1
| X|
2
i
h
2
| X|
1
i h
2
| X|
2
i
.
.
.
.
.
.
_
_
_ . (2.39)
Alternatively, the last result can be written as
X
nm
= h
n
| X|
m
i , (2.40)
where X
nm
is the element in row n and column m of the matrix represen-
tation of the operator X.
Such matrix representation of linear operators can be useful also for mul-
tiplying linear operators. The matrix elements of the product Z = XY are
given by
h
m
| Z |
n
i = h
m
| XY |
n
i = h
m
| X1Y |
n
i =
X
l
h
m
| X|
l
i h
l
| Y |
n
i .
(2.41)
Similarly, the matrix representation of the outer product |i h| is given
by
|i h| =
_
_
_
h
1
|i
h
2
|i
.
.
.
_
_
_
h |
1
i h |
2
i
=
_
_
_
h
1
|i h |
1
i h
1
|i h |
2
i
h
2
|i h |
1
i h
2
|i h |
2
i
.
.
.
.
.
.
_
_
_ .
(2.42)
2.6 Observables
Measurable physical variables are represented in quantum mechanics by Her-
mitian operators.
2.6.1 Hermitian Adjoint
Denition 2.6.1. The Hermitian adjoint of an operator X is denoted as X
and is dened by the following duality relation

h| X
X|i . (2.43)
Namely, for any ket-vector |i F, the dual to the ket-vector X|i is the
bra-vector h| X
.
Denition 2.6.2. An operator is said to be Hermitian if X = X
.
Below we prove some simple relations:
Claim. h| X|i = h| X
|i
Proof. Using the general property (2.3) of inner products one has
h| X|i = h| (X|i) =

h| X
|i
= h| X
|i
. (2.44)
Note that this result implies that if X = X
then h| X|i = h| X|i
.
2.6. Observables
Claim.

X
= X
Proof. For any |i , |i F the following holds
h| X|i =

h| X|i
= h| X
|i
= h|
|i , (2.45)
thus

X
= X.
Claim. (XY )
= Y
Proof. Applying XY on an arbitrary ket-vector |i F and employing the

duality correspondence yield
XY |i = X(Y |i)
h| Y
= h| Y
, (2.46)
thus
(XY )
= Y
. (2.47)
Claim. If X = |i h| then X
= |i h|
Proof. By applying X on an arbitrary ket-vector |i F and employing the
duality correspondence one nds that
X|i = (|i h|) |i = |i (h |i) (h |i)
h| = h |i h| = h| X
,
(2.48)
where X
= |i h|.
2.6.2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Each operator is characterized by its set of eigenvalues, which is dened
below:
Denition 2.6.3. A number a
n
C is said to be an eigenvalue of an op-
erator A : F F if for some nonzero ket-vector |a
n
i F the following
holds
A|a
n
i = a
n
|a
n
i . (2.49)
The ket-vector |a
n
i is then said to be an eigenvector of the operator A with
an eigenvalue a
n
.
The set of eigenvectors associated with a given eigenvalue of an operator
A is called eigensubspace and is denoted as
F
n
= {|a
n
i F such that A|a
n
i = a
n
|a
n
i} . (2.50)
Clearly, F
n
is closed under vector addition and scalar multiplication, namely
c
1
|
1
i +c
2
|
2
i F
n
for every |
1
i, |
2
i F
n
and for every c
1
, c
2
C. Thus,
the set F
n
is a subspace of F. The dimensionality of F
n
(i.e., the minimum
number of vectors that are needed to span F
n
) is called the level of degeneracy
g
n
of the eigenvalue a
n
, namely
g
n
= dimF
n
. (2.51)
As the theorem below shows, the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a Her-
mitian operator have some unique properties.
Theorem 2.6.1. The eigenvalues of a Hermitian operator A are real. The
eigenvectors of A corresponding to dierent eigenvalues are orthogonal.
Proof. Let a
1
and a
2
be two eigenvalues of A with corresponding eigen vectors
|a
1
i and |a
2
i
A|a
1
i = a
1
|a
1
i , (2.52)
A|a
2
i = a
2
|a
2
i . (2.53)
Multiplying Eq. (2.52) from the left by the bra-vector ha
2
|, and multiplying
the dual of Eq. (2.53), which since A = A
is given by
ha
2
| A = a
2
ha
2
| , (2.54)
from the right by the ket-vector |a
1
i yield
ha
2
| A|a
1
i = a
1
ha
2
|a
1
i , (2.55)
ha
2
| A|a
1
i = a
2
ha
2
|a
1
i . (2.56)
Thus, we have found that
(a
1
a
2
) ha
2
|a
1
i = 0 . (2.57)
The rst part of the theorem is proven by employing the last result (2.57) for
the case where |a
1
i = |a
2
i. Since |a
1
i is assumed to be a nonzero ket-vector
one concludes that a
1
= a
1
, namely a
1
is real. Since this is true for any
eigenvalue of A, one can rewrite Eq. (2.57) as
(a
1
a
2
) ha
2
|a
1
i = 0 . (2.58)
The second part of the theorem is proven by considering the case where
a
1
6= a
2
, for which the above result (2.58) can hold only if ha
2
|a
1
i = 0.
Namely eigenvectors corresponding to dierent eigenvalues are orthogonal.
Consider a Hermitian operator A having a set of eigenvalues {a
n
}
n
. Let
g
n
be the degree of degeneracy of eigenvalue a
n
, namely g
n
is the dimension
of the corresponding eigensubspace, which is denoted by F
n
. For simplic-
ity, assume that g
n
is nite for every n. Let {|a
n,1
i , |a
n,2
i , , |a
n,g
n
i} be
2.6. Observables
an orthonormal basis of the eigensubspace F
n
, namely ha
n,i
0 |a
n,i
i =
ii
0 .
Constructing such an orthonormal basis for F
n
can be done by the so-called
Gram-Schmidt process. Moreover, since eigenvectors of A corresponding to
dierent eigenvalues are orthogonal, the following holds
ha
n
0
,i
0 |a
n,i
i =
nn
0
ii
0 , (2.59)
In addition, all the ket-vectors |a
n,i
i are eigenvectors of A
A|a
n,i
i = a
n
|a
n,i
i . (2.60)
Projectors. Projector operators are useful for expressing the properties of
an observable.
Denition 2.6.4. An Hermitian operator P is called a projector if P
2
= P.
Claim. The only possible eigenvalues of a projector are 0 and 1.
Proof. Assume that |pi is an eigenvector of P with an eigenvalue p, namely
P |pi = p |pi. Applying the operator P on both sides and using the fact that
P
2
= P yield P |pi = p
2
|pi, thus p (1 p) |pi = 0, therefore since |pi is
assumed to be nonzero, either p = 0 or p = 1.
A projector is said to project any given vector onto the eigensubspace
corresponding to the eigenvalue p = 1.
Let {|a
n,1
i , |a
n,2
i , , |a
n,gn
i} be an orthonormal basis of an eigensub-
space F
n
corresponding to an eigenvalue of an observable A. Such an or-
thonormal basis can be used to construct a projection P
n
onto F
n
, which is
given by
P
n
=
gn
X
i=1
|a
n,i
i ha
n,i
| . (2.61)
Clearly, P
n
is a projector since P
n
= P
n
and since
P
2
n
=
gn
X
i,i
0
=1
|a
n,i
i ha
n,i
|a
n,i
0 i
| {z }
ii
0
ha
n,i
0 | =
gn
X
i=1
|a
n,i
i ha
n,i
| = P
n
. (2.62)
Moreover, it is easy to show using the orthonormality relation (2.59) that the
following holds
P
n
P
m
= P
m
P
n
= P
n
nm
. (2.63)
For linear vector spaces of nite dimensionality, it can be shown that the
set {|a
n,i
i}
n,i
forms a complete orthonormal basis of eigenvectors of a given
Hermitian operator A. The generalization of this result for the case of ar-
bitrary dimensionality is nontrivial, since generally such a set needs not be
complete. On the other hand, it can be shown that if a given Hermitian oper-
ator A satises some conditions (e.g., A needs to be completely continuous)
then completeness is guarantied. For all Hermitian operators of interest for
this course we will assume that all such conditions are satised. That is, for
any such Hermitian operator A there exists a set of ket vectors {|a
n,i
i}, such
that:
1. The set is orthonormal, namely
ha
n
0
,i
0 |a
n,i
i =
nn
0
ii
0 , (2.64)
2. The ket-vectors |a
n,i
i are eigenvectors, namely
A|a
n,i
i = a
n
|a
n,i
i , (2.65)
where a
n
R.
3. The set is complete, namely closure relation [see also Eq. (2.23)] is satis-
ed
1 =
X
n
gn
X
i=1
|a
n,i
i ha
n,i
| =
X
n
P
n
, (2.66)
where
P
n
=
gn
X
i=1
|a
n,i
i ha
n,i
| (2.67)
is the projector onto eigen subspace F
n
with the corresponding eigenvalue
a
n
.
The closure relation (2.66) can be used to express the operator A in terms
of the projectors P
n
A = A1 =
X
n
gn
X
i=1
A|a
n,i
i ha
n,i
| =
X
n
a
n
gn
X
i=1
|a
n,i
i ha
n,i
| , (2.68)
that is
A =
X
n
a
n
P
n
. (2.69)
The last result is very useful when dealing with a function f (A) of the
operator A. The meaning of a function of an operator can be understood in
terms of the Taylor expansion of the function
f (x) =
X
m
f
m
x
m
, (2.70)
2.6. Observables
where
f
m
=
1
m!
d
m
f
dx
m
. (2.71)
With the help of Eqs. (2.63) and (2.69) one nds that
f (A) =
X
m
f
m
A
m
=
X
m
f
m
X
n
a
n
P
n
!
m
=
X
m
f
m
X
n
a
m
n
P
n
=
X
n
X
m
f
m
a
m
n
| {z }
f(an)
P
n
,
(2.72)
thus
f (A) =
X
n
f (a
n
) P
n
. (2.73)
Exercise 2.6.1. Express the projector P
n
in terms of the operator A and
its set of eigenvalues.
Solution 2.6.1. We seek a function f such that f (A) = P
n
. Multiplying
from the right by a basis ket-vector |a
m,i
i yields
f (A) |a
m,i
i =
mn
|a
m,i
i . (2.74)
On the other hand
f (A) |a
m,i
i = f (a
m
) |a
m,i
i . (2.75)
Thus we seek a function that satisfy
f (a
m
) =
mn
. (2.76)
The polynomial function
f (a) = K
Y
m6=n
(a a
m
) , (2.77)
where K is a constant, satises the requirement that f (a
m
) = 0 for every
m 6= n. The constant K is chosen such that f (a
n
) = 1, that is
f (a) =
Y
m6=n
a a
m
a
n
a
m
, (2.78)
Thus, the desired expression is given by
P
n
=
Y
m6=n
Aa
m
a
n
a
m
. (2.79)
2.7 Quantum Measurement
Consider a measurement of a physical variable denoted as A
(c)
performed on
a quantum system. The standard textbook description of such a process is
described below. The physical variable A
(c)
is represented in quantum me-
chanics by an observable, namely by a Hermitian operator, which is denoted
as A. The correspondence between the variable A
(c)
and the operator A will
be discussed below in chapter 4. As we have seen above, it is possible to con-
struct a complete orthonormal basis made of eigenvectors of the Hermitian
operator A having the properties given by Eqs. (2.64), (2.65) and (2.66). In
that basis, the vector state |i of the system can be expressed as
|i = 1 |i =
X
n
gn
X
i=1
ha
n,i
|i |a
n,i
i . (2.80)
Even when the state vector |i is given, quantum mechanics does not gener-
ally provide a deterministic answer to the question: what will be the outcome
of the measurement. Instead it predicts that:
1. The possible results of the measurement are the eigenvalues {a
n
} of the
operator A.
2. The probability p
n
to measure the eigen value a
n
is given by
p
n
= h| P
n
|i =
gn
X
i=1
|ha
n,i
|i|
2
. (2.81)
Note that the state vector |i is assumed to be normalized.
3. After a measurement of A with an outcome a
n
the state vector collapses
onto the corresponding eigensubspace and becomes
|i
P
n
|i
p
h| P
n
|i
. (2.82)
It is easy to show that the probability to measure something is unity
provided that |i is normalized:
X
n
p
n
=
X
n
h| P
n
|i = h|
X
n
P
n
!
|i = 1 . (2.83)
2.8. Example - Spin 1/2
We also note that a direct consequence of the collapse postulate is that two
subsequent measurements of the same observable performed one immediately
after the other will yield the same result. It is also important to note that the
above standard textbook description of the measurement process is highly
controversial, especially, the collapse postulate. However, a thorough discus-
sion of this issue is beyond the scope of this course.
Quantum mechanics cannot generally predict the outcome of a specic
measurement of an observable A, however it can predict the average, namely
the expectation value, which is denoted as hAi. The expectation value is easily
calculated with the help of Eq. (2.69)
hAi =
X
n
a
n
p
n
=
X
n
a
n
h| P
n
|i = h| A|i . (2.84)
2.8 Example - Spin 1/2
Spin is an internal degree of freedom of elementary particles. Electrons, for
example, have spin 1/2. This means, as we will see in chapter 6, that the
state of a spin 1/2 can be described by a state vector |i in a vector space of
dimensionality 2. In other words, spin 1/2 is said to be a two-level system.
The spin was rst discovered in 1921 by Stern and Gerlach in an experiment
in which the magnetic moment of neutral silver atoms was measured. Silver
atoms have 47 electrons, 46 out of which ll closed shells. It can be shown
that only the electron in the outer shell contributes to the total magnetic
moment of the atom. The force F acting on a magnetic moment moving in
a magnetic eld B is given by F = ( B). Thus by applying a nonuniform
magnetic eld B and by monitoring the atoms trajectories one can measure
the magnetic moment.
It is important to keep in mind that generally in addition to the spin
contribution to the magnetic moment of an electron, also the orbital motion
of the electron can contribute. For both cases, the magnetic moment is related
to angular momentum by the gyromagnetic ratio. However this ratio takes
dierent values for these two cases. The orbital gyromagnetic ratio can be
evaluated by considering a simple example of an electron of charge e moving
in a circular orbit or radius r with velocity v. The magnetic moment is given
by
orbital
=
AI
c
, (2.85)
where A = r
2
is the area enclosed by the circular orbit and I = ev/ (2r)
is the electrical current carried by the electron, thus
orbital
=
erv
2c
. (2.86)
This result can be also written as
orbital
=

B
~
L , (2.87)
where L = m
e
vr is the orbital angular momentum, and where
B
=
e~
2m
e
c
(2.88)
is the Bohrs magneton constant. The proportionality factor
B
/~ is the
orbital gyromagnetic ratio. In vector form and for a more general case of
orbital motion (not necessarily circular) the orbital gyromagnetic relation is
given by
orbital
=

B
~
L . (2.89)
On the other hand, as was rst shown by Dirac, the gyromagnetic ratio
for the case of spin angular momentum takes twice this value
spin
=
2
B
~
S . (2.90)
Note that we follow here the convention of using the letter L for orbital
angular momentum and the letter S for spin angular momentum.
The Stern-Gerlach apparatus allows measuring any component of the
magnetic moment vector. Alternatively, in view of relation (2.90), it can be
said that any component of the spin angular momentum S can be measured.
The experiment shows that the only two possible results of such a measure-
ment are +~/2 and ~/2. As we have seen above, one can construct a com-
plete orthonormal basis to the vector space made of eigenvectors of any given
observable. Choosing the observable S
z
= S z for this purpose we construct
a basis made of two vectors {|+; zi , |; zi}. Both vectors are eigenvectors of
S
z
S
z
|+; zi =
~
2
|+; zi , (2.91)
S
z
|; zi =
~
2
|; zi . (2.92)
In what follow we will use the more compact notation
|+i = |+; zi , (2.93)
|i = |; zi . (2.94)
The orthonormality property implied that
h+ |+i = h |i = 1 , (2.95)
h |+i = 0 . (2.96)
The closure relation in the present case is expressed as
|+i h+| +|i h| = 1 . (2.97)
In this basis any ket-vector |i can be written as
|i = |+i h+ |i +|i h |i . (2.98)
The closure relation (2.97) and Eqs. (2.91) and (2.92) yield
S
z
=
~
2
(|+i h+| |i h|) (2.99)
It is useful to dene also the operators S
+
and S
S
+
= ~ |+i h| , (2.100)
S
= ~ |i h+| . (2.101)
In chapter 6 we will see that the x and y components of S are given by
S
x
=
~
2
(|+i h| +|i h+|) , (2.102)
S
y
=
~
2
(i |+i h| +i |i h+|) . (2.103)
All these ket-vectors and operators have matrix representation, which for the
basis {|+; zi , |; zi} is given by
|+i =

1
0
, (2.104)
|i =

0
1
, (2.105)
S
x
=
~
2
0 1
1 0
, (2.106)
S
y
=
~
2
0 i
i 0
, (2.107)
S
z
=
~
2
1 0
0 1
, (2.108)
S
+
= ~
0 1
0 0
, (2.109)
S
= ~
0 0
1 0
. (2.110)
Exercise 2.8.1. Given that the state vector of a spin 1/2 is |+; zi calculate
(a) the expectation values hS
x
i and hS
z
i (b) the probability to obtain a value
of +~/2 in a measurement of S
x
.
Solution 2.8.1. (a) Using the matrix representation one has
hS
x
i = h+| S
x
|+i =
~
2
1 0
0 1
1 0
1
0
= 0 , (2.111)
hS
z
i = h+| S
z
|+i =
~
2
1 0
1 0
0 1
1
0
=
~
2
. (2.112)
(b) First, the eigenvectors of the operator S
x
are found by solving the equa-
tion S
x
|i = |i, which is done by diagonalization of the matrix represen-
tation of S
x
. The relation S
x
|i = |i for the two eigenvectors is written
in a matrix form as
~
2
0 1
1 0
2
1
2
!
=
~
2
2
1
2
!
, (2.113)
~
2
0 1
1 0
2
!
=
~
2
2
!
. (2.114)
That is, in ket notation
S
x
|; xi =
~
2
|; xi , (2.115)
where the eigenvectors of S
x
are given by
|; xi =
1
2
(|+i |i) . (2.116)
Using this result the probability p
+
is easily calculated
p
+
= |h+ |+; xi|
2
=
h+|
1
2
(|+i +|i)
2
=
1
2
. (2.117)
2.9 Unitary Operators
Unitary operators are useful for transforming from one orthonormal basis to
another.
Denition 2.9.1. An operator U is said to be unitary if U
= U
1
, namely
if UU
= U
U = 1.
Consider two observables A and B, and two corresponding complete and
orthonormal bases of eigenvectors
A|a
n
i = a
n
|a
n
i , ha
m
|a
n
i =
nm
,
X
n
|a
n
i ha
n
| = 1 , (2.118)
B|b
n
i = b
n
|b
n
i , hb
m
|b
n
i =
nm
,
X
n
|b
n
i hb
n
| = 1 . (2.119)
The operator U, which is given by
2.10. Trace
U =
X
n
|b
n
i ha
n
| , (2.120)
transforms each of the basis vector |a
n
i to the corresponding basis vector |b
n
i
U |a
n
i = |b
n
i . (2.121)
It is easy to show that the operator U is unitary
U
U =
X
n,m
|a
n
i hb
n
|b
m
i
| {z }
nm
ha
m
| =
X
n
|a
n
i ha
n
| = 1 . (2.122)
The matrix elements of U in the basis {|a
n
i} are given by
ha
n
| U |a
m
i = ha
n
|b
m
i , (2.123)
and those of U
by
ha
n
| U
|a
m
i = hb
n
|a
m
i .
Consider a ket vector
|i =
X
n
|a
n
i ha
n
|i , (2.124)
which can be represented as a column vector in the basis {|a
n
i}. The nth
element of such a column vector is ha
n
|i. The operator U can be employed
for nding the corresponding column vector representation of the same ket-
vector |i in the other basis {|b
n
i}
hb
n
|i =
X
m
hb
n
|a
m
i ha
m
|i =
X
m
ha
n
| U
|a
m
i ha
m
|i . (2.125)
Similarly, Given an operator X the relation between the matrix elements
ha
n
| X|a
m
i in the basis {|a
n
i} to the matrix elements hb
n
| X|b
m
i in the
basis {|b
n
i} is given by
hb
n
| X|b
m
i =
X
k,l
hb
n
|a
k
i ha
k
| X|a
l
i ha
l
|b
m
i
=
X
k,l
ha
n
| U
|a
k
i ha
k
| X|a
l
i ha
l
| U |a
m
i .
(2.126)
2.10 Trace
Given an operator X and an orthonormal and complete basis {|a
n
i}, the
trace of X is given by
Tr (X) =
X
n
ha
n
| X|a
n
i . (2.127)
It is easy to show that Tr (X) is independent on basis, as is shown below:
Tr (X) =
X
n
ha
n
| X|a
n
i
=
X
n,k,l
ha
n
|b
k
i hb
k
| X|b
l
i hb
l
|a
n
i
=
X
n,k,l
hb
l
|a
n
i ha
n
|b
k
i hb
k
| X|b
l
i
=
X
k,l
hb
l
|b
k
i
| {z }
kl
hb
k
| X|b
l
i
=
X
k
hb
k
| X|b
k
i .
(2.128)
The proof of the following two relations
Tr (XY ) = Tr (Y X) , (2.129)
Tr
XU
= Tr (X) , (2.130)
is left as an exercise.
2.11 Commutation Relation
The commutation relation of the operators A and B is dened as
[A, B] = AB BA . (2.131)
As an example, the components S
x
, S
y
and S
z
of the spin angular momentum
operator, satisfy the following commutation relations
[S
i
, S
j
] = i~
ijk
S
k
, (2.132)
where
ijk
=
_
_
_
0 i, j, k are not all dierent
1 i, j, k is an even permutation of x, y, z
1 i, j, k is an odd permutation of x, y, z
(2.133)
is the Levi-Civita symbol. Equation (2.132) employs the Einsteins conven-
tion, according to which if an index symbol appears twice in an expression,
it is to be summed over all its allowed values. Namely, the repeated index k
should be summed over the values x, y and z:
2.12. Simultaneous Diagonalization of Commuting Operators
ijk
S
k
=
ijx
S
x
+
ijy
S
y
+
ijz
S
z
. (2.134)
Moreover, the following relations hold
S
2
x
= S
2
y
= S
2
z
=
1
4
~
2
, (2.135)
S
2
= S
2
x
+S
2
y
+S
2
z
=
3
4
~
2
. (2.136)
The relations below, which are easy to prove using the above denition,
are very useful for evaluating commutation relations
[F, G] = [G, F] , (2.137)
[F, F] = 0 , (2.138)
[E +F, G] = [E, G] + [F, G] , (2.139)
[E, FG] = [E, F] G+F [E, G] . (2.140)
2.12 Simultaneous Diagonalization of Commuting
Operators
Consider an observable A having a set of eigenvalues {a
n
}. Let g
n
be the
degree of degeneracy of eigenvalue a
n
, namely g
n
is the dimension of the
corresponding eigensubspace, which is denoted by F
n
. Thus the following
holds
A|a
n,i
i = a
n
|a
n,i
i , (2.141)
where i = 1, 2, , g
n
, and
ha
n
0
,i
0 |a
n,i
i =
nn
0
ii
0 . (2.142)
The set of vectors {|a
n,1
i , |a
n,2
i , , |a
n,gn
i} forms an orthonormal basis for
the eigensubspace F
n
. The closure relation can be written as
1 =
X
n
g
n
X
i=1
|a
n,i
i ha
n,i
| =
X
n
P
n
, (2.143)
where
P
n
=
gn
X
i=1
|a
n,i
i ha
n,i
| . (2.144)
Now consider another observable B, which is assumed to commute with
A, namely [A, B] = 0.
Claim. The operator B has a block diagonal matrix in the basis {|a
n,i
i},
namely ha
m,j
| B|a
n,i
i = 0 for n 6= m.
Proof. Multiplying Eq. (2.141) from the left by ha
m,j
| B yields
ha
m,j
| BA|a
n,i
i = a
n
ha
m,j
| B|a
n,i
i . (2.145)
On the other hand, since [A, B] = 0 one has
ha
m,j
| BA|a
n,i
i = ha
m,j
| AB|a
n,i
i = a
m
ha
m,j
| B|a
n,i
i , (2.146)
thus
(a
n
a
m
) ha
m,j
| B|a
n,i
i = 0 . (2.147)
For a given n, the g
n
g
n
matrix ha
n,i
0 | B|a
n,i
i is Hermitian, namely
ha
n,i
0 | B|a
n,i
i = ha
n,i
| B|a
n,i
0 i
. Thus, there exists a unitary transformation

U
n
, which maps F
n
onto F
n
, and which diagonalizes the block of B in the
subspace F
n
. Since F
n
is an eigensubspace of A, the block matrix of A in the
new basis remains diagonal (with the eigenvalue a
n
). Thus, we conclude that
a complete and orthonormal basis of common eigenvectors of both operators
A and B exists. For such a basis, which is denoted as {|n, mi}, the following
holds
A|n, mi = a
n
|n, mi , (2.148)
B|n, mi = b
m
|n, mi . (2.149)
2.13 Uncertainty Principle
Consider a quantum system in a state |n, mi, which is a common eigenvector
of the commuting observables A and B. The outcome of a measurement of
the observable A is expected to be a
n
with unity probability, and similarly,
the outcome of a measurement of the observable B is expected to be b
m
with unity probability. In this case it is said that there is no uncertainty
corresponding to both of these measurements.
Denition 2.13.1. The variance in a measurement of a given observable A
of a quantum system in a state |i is given by
D
(A)
2
E
, where A = AhAi,
namely
D
(A)
2
E
=
D
A
2
2AhAi +hAi
2
E
=
A
2
hAi
2
, (2.150)
where
hAi = h| A|i , (2.151)
A
2
= h| A
2
|i . (2.152)
2.13. Uncertainty Principle
Example 2.13.1. Consider a spin 1/2 system in a state |i = |+; zi. Using
Eqs. (2.99), (2.102) and (2.135) one nds that
D
(S
z
)
2
E
=
S
2
z
hS
z
i
2
= 0 , (2.153)
D
(S
x
)
2
E
=
S
2
x
hS
x
i
2
=
1
4
~
2
. (2.154)
The last example raises the question: can one nd a state |i for which
the variance in the measurements of both S
z
and S
x
vanishes? According to
the uncertainty principle the answer is no.
Theorem 2.13.1. The uncertainty principle - Let A and B be two observ-
ables. For any ket-vector |i the following holds
D
(A)
2
ED
(B)
2
E
1
4
|h[A, B]i|
2
. (2.155)
Proof. Applying the Schwartz inequality [see Eq. (2.167)], which is given by
|hu |vi|
p
hu |ui
p
hv |vi , (2.156)
for the ket-vectors
|ui = A|i , (2.157)
|vi = B|i , (2.158)
and exploiting the fact that (A)
= A and (B)
= B yield
D
(A)
2
ED
(B)
2
E
|hABi|
2
. (2.159)
The term AB can be written as
AB =
1
2
[A, B] +
1
2
[A, B]
+
, (2.160)
where
[A, B] = AB BA , (2.161)
[A, B]
+
= AB +BA . (2.162)
While the term [A, B] is anti-Hermitian, whereas the term [A, B]
+
is
Hermitian, namely
([A, B])
= (AB BA)
= BAAB = [A, B] ,
[A, B]
+
= (AB +BA)
= BA+AB = [A, B]
+
.
In general, the following holds
h| X|i = h| X
|i
=

h| X|i
if X is Hermitian
h| X|i
if X is anti-Hermitian
, (2.163)
thus
hABi =
1
2
h[A, B]i
| {z }
I
+
1
2
[A, B]
+
| {z }
R
, (2.164)
and consequently
|hABi|
2
=
1
4
|h[A, B]i|
2
+
1
4
[A, B]
+
2
. (2.165)
Finally, with the help of the identity [A, B] = [A, B] one nds that
D
(A)
2
ED
(B)
2
E
1
4
|h[A, B]i|
2
. (2.166)
2.14 Problems
1. Derive the Schwartz inequality
|hu |vi|
p
hu |ui
p
hv |vi , (2.167)
where |ui and |vi are any two vectors of a vector space F.
2. Derive the triangle inequality:
p
(hu| +hv|) (|ui +|vi)
p
hu |ui +
p
hv |vi . (2.168)
3. Show that if a unitary operator U can be written in the form U = 1+iF,
where is a real innitesimally small number, then the operator F is
Hermitian.
4. A Hermitian operator A is said to be positive-denite if, for any vector
|ui, hu| A|ui 0. Show that the operator A = |ai ha| is Hermitian and
positive-denite.
5. Show that if A is a Hermitian positive-denite operator then the following
hold
|hu| A|vi|
p
hu| A|ui
p
hv| A|vi . (2.169)
6. Find the expansion of the operator (AB)
1
in a power series in ,
assuming that the inverse A
1
of A exists.
7. The derivative of an operator A() which depends explicitly on a pa-
rameter is dened to be
dA()
d
= lim
0
A( +) A()
. (2.170)
Show that
d
d
(AB) =
dA
d
B +A
dB
d
. (2.171)
2.14. Problems
8. Show that
d
d
A
1
= A
1
dA
d
A
1
. (2.172)
9. Let |ui and |vi be two vectors of nite norm. Show that
Tr (|ui hv|) = hv |ui . (2.173)
10. If A is any linear operator, show that A
A is a positive-denite Hermi-
tian operator whose trace is equal to the sum of the square moduli of
the matrix elements of A in any arbitrary representation. Deduce that
Tr
= 0 is true if and only if A = 0.

11. Show that if Aand B are two positive-denite observables, then Tr (AB)
0.
12. Show that for any two operators A and L
e
L
Ae
L
= A+[L, A] +
1
2!
[L, [L, A]] +
1
3!
[L, [L, [L, A]]] + . (2.174)
13. Show that if Aand B are two operators satisfying the relation [[A, B] , A] =
0 , then the relation
[A
m
, B] = mA
m1
[A, B] (2.175)
holds for all positive integers m .
14. Show that
e
A
e
B
= e
A+B
e
(1/2)[A,B]
, (2.176)
provided that [[A, B] , A] = 0 and [[A, B] , B] = 0.
15. Proof Kondos identity
A, e
H
= e
H
Z
0
e
H
[H, A] e
H
d , (2.177)
where A and H are any two operators and is real.
16. Show that Tr (XY ) = Tr (Y X).
17. Consider the two normalized spin 1/2 states |i and |i. The operator
A is dened as
A = |i h| |i h| . (2.178)
Find the eigenvalues of the operator A.
18. A molecule is composed of six identical atoms A
1
, A
2
, . . . , A
6
which
form a regular hexagon. Consider an electron, which can be localized on
each of the atoms. Let |
n
i be the state in which it is localized on the
nth atom (n = 1, 2, , 6). The electron states will be conned to the
space spanned by the states |
n
i, which is assumed to be orthonormal.
The Hamiltonian of the system is given by
H = H
0
+W . (2.179)
The eigenstates of H
0
are the six states |
n
i, with the same eigenvalue
E
0
. The operator W is described by
W|
1
i = a |
2
i a |
6
i ,
W|
2
i = a |
3
i a |
1
i ,
.
.
.
W|
6
i = a |
1
i a |
5
i .
(2.180)
Find the eigenvalues and eigen vectors of H. Clue: Consider a solution of
the form
|ki =
6
X
n=1
e
ikn
|
n
i . (2.181)
2.15 Solutions
1. Let
|i = |ui +|vi , (2.182)
where C. The requirement h |i 0 leads to
hu |ui +hu |vi +
hv |ui +||
2
hv |vi 0 . (2.183)
By choosing
=
hv |ui
hv |vi
, (2.184)
one has
hu |ui
hv |ui
hv |vi
hu |vi
hu |vi
hv |vi
hv |ui +
hv |ui
hv |vi
2
hv |vi 0 , (2.185)
thus
|hu |vi|
p
hu |ui
p
hv |vi . (2.186)
2.15. Solutions
2. The following holds
(hu| +hv|) (|ui +|vi) = hu |ui +hv |vi + 2 Re (hu |vi)
hu |ui +hv |vi + 2 |hu |vi| .
(2.187)
Thus, using Schwartz inequality one has
(hu| +hv|) (|ui +|vi) hu |ui +hv |vi + 2
p
hu |ui
p
hv |vi
=

p
hu |ui +
p
hv |vi
2
.
(2.188)
3. Since
1 = U
U =

1 iF
(1 +iF) = 1 +i
F F
+O
, (2.189)
one has F = F
.
4. In general, (|i h|)
= |i h|, thus clearly the operator A is Hermitian.

Moreover it is positive-denite since for every |ui the following holds
hu| A|ui = hu |ai ha |ui = |ha |ui|
2
0 . (2.190)
5. Let
|i = |ui
hv| A|ui
hv| A|vi
|vi .
Since A is Hermitian and positive-denite the following holds
0 h| A|i
=

hu|
hu| A|vi
hv| A|vi
hv|
|ui
hv| A|ui
hv| A|vi
|vi
= hu| A|ui
|hu| A|vi|
2
hv| A|vi

|hu| A|vi|
2
hv| A|vi
+
|hu| A|vi|
2
hv| A|vi
,
(2.191)
thus
|hu| A|vi|
p
hu| A|ui
p
hv| A|vi . (2.192)
Note that this result allows easy proof of the following: Under the same
conditions (namely, A is a Hermitian positive-denite operator) Tr (A) =
0 if and only if A = 0.
6. The expansion is given by
(AB)
1
=

A
1 A
1
B
1
=

1 A
1
B
1
A
1
=

1 +A
1
B +
A
1
B
2
+
A
1
B
3
+
A
1
.
(2.193)
7. By denition:
d
d
(AB) = lim
0
A( +) B( +) A() B()
= lim
0
(A( +) A()) B()
+ lim
0
A( +) (B( +) B())
=
dA
d
B +A
dB
d
.
(2.194)
8. Taking the derivative of both sides of the identity 1 = AA
1
on has
0 =
dA
d
A
1
+A
dA
1
d
, (2.195)
thus
d
d
A
1
= A
1
dA
d
A
1
. (2.196)
9. Let {|ni} be a complete orthonormal basis, namely
X
n
|ni hn| = 1 . (2.197)
In this basis
Tr (|ui hv|) =
X
n
hn |ui hv |ni = hv|
X
n
|ni hn|
!
|ui = hv |ui . (2.198)
10. The operator A
A is Hermitian since

A
= A
A, and positive-
denite since the norm of A|ui is nonnegative for every |ui, thus one
has hu| A
A|ui 0. Moreover, using a complete orthonormal basis {|ni}

one has
Tr
=
X
n
hn| A
A|ni
=
X
n,m
hn| A
|mi hm| A|ni

=
X
n,m
|hm| A|ni|
2
.
(2.199)
11. Let {|b
0
i} be a complete orthonormal basis made of eigenvectors of B
(i.e., B|b
0
i = b
0
|b
0
i). Using this basis for evaluating the trace one has
Tr (AB) =
X
b
0
hb
0
| AB|b
0
i =
X
b
0
b
0
|{z}
0
hb
0
| A|b
0
i
| {z }
0
0 . (2.200)
2.15. Solutions
12. Let f (s) = e
sL
Ae
sL
, where s is real. Using Taylor expansion one has
f (1) = f (0) +
1
1!
df
ds
s=0
+
1
2!
d
2
f
ds
2
s=0
+ , (2.201)
thus
e
L
Ae
L
= A+
1
1!
df
ds
s=0
+
1
2!
d
2
f
ds
2
s=0
+ , (2.202)
where
df
ds
= Le
sL
Ae
sL
e
sL
Ae
sL
L = [L, f (s)] , (2.203)
d
2
f
ds
2
=

L,
df
ds
= [L, [L, f (s)]] , (2.204)

therefore
e
L
Ae
L
= A+[L, A] +
1
2!
[L, [L, A]] +
1
3!
[L, [L, [L, A]]] + . (2.205)
13. The identity clearly holds for the case m = 1. Moreover, assuming it
holds for m, namely assuming that
[A
m
, B] = mA
m1
[A, B] , (2.206)
one has
A
m+1
, B
= A[A
m
, B] + [A, B] A
m
= mA
m
[A, B] + [A, B] A
m
.
(2.207)
It is easy to show that if [[A, B] , A] = 0 then [[A, B] , A
m
] = 0, thus one
concludes that
A
m+1
, B
= (m+ 1) A
m
[A, B] . (2.208)
14. Dene the function f (s) = e
sA
e
sB
, where s is real. The following holds
df
ds
= Ae
sA
e
sB
+e
sA
Be
sB
=

A+e
sA
Be
sA
e
sA
e
sB
Using Eq. (2.175) one has
e
sA
B =

X
m=0
(sA)
m
m!
B
=

X
m=0
s
m
(BA
m
+ [A
m
, B])
m!
=

X
m=0
s
m
BA
m
+mA
m1
[A, B]
m!
= Be
sA
+s

X
m=1
(sA)
m1
(m1)!
[A, B]
= Be
sA
+se
sA
[A, B] ,
(2.209)
thus
df
ds
= Ae
sA
e
sB
+Be
sA
e
sB
+se
sA
[A, B] e
sB
= (A+B + [A, B] s) f (s) .
(2.210)
The above dierential equation can be easily integrated since [[A, B] , A] =
0 and [[A, B] , B] = 0. Thus
f (s) = e
(A+B)s
e
[A,B]
s
2
2
. (2.211)
For s = 1 one gets
e
A
e
B
= e
A+B
e
(1/2)[A,B]
. (2.212)
15. Dene
f ()
A, e
H
, (2.213)
g () e
H
Z
0
e
H
[H, A] e
H
d . (2.214)
Clearly, f (0) = g (0) = 0 . Moreover, the following holds
df
d
= AHe
H
+He
H
A = Hf + [H, A] e
H
, (2.215)
dg
d
= Hg + [H, A] e
H
, (2.216)
namely, both functions satisfy the same dierential equation. Therefore
f = g.
16. Using a complete orthonormal basis {|ni} one has
2.15. Solutions
Tr (XY ) =
X
n
hn| XY |ni
=
X
n,m
hn| X|mi hm| Y |ni
=
X
n,m
hm| Y |ni hn| X|mi
=
X
m
hm| Y X|mi
= Tr (Y X) .
(2.217)
Note that using this result it is easy to show that Tr (U
+
XU) = Tr (X)
, where U is a unitary operator.
17. Clearly A is Hermitian, namely A
= A, thus the two eigenvalues

1
and
2
are expected to be real. Since the trace of an operator is basis
independent, the following must hold
Tr (A) =
1
+
2
, (2.218)
and
Tr
A
2
=
2
1
+
2
2
. (2.219)
One the other hand, with the help of Eq. (2.173) one nds that
Tr (A) = Tr (|i h|) Tr (|i h|) = 0 , (2.220)
and
Tr
A
2
= Tr (|i h |i h|) + Tr (|i h |i h|) Tr (|i h |i h|) Tr (|i h |i h|)

= 2 h |i Tr (|i h|) h |i Tr (|i h|)
= 2
1 |h |i|
2
,
(2.221)
thus
=
q
1 |h |i|
2
. (2.222)
Alternatively, this problem can also be solved as follows. In general, the
state |i can be decomposed into a parallel to and a perpendicular to |i
terms, namely
|i = a |i +c |i , (2.223)
where a, c C, the vector |i is orthogonal to |i, namely h |i = 0, and
in addition |i is assumed to be normalized, namely h |i = 1. Since |i
is normalized one has |a|
2
+|c|
2
= 1. The matrix representation of A in
the orthonormal basis {|i , |i} is given by
A =
h| A|i h| A|i
h| A|i h| A|i
=

|c|
2
ac
c |c|
2

A . (2.224)
Thus,
Tr
= 0 , (2.225)
and
Det
= |c|
2
|c|
2
+|a|
2
1 |h |i|
2
, (2.226)
therefore the eigenvalues are
=
q
1 |h |i|
2
. (2.227)
18. Following the clue, we seek a solution to the eigenvalue equation
H|ki = E
m
|ki , (2.228)
where
|ki =
6
X
n=1
e
ikn
|
n
i . (2.229)
thus
H|ki = E
0
|ki a
6
X
n=1
e
ikn
(n1)
0
E
+
(n+1)
0
E
= E|ki , (2.230)
where n
0
is the modulus of n divided by 6 (e.g., 1
0
= 1, 0
0
= 6, 7
0
= 1).
A solution is obtained if
e
6ik
= 1 , (2.231)
or
k
m
=
m
3
, (2.232)
where m = 1, 2, , 6. The corresponding eigen vectors are denoted as
|k
m
i =
6
X
n=1
e
ik
m
n
|
n
i , (2.233)
and the following holds
2.15. Solutions
H|k
m
i = E
0
|k
m
i ae
ikm
6
X
n=1
e
ikm(n1)
(n1)
0
E
ae
ikm
6
X
n=1
e
ikm(n+1)
(n+1)
0
E
= (E
0
2acos k
m
) |k
m
i ,
(2.234)
thus
H|k
m
i = E
m
|ki , (2.235)
where
E
m
= E
0
2a cos k
m
. (2.236)
3. The Position and Momentum Observables
Consider a point particle moving in a 3 dimensional space. We rst treat
the system classically. The position of the particle is described using the
Cartesian coordinates q
x
, q
y
and q
z
. Let
p
j
=
L
q
j
(3.1)
be the canonically conjugate variable to the coordinate q
j
, where j {x, y, z}
and where L is the Lagrangian. As we have seen in exercise 4 of set 1, the
following Poissons brackets relations hold
{q
j
, q
k
} = 0 , (3.2)
{p
j
, p
k
} = 0 , (3.3)
{q
j
, p
k
} =
jk
. (3.4)
In quantum mechanics, each of the 6 variables q
x
, q
y
, q
z
, p
x
, p
y
and p
z
is
represented by an Hermitian operator, namely by an observable. It is postu-
lated that the commutation relations between each pair of these observables
is related to the corresponding Poissons brackets according to the rule
{, }
1
i~
[, ] . (3.5)
Namely the following is postulated to hold
[q
j
, q
k
] = 0 , (3.6)
[p
j
, p
k
] = 0 , (3.7)
[q
j
, p
k
] = i~
jk
. (3.8)
Note that here we use the same notation for a classical variable and its
quantum observable counterpart. In this chapter we will derive some results
that are solely based on Eqs. (3.6), (3.7) and (3.8).
3.1 The One Dimensional Case
In this section, which deals with the relatively simple case of a one dimen-
sional motion of a point particle, we employ the less cumbersome notation
Chapter 3. The Position and Momentum Observables
x and p for the observables q
x
and p
x
. The commutation relation between
these operators is given by [see Eq. (3.8)]
[x, p] = i~ . (3.9)
The uncertainty principle (2.155) employed for x and p yields
D
(x)
2
ED
(p
x
)
2
E
~
2
4
. (3.10)
3.1.1 Position Representation
Let x
0
be an eigenvalue of the observable x, and let |x
0
i be the corresponding
eigenvector, namely
x|x
0
i = x
0
|x
0
i . (3.11)
Note that x
0
R since x is Hermitian. As we will see below transformation
between dierent eigenvectors |x
0
i can be performed using the translation
operator J (
x
).
Denition 3.1.1. The translation operator is given by
J (
x
) = exp
i
x
p
~
, (3.12)
where
x
R.
Recall that in general the meaning of a function of an operator can be
understood in terms of the Taylor expansion of the function, that is, for the
present case
J (
x
) =

X
n=0
1
n!
i
x
p
~
n
. (3.13)
It is easy to show that J (
x
) is unitary
J
(
x
) = J (
x
) = J
1
(
x
) . (3.14)
Moreover, the following composition property holds
J (
x1
) J (
x2
) = J (
x1
+
x2
) . (3.15)
Theorem 3.1.1. Let x
0
be an eigenvalue of the observable x, and let |x
0
i be
the corresponding eigenvector. Then the ket-vector J (
x
) |x
0
i is a normalized
eigenvector of x with an eigenvalue x
0
+
x
.
3.1. The One Dimensional Case
Proof. With the help of Eq. (3.76), which is given by
[x, B(p)] = i~
dB
dp
, (3.16)
and which is proven in exercise 1 of set 3, one nds that
[x, J (
x
)] = i~
x
i~
J (
x
) . (3.17)
Using this result one has
xJ (
x
) |x
0
i = ([x, J (
x
)] +J (
x
) x) |x
0
i = (x
0
+
x
) J (
x
) |x
0
i , (3.18)
thus the ket-vector J (
x
) |x
0
i is an eigenvector of x with an eigenvalue x
0
+
x
. Moreover, J (
x
) |x
0
i is normalized since J is unitary.
In view of the above theorem we will in what follows employ the notation
J (
x
) |x
0
i = |x
0
+
x
i . (3.19)
An important consequence of the last result is that the spectrum of eigenval-
ues of the operator x is continuous and contains all real numbers. This point
will be further discussed below.
The position wavefunction
(x
0
) of a state vector |i is dened as:
(x
0
) = hx
0
|i . (3.20)
Given the wavefunction
(x
0
) of state vector |i, what is the wavefunction
of the state O|i, where O is an operator? We will answer this question below
for some cases:
1. The operator O = x. In this case
hx
0
| x|i = x
0
hx
0
|i = x
0
(x
0
) , (3.21)
namely, the desired wavefunction is obtained by multiplying
(x
0
) by
x
0
.
2. The operator O is a function A(x) of the operator x. Let
A(x) =
X
n
a
n
x
n
. (3.22)
be the Taylor expansion of A(x). Exploiting the fact that x is Hermitian
one nds that
hx
0
| A(x) |i =
X
n
a
n
hx
0
| x
n
| {z }
x
0n
hx
0
|
|i =
X
n
a
n
x
0n
hx
0
|i = A(x
0
)
(x
0
) .
(3.23)
3. The operator O = J (
x
). In this case
hx
0
| J (
x
) |i = hx
0
| J
(
x
) |i = hx
0
x
|i =
(x
0
x
) .
(3.24)
4. The operator O = p. In view of Eq. (3.12), the following holds
J (
x
) = exp
ip
x
~
= 1 +
i
x
~
p +O
(
x
)
2
, (3.25)
thus
hx
0
| J (
x
) |i =
(x
0
) +
i
x
~
hx
0
| p |i +O
(
x
)
2
. (3.26)
On the other hand, according to Eq. (3.24) also the following holds
hx
0
| J (
x
) |i =
(x
0
+
x
) . (3.27)
Equating the above two expressions for hx
0
| J (
x
) |i yields
hx
0
| p |i = i~
(x
0
+
x
)
(x
0
)
x
+O(
x
) . (3.28)
Thus, in the limit
x
0 one has
hx
0
| p |i = i~
d
dx
0
. (3.29)
To mathematically understand the last result, consider the dierential
operator
J (
x
) = exp
x
d
dx
= 1 +
x
d
dx
+
1
2!
x
d
dx
2
+ .
(3.30)
In view of the Taylor expansion of an arbitrary function f (x)
f (x
0
+
x
) = f (x
0
) +
x
df
dx
+
(
x
)
2
2!
d
2
f
dx
2
+
= exp
x
d
dx
x=x0
=

J (
x
) f
x=x0
,
(3.31)
one can argue that the operator

J (
x
) generates translation.
3.1. The One Dimensional Case
As we have pointed out above, the spectrum (i.e., the set of all eigen-
values) of x is continuous. On the other hand, in the discussion in chapter
2 only the case of an observable having discrete spectrum has been consid-
ered. Rigorous mathematical treatment of the case of continuous spectrum
is nontrivial mainly because typically the eigenvectors in such a case cannot
be normalized. However, under some conditions one can generalize some of
the results given in chapter 2 for the case of an observable having a continu-
ous spectrum. These generalization is demonstrated below for the case of the
position operator x:
1. The closure relation (2.23) is written in terms of the eigen vectors |x
0
i as
dx
0
|x
0
i hx
0
| = 1 , (3.32)
namely, the discrete sum is replaced by an integral.
2. With the help of Eq. (3.32) an arbitrary ket-vector can be written as
|i =
dx
0
|x
0
i hx
0
|i =
dx
0
(x
0
) |x
0
i , (3.33)
and the inner product between a ket-vector |i and a bra-vector h| as
h |i =
dx
0
h |x
0
i hx
0
|i =
dx
0
(x
0
)
(x
0
) . (3.34)
3. The normalization condition reads
1 = h |i =
dx
0
|
(x
0
)|
2
. (3.35)
4. The orthonormality relation (2.64) is written in the present case as
hx
00
|x
0
i = (x
0
x
00
) . (3.36)
5. In a measurement of the observable x, the quantity
f (x
0
) = |hx
0
|i|
2
= |
(x
0
)|
2
(3.37)
represents the probability density to nd the particle at the point x = x
0
.
6. That is, the probability to nd the particle in the interval (x
1
, x
2
) is given
by
p
(x
1
,x
2
)
=
Z
x2
x1
dx
0
f (x
0
) . (3.38)
This can be rewritten as
p
(x1,x2)
= h| P
(x1,x2)
|i , (3.39)
where the projection operator P
(x1,x2)
is given by
P
(x1,x2)
=
Z
x
2
x1
dx
0
|x
0
i hx
0
| . (3.40)
The operator P
(x1,x2)
is considered to be a projection operator since for
every x
0
(x
1
, x
2
) the following holds
P
(x1,x2)
|x
0
i =
Z
x2
x1
dx
0
|x
0
i hx
0
|x
0
i
| {z }
(x
0
x0)
= |x
0
i . (3.41)
7. Any realistic measurement of a continuous variable such as position is
subjected to nite resolution. Assuming that a particle has been mea-
sured to be located in the interval (x
0
x
/2, x
0
+
x
/2), where
x
is the
resolution of the measuring device, the collapse postulate implies that
the state of the system undergoes the following transformation
|i
P
(x
0
x/2,x
0
+x/2)
|i
p
h| P
(x
0
x/2,x
0
+x/2)
|i
. (3.42)
8. Some observables have a mixed spectrum containing both a discrete and
continuous subsets. An example of such a mixed spectrum is the set of
eigenvalues of the Hamiltonian operator of a potential well of nite depth.
3.1.2 Momentum Representation
Let p
0
be an eigenvalue of the observable p, and let |p
0
i be the corresponding
eigenvector, namely
p |p
0
i = p
0
|pi . (3.43)
Note that p
0
R since p is Hermitian. Similarly to the case of the position
observable, the closure relation is written as
Z
dp
0
|p
0
i hp
0
| = 1 , (3.44)
and the orthonormality relation as
hp
00
|p
0
i = (p
0
p
00
) . (3.45)
The momentum wavefunction
(p
0
) of a given state |i is dened as
3.2. Transformation Function
(p
0
) = hp
0
|i . (3.46)
The probability density to measure a momentum value of p = p
0
is
|
(p
0
)|
2
= |hp
0
|i|
2
. (3.47)
Any ket-vector can be decomposed into momentum eigenstates as
|i =
dp
0
|p
0
i hp
0
|i =
dp
0
(p
0
) |p
0
i . (3.48)
The inner product between a ket-vector |i and a bra-vector h| can be
expressed as
h |i =
dp
0
h |p
0
i hp
0
|i =
dp
0
(p
0
)
(p
0
) . (3.49)
The normalization condition reads
1 = h |i =
dp
0
|
(p
0
)|
2
. (3.50)
3.2 Transformation Function
What is the relation between the position wavefunction
(x
0
) and its mo-
mentum counterpart
(p
0
)?
Claim. The transformation function hx
0
|p
0
i is given by
hx
0
|p
0
i =
1
2~
exp
ip
0
x
0
~
. (3.51)
Proof. On one hand, according to Eq. (3.43)
hx
0
| p |p
0
i = p
0
hx
0
|p
0
i , (3.52)
and on the other hand, according to Eq. (3.29)
hx
0
| p |p
0
i = i~

x
0
hx
0
|p
0
i , (3.53)
thus
p
0
hx
0
|p
0
i = i~

x
0
hx
0
|p
0
i . (3.54)
The general solution of this dierential equation is
hx
0
|p
0
i = N exp
ip
0
x
0
~
, (3.55)
where N is a normalization constant. To determine the constant N we employ
Eqs. (3.36) and (3.44):
(x
0
x
00
)
= hx
0
|x
00
i
=
Z
dp
0
hx
0
|p
0
i hp
0
|x
00
i
=
dp
0
|N|
2
exp
ip
0
(x
0
x
00
)
~
= ~ |N|
2
dke
ik(x
0
x
00
)
| {z }
2(x
0
x
00
)
.
(3.56)
Thus, by choosing N to be real one nds that
hx
0
|p
0
i =
1
2~
exp
ip
0
x
0
~
. (3.57)
The last result together with Eqs. (3.32) and (3.44) yield
(x
0
) = hx
0
|i =
dp
0
hx
0
|p
0
i hp
0
|i =
dp
0
e
ip
0
x
0
~

(p
0
)
2~
, (3.58)
(p
0
) = hp
0
|i =
dx
0
hp
0
|x
0
i hx
0
|i =
dx
0
e
ip
0
x
0
~

(x
0
)
2~
. (3.59)
That is, transformations relating
(x
0
) and
(p
0
) are the direct and inverse
Fourier transformations.
3.3 Generalization for 3D
According to Eq. (3.6) the observables q
x
, q
y
and q
z
commute with each
other, hence, a simultaneous diagonalization is possible. Denoting the com-
mon eigenvectors as
3.3. Generalization for 3D
|r
0
i =

q
0
x
, q
0
y
, q
0
z
, (3.60)
one has
q
x
|r
0
i = q
0
x
q
0
x
, q
0
y
, q
0
z
, (3.61)
q
y
|r
0
i = q
0
y
q
0
x
, q
0
y
, q
0
z
, (3.62)
q
z
|r
0
i = q
0
z
q
0
x
, q
0
y
, q
0
z
. (3.63)
The closure relation is written as
1 =
dx
0
dy
0
dz
0
|r
0
i hr
0
| , (3.64)
hr
0
|r
00
i = (r
0
r
00
) . (3.65)
Similarly, according to Eq. (3.7) the observables p
x
, p
y
and p
z
commute
with each other, hence, a simultaneous diagonalization is possible. Denoting
the common eigenvectors as
|p
0
i =

p
0
x
, p
0
y
, p
0
z
, (3.66)
one has
p
x
|p
0
i = p
0
x
p
0
x
, p
0
y
, p
0
z
, (3.67)
p
y
|p
0
i = p
0
y
p
0
x
, p
0
y
, p
0
z
, (3.68)
p
z
|p
0
i = p
0
z
p
0
x
, p
0
y
, p
0
z
. (3.69)
The closure relation is written as
1 =
dp
0
x
dp
0
y
dp
0
z
|p
0
i hp
0
| , (3.70)
hp
0
|p
00
i = (p
0
p
00
) . (3.71)
The translation operator in three dimensions can be expressed as
J () = exp
i p
~
, (3.72)
where =(
x
,
y
,
z
) R
3
, and where
J () |r
0
i = |r
0
+i . (3.73)
The generalization of Eq. (3.51) for three dimensions is
hr
0
|p
0
i =
1
(2~)
3/2
exp
ip
0
r
0
~
. (3.74)
3.4 Problems
1. Show that
[p, A(x)] = i~
dA
dx
, (3.75)
[x, B(p)] = i~
dB
dp
, (3.76)
where A(x) is a dierentiable function of x and B(p) is a dierentiable
function of p.
2. Show that the mean value of x in a state described by the wavefunction
(x), namely
hxi =
+
Z
dx
(x) x (x) , (3.77)

is equal to the value of a for which the expression
F (a)
+
Z
dx
(x +a) x
2
(x +a) (3.78)
obtains a minimum, and that this minimum has the value
F
min
= (x)
2
=
x
2
hxi
2
. (3.79)
3. Consider a Gaussian wave packet, whose x space wavefunction is given
by
(x
0
) =
1
1/4
d
exp
ikx
0
x
02
2d
2
. (3.80)
Calculate
a)
D
(x)
2
ED
(p)
2
E
b) hp
0
|i
4. Show that the state |i with wave function
hx
0
|i =

1/
2a for |x| a
0 for |x| > a
(3.81)
the uncertainty in momentum is innity.
5. Show that
1
(2~)
3
Z
d
3
p
0
exp
ip
0
(r
0
r
00
)
~
= (r
0
r
00
) . (3.82)
3.5. Solutions
3.5 Solutions
1. The commutator [x, p] = i~ is a constant, thus the relation (2.175) can
be employed
[p, x
m
] = i~mx
m1
= i~
dx
m
dx
, (3.83)
[x, p
m
] = i~mp
m1
= i~
dp
m
dp
. (3.84)
This holds for any m, thus, for any dierentiable function A(x) of x and
for any dierentiable function B(p) of p one has
[p, A(x)] = i~
dA
dx
, (3.85)
[x, B(p)] = i~
dB
dp
. (3.86)
F (a) =
+
Z
dx
(x +a) x
2
(x +a)
=
+
Z
dx
0
(x
0
) (x
0
a)
2
(x0)
=
D
(x a)
2
E
=
x
2
2a hxi +a
2
.
(3.87)
The requirement
dF
da
= 0 (3.88)
leads to 2 hxi + 2a = 0, or a = hxi. At that point one has
F
min
=
D
(x hxi)
2
E
=
x
2
hxi
2
. (3.89)
3. The following hold
hxi =
+
Z
dx
0
(x
0
) x
0
(x
0
)
=
1
1/2
d
+
Z
dx
0
exp
x
02
d
2
x
0
= 0 ,
(3.90)
x
2
=
+
Z
dx
0
(x
0
) x
02
(x
0
)
=
1
1/2
d
+
Z
dx
0
exp
x
02
d
2
x
02
=
1
1/2
d
d
3
1/2
2
=
d
2
2
,
(3.91)
hpi = i~
+
Z
dx
0
(x
0
)
d
dx
0
=
i~
1/2
d
+
Z
dx
0
exp
x
02
d
2
ik
x
0
d
2
=
i~
1/2
d
ikd
1/2
= ~k ,
(3.92)
p
2
= (i~)
2
+
Z
dx
0
(x
0
)
d
2
dx
02
= (i~)
2
1
1/2
d
+
Z
dx
0
exp
x
02
d
2
ik
x
0
d
2
1
d
2
!!
= (i~)
2
1
1/2
d
1
2
2d
4
k
2
+d
2
d
4
= (~k)
2
1 +
1
2 (dk)
2
!
,
(3.93)
a) thus
D
(x)
2
ED
(p)
2
E
=
d
2
2
(~k)
2
1 +
1
2 (dk)
2
!
(~k)
2
!
=
~
2
4
.
(3.94)
3.5. Solutions
b) Using Eq. (3.59) one has
hp
0
|i =
1
2~
Z
dx
0
exp
ip
0
x
0
~
(x
0
)
=
1
2~
1
1/4
dx
0
exp
ik
ip
0
~
x
0
x
02
2d
2
1/4
~
exp
(~k p
0
)
2
d
2
2~
2
!
.
(3.95)
4. The momentum wavefunction is found using Eq. (3.59)
(p
0
) =
1
2~
dx
0
exp
ip
0
x
0
~
hx
0
|i
=
1
4a~
a
Z
a
dx
0
exp
ip
0
x
0
~
=
r
a
~
sin
ap
0
~
ap
0
~
.
(3.96)
The momentum wavefunction
(p
0
) is normalizable, however, the inte-
grals for evaluating both hpi and
p
2
do not converge.
5. With the help of Eqs. (3.65), (3.70) and (3.74) one nds that
(r
0
r
00
) = hr
0
|r
00
i
=
Z
d
3
p
0
hr
0
|p
0
i hp
0
|r
00
i
=
1
(2~)
3
Z
d
3
p
0
exp
ip
0
(r
0
r
00
)
~
.
(3.97)
4. Quantum Dynamics
The time evolution of a state vector |i is postulated to be given by the
Schrodinger equation
i~
d|i
dt
= H|i , (4.1)
where the Hermitian operator H = H
is the Hamiltonian of the system.

The Hamiltonian operator is the observable corresponding to the classical
Hamiltonian function that we have studied in chapter 1. The time evolution
produced by Eq. (4.1) is unitary, as is shown below:
Claim. The norm h |i is time independent.
Proof. Since H = H
, the dual of the Schrodinger equation (4.1) is given by

i~
dh|
dt
= h| H . (4.2)
Using this one has
dh |i
dt
=

dh|
dt
|i+h|
d|i
dt
=
1
i~
(h| H|i +h| H|i) = 0 . (4.3)
4.1 Time Evolution Operator
The time evolution operator u(t, t
0
) relates the state vector at time |(t
0
)i
with its value |(t)i at time t:
|(t)i = u(t, t
0
) |(t
0
)i . (4.4)
Claim. The time evolution operator satises the Schrodinger equation (4.1).
Proof. Expressing the Schr odinger equation (4.1) in terms of Eq. (4.4)
i~
d
dt
u(t, t
0
) |(t
0
)i = Hu(t, t
0
) |(t
0
)i , (4.5)
and noting that |(t
0
)i is t independent yield
Chapter 4. Quantum Dynamics
i~
d
dt
u(t, t
0
)
|(t
0
)i = Hu(t, t
0
) |(t
0
)i . (4.6)
Since this holds for any |(t
0
)i one concludes that
i~
du(t, t
0
)
dt
= Hu(t, t
0
) . (4.7)
This results leads to the following conclusion:
Claim. The time evolution operator is unitary.
Proof. Using Eq. (4.7) one nds that
d
dt
= u
du
dt
+
du
dt
u
=
1
i~
Hu u
Hu
= 0 .
(4.8)
Furthermore, for t = t
0
clearly u(t
0
, t
0
) = u
(t
0
, t
0
) = 1. Thus, one concludes
that u
u = 1 for any time, namely u is unitary.

4.2 Time Independent Hamiltonian
A special case of interest is when the Hamiltonian is time independent. In
this case the solution of Eq. (4.7) is given by
u(t, t
0
) = exp
iH(t t
0
)
~
. (4.9)
The operator u(t, t
0
) takes a relatively simple form in the basis of eigenvectors
of the Hamiltonian H. Denoting these eigenvectors as |a
n,i
i, where the index
i is added to account for possible degeneracy, and denoting the corresponding
eigenenergies as E
n
one has
H|a
n,i
i = E
n
|a
n,i
i , (4.10)
where
ha
n
0
,i
0 |a
n,i
i =
nn
0
ii
0 . (4.11)
By using the closure relation, which is given by
1 =
X
n
g
n
X
i=1
|a
n,i
i ha
n,i
| , (4.12)
and Eq. (4.9) one nds that
u(t, t
0
) = exp
iH(t t
0
)
~
1
=
X
n
gn
X
i=1
exp
iH(t t
0
)
~
|a
n,i
i ha
n,i
|
=
X
n
g
n
X
i=1
exp
iE
n
(t t
0
)
~
|a
n,i
i ha
n,i
| .
(4.13)
Using this results the state vector |(t)i can be written as
|(t)i = u(t, t
0
) |(t
0
)i
=
X
n
gn
X
i=1
exp
iE
n
(t t
0
)
~
ha
n,i
|(t
0
)i |a
n,i
i .
(4.14)
Note that if the system is initially in an eigenvector of the Hamiltonian
with eigenenergy E
n
, then according to Eq. (4.14)
|(t)i = exp
iE
n
(t t
0
)
~
|(t
0
)i . (4.15)
However, the phase factor multiplying |(t
0
)i has no eect on any mea-
surable physical quantity of the system, that is, the systems properties are
time independent. This is why the eigenvectors of the Hamiltonian are called
stationary states.
In classical mechanics, the potential energy U of a magnetic moment in a
magnetic eld B is given by
U = B . (4.16)
The magnetic moment of a spin 1/2 is given by [see Eq. (2.90)]
spin
=
2
B
~
S , (4.17)
where S is the spin angular momentum vector and where
B
=
e~
2m
e
c
(4.18)
is the Bohrs magneton (note that the electron charge is taken to be negative
e < 0). Based on these relations we hypothesize that the Hamiltonian of a
spin 1/2 in a magnetic eld B is given by
H =
e
m
e
c
S B . (4.19)
Assume the case where
B = Bz , (4.20)
where B is a constant. For this case the Hamiltonian is given by
H = S
z
, (4.21)
where
=
|e| B
m
e
c
(4.22)
is the so-called Larmor frequency. In terms of the eigenvectors of the operator
S
z
S
z
|i =
~
2
|i , (4.23)
where the compact notation |i stands for the states |; zi, one has
H|i =
~
2
|i , (4.24)
namely the states |i are eigenstates of the Hamiltonian. Equation (4.13) for
the present case reads
u(t, 0) = e
it
2
|+i h+| +e
it
2
|i h| . (4.25)
Exercise 4.3.1. Consider spin 1/2 in magnetic eld given by B = Bz, where
B is a constant. Given that |(0)i = |+; xi at time t = 0 calculate (a) the
probability p
(t) to measure S
x
= ~/2 at time t; (b) the expectation value
hS
x
i (t) at time t.
Solution 4.3.1. Recall that [see Eq. (2.102)]
|; xi =
1
2
(|+i |i) (4.26)
(a) Using Eq. (4.25) one nds
p
(t) = |h; x| u(t, 0) |(0)i|

2
=
1
2
(h+| h|)
it
2
|+i h+| +e
it
2
|i h|
(|+i +|i)
2
=
1
2
it
2
e
it
2
2
,
(4.27)
4.4. Connection to Classical Dynamics
thus
p
+
(t) = cos
2
t
2
, (4.28)
p
(t) = sin
2
t
2
. (4.29)
(b)Using the results for p
+
and p
one has
hS
x
i =
~
2
(p
+
p
)
=
~
2
cos
2
t
2
sin
2
t
2
=
~
2
cos (t) .
(4.30)
4.4 Connection to Classical Dynamics
In chapter 1 we have found that in classical physics, the dynamics of a variable
A
(c)
is governed by Eq. (1.38), which is given by
dA
(c)
dt
=
n
A
(c)
, H
(c)
o
+
A
(c)
t
. (4.31)
We seek a quantum analogy to this equation. To that end, we derive an
equation of motion for the expectation value hAi of the observable A that
corresponds to the classical variable A
(c)
. In general, the expectation value
can be expressed as
hAi = h(t)| A|(t)i = h(t
0
)| u
(t, t
0
) Au(t, t
0
) |(t
0
)i = h(t
0
)| A
(H)
|(t
0
)i ,
(4.32)
where u is the time evolution operator and
A
(H)
= u
(t, t
0
) Au(t, t
0
) . (4.33)
The operator A
(H)
is called the Heisenberg representation of A. We rst
derive an equation of motion for the operator A
(H)
. By using Eq. (4.7) one
nds that the following holds
du
dt
=
1
i~
Hu , (4.34)
du
dt
=
1
i~
u
H , (4.35)
therefore
dA
(H)
dt
=
du
dt
Au +u
A
du
dt
+u
A
t
u
=
1
i~
HAu +u
AHu
+u
A
t
u
=
1
i~
Huu
Au +u
Auu
Hu
+u
A
t
u
=
1
i~
H
(H)
A
(H)
+A
(H)
H
(H)
+
A
(H)
t
.
(4.36)
Thus, we have found that
dA
(H)
dt
=
1
i~
h
A
(H)
, H
(H)
i
+
A
(H)
t
. (4.37)
Furthermore, the desired equation of motion for hAi is found using Eqs. (4.32)
and (4.37)
dhAi
dt
=
1
i~
h[A, H]i +
A
t
. (4.38)
We see that the Poissons brackets in the classical equation of motion (4.31)
for the classical variable A
(c)
are replaced by a commutation relation in the
quantum counterpart equation of motion (4.38) for the expectation value hAi
{, }
1
i~
[, ] . (4.39)
Note that for the case where the Hamiltonian is time independent, namely
for the case where the time evolution operator is given by Eq. (4.9), u com-
mutes with H, namely [u, H] = 0, and consequently
H
(H)
= u
Hu = H . (4.40)
4.5 Symmetric Ordering
What is in general the correspondence between a classical variable and its
quantum operator counterpart? Consider for example the system of a point
particle moving in one dimension. Let x
(c)
be the classical coordinate and
let p
(c)
be the canonically conjugate momentum. As we have done in chapter
3, the quantum observables corresponding to x
(c)
and p
(c)
are the Hermi-
tian operators x and p. The commutation relation [x, p] is derived from the
corresponding Poissons brackets

x
(c)
, p
(c)
according to the rule

{, }
1
i~
[, ] , (4.41)
4.5. Symmetric Ordering
namely
n
x
(c)
, p
(c)
o
= 1 [x, p] = i~ . (4.42)
However, what is the quantum operator corresponding to a general func-
tion A
x
(c)
, p
(c)
of x
(c)
and p
(c)
? This question raises the issue of ordering.
As an example, let A
x
(c)
, p
(c)
= x
(c)
p
(c)
. Classical variables obviously com-
mute, therefore x
(c)
p
(c)
= p
(c)
x
(c)
. However, this is not true for quantum op-
erators xp 6= px. Moreover, it is clear that both operators xp and px cannot
be considered as observables since they are not Hermitian
(xp)
= px 6= xp , (4.43)
(px)
= xp 6= px . (4.44)
A better candidate to serve as the quantum operator corresponding to the
classical variables x
(c)
p
(c)
is the operator (xp +px) /2, which is obtained from
x
(c)
p
(c)
by a procedure called symmetric ordering. A general transformation
that produces a symmetric ordered observable A(x, p) that corresponds to
a given general function A
x
(c)
, p
(c)
of the classical variable x

(c)
and its
canonical conjugate p
(c)
is given below
A(x, p) =
x
(c)
, p
(c)
dx
(c)
dp
(c)
,
(4.45)
where
=
1
(2~)
2
e
i
~
((x
(c)
x)+(p
(c)
p))
dd . (4.46)
This transformation is called the Weyl transformation. The identity
dke
ik(x
0
x
00
)
= 2 (x
0
x
00
) , (4.47)
implies that
1
2~
Z
e
i
~
(x
(c)
x)
d =
x
(c)
x
, (4.48)
1
2~
Z
e
i
~
(p
(c)
p)
d =
p
(c)
p
. (4.49)
At rst glance these relations may lead to the (wrong) conclusion that the
term equals to
x
(c)
x
p
(c)
p
, however, this is incorrect since x

and p are non-commuting operators.
4.6 Problems
1. Consider spin 1/2 in magnetic eld given by B = Bz, where B is a
constant. At time t = 0 the system is in the state |+; xi. Calculate hS
x
i,
hS
y
i and hS
z
i as a function of time t.
2. Consider the Hamiltonian operator
H =
p
2
2m
+V (r) , (4.50)
where r = (x, y, z) is the vector of position operators, p = (p
x
, p
y
, p
z
)
is the vector of canonical conjugate operators, and the mass m is a con-
stant. Let |
n
i be a normalizable eigenvector of the Hamiltonian H with
eigenvalue E
n
. Show that
h
n
| p|
n
i = 0 . (4.51)
3. Show that in the p representation the Schrodinger equation
i~
d|i
dt
= H|i , (4.52)
where H is the Hamiltonian
H =
p
2
2m
+V (r) , (4.53)
can be transformed into the integro-dierential equation
i~
d
dt
=
p
2
2m
+
Z
dp
0
U (p p
0
)
, (4.54)
where
(p
0
, t) = hp
0
|i is the momentum wave function and
where
U (p) = (2~)
3
Z
drV (r) exp
i
~
p r
. (4.55)
4. Consider a particle of mass m in a scalar potential energy V (r). Prove
Ehrenfests theorem
m
d
2
dt
2
hri = hV (r)i . (4.56)
5. Show that if the potential energy V (r) can be written as a sum of func-
tions of a single coordinate, V (r) = V
1
(x
1
) +V
2
(x
2
) +V
3
(x
3
), then the
time-independent Schrodinger equation can be decomposed into a set of
one-dimensional equations of the form
d
2
i
(x
i
)
dx
2
i
+
2m
~
2
[E
i
V
i
(x
i
)]
i
(x
i
) = 0 , (4.57)
where i {1, 2, 3}, with (r) =
1
(x
1
)
2
(x
2
)
3
(x
3
) and E = E
1
+
E
2
+E
3
.
4.6. Problems
6. Show that, in one-dimensional problems, the energy spectrum of the
bound states is always non-degenerate.
7. Let
n
(x) (n = 1, 2, 3, ) be the eigen-wave-functions of a one-
dimensional Schr odinger equation with eigen-energies E
n
placed in order
of increasing magnitude (E
1
< E
2
< . ). Show that between any two
consecutive zeros of
n
(x),
n+1
(x) has at least one zero.
8. What conclusions can be drawn about the parity of the eigen-functions
of the one-dimensional Schrodinger equation
d
2
(x)
dx
2
+
2m
~
2
(E V (x)) (x) = 0 (4.58)
if the potential energy is an even function of x , namely V (x) = V (x).
9. Show that the rst derivative of the time-independent wavefunction is
continuous even at points where V (x) has a nite discontinuity.
10. A particle having mass mis conned by a one dimensional potential given
by
V
s
(x) =

W if |x| a
0 if |x| > a
, (4.59)
where a > 0 and W > 0 are real constants. Show that the particle has
at least one bound state (i.e., a state having energy E < 0 ).
11. Consider a particle having mass m conned in a potential well given by
V (x) =

0 if 0 x a
if x < 0 or x > a
. (4.60)
The eigen energies are denoted by E
n
and the corresponding eigen states
are denoted by |
n
i , where n = 1, 2, (as usual, the states are num-
bered in increasing order with respect to energy). The state of the system
at time t = 0 is given by
|(0)i = a
1
|
1
i +a
2
|
2
i +a
3
|
3
i . (4.61)
(a) The energy E of the system is measured at time t = 0 . What is the
probability to measure a value smaller than 3
2
~
2
/
ma
2
? (b) Calculate
the standard deviation E =
q
hE
2
i hEi
2
at time t = 0 . (c) the same
as (b), however for any time t > 0 . (d) The energy was measured at
time t and the value of 2
2
~
2
/
ma
2
was found. The energy is measured

again at later time t
0
> t . Calculate hEi and hEi at time t
0
.
12. Consider a point particle having mass m in a one dimensional potential
given by
V (x) =

(x) |x| < a
|x| a
, (4.62)
where (x) is the delta function and is a constant. Let E
0
be the energy
of the ground state. Under what conditions E
0
< 0?
13. Thomas-Reiche-Kuhn sum rule - Let
H =
p
2
2m
+V (r) (4.63)
be the Hamiltonian of a particle of mass m moving in a potential V (r).
Show that
X
k
(E
k
E
l
) |hk| x|li|
2
=
~
2
2m
, (4.64)
where the sum is taken over all energy eigen-states of the particle (where
H|ki = E
k
|ki ), and x is the x component of the position vector operator
r (the Thomas-Reiche-Kuhn sum rule).
14. A particle having mass m is conned in a one dimensional potential well
given by
V (x) =

0 0 < x < a
else
.
(a) At time t = 0 the position was measured and the result was x = a/2.
The resolution of the position measurement is x , where x << a.
After time
1
the energy was measured. Calculate the probability p
n
to
measure that the energy of the system is E
n
, where E
n
are the eigen
energies of the particle in the well, and where n = 1, 2, .(b) Assume
that the result of the measurement in the previous section was E
2
. At
a later time
2
>
1
the momentum p of the particle was measured.
Calculate the expectation value hpi.
15. A particle having mass m is in the ground state of an innite potential
well of width a, which is given by
V
1
(x) =

0 0 < x < a
else
. (4.65)
At time t = 0 the potential suddenly changes and becomes
V
2
(x) =

0 0 < x < 2a
else
, (4.66)
namely the width suddenly becomes 2a. (a) Find the probability p to
nd the particle in the ground state of the new well. (b) Calculate the
expectation value of the energy hHi before and after the change in the
potential.
16. The continuity equation - Consider a point particle having mass m
and charge q placed in an electromagnetic eld. Show that
d
dt
+J = 0 , (4.67)
4.7. Solutions
where
=
(4.68)
is the probability density, (x
0
) is the wavefunction,
J =
~
m
Im(
)
q
mc
(A) (4.69)
is the current density, and A is the electromagnetic vector potential.
17. Calculate the Weyl transformation A(x, p) of the classical variable A
x
(c)
, p
(c)
=
p
(c)
x
(c)
.
18. Invert Eq. (4.45), i.e. express the variable A
x
(c)
, p
(c)
as a function of
the operator A(x, p).
4.7 Solutions
1. The operators S
x
, S
y
and S
z
are given by Eqs. (2.102), (2.103) and (2.99)
respectively. The Hamiltonian is given by Eq. (4.21). Using Eqs. (4.38)
and (2.132) one has
dhS
x
i
dt
=

i~
h[S
x
, S
z
]i = hS
y
i , (4.70)
dhS
y
i
dt
=

i~
h[S
y
, S
z
]i = hS
x
i , (4.71)
dhS
z
i
dt
=

i~
h[S
z
, S
z
]i = 0 , (4.72)
where
=
|e| B
m
e
c
. (4.73)
At time t = 0 the system is in state
|+; xi =
1
2
(|+i +|i) , (4.74)
thus
hS
x
i (t = 0) =
~
4
(h+| +h|) (|+i h| +|i h+|) (|+i +|i) =
~
2
.
hS
y
i (t = 0) =
~
4
(h+| +h|) (i |+i h| +i |i h+|) (|+i +|i) = 0 .
hS
z
i (t = 0) =
~
4
(h+| +h|) (|+i h+| |i h|) (|+i +|i) = 0 .
The solution is easily found to be given by
hS
x
i (t) =

~
2
cos (t) , (4.75)

hS
y
i (t) =

~
2
sin(t) , (4.76)
hS
z
i (t) = 0 . (4.77)
2. Using [x, p
x
] = [y, p
y
] = [z, p
z
] = i~ one nds that
[H, r] =

p
2
2m
, r
=
1
2m
p
2
x
, x
p
2
y
, y
p
2
z
, z
=
~
im
(p
x
, p
y
, p
z
)
=
~
im
p .
(4.78)
Thus
h
n
| p|
n
i =
im
~
h
n
| [H, r] |
n
i
=
im
~
h
n
| (Hr rH) |
n
i
=
imE
n
~
h
n
| (r r) |
n
i
= 0 .
(4.79)
3. Multiplying Eq. (4.52) from the left by the bra hp
0
| and inserting the
closure relation
1 =
Z
dp
00
|p
00
i hp
00
| (4.80)
yields
i~
d
(p
0
)
dt
=
Z
dp
00
hp
0
| H|p
00
i
(p
00
) . (4.81)
The following hold
hp
0
| p
2
|p
00
i = p
02
(p
0
p
00
) , (4.82)
and
4.7. Solutions
hp
0
| V (r) |p
00
i =
Z
dr
0
Z
dr
00
hp
0
|r
0
i hr
0
| V (r) |r
00
i hr
00
|p
00
i
= (2~)
3
Z
dr
0
Z
dr
00
exp
ip
0
r
0
~
V (r
0
) (r
0
r
00
) exp
ip
00
r
00
~
= (2~)
3
Z
dr
0
exp
i (p
0
p
00
) r
0
~
V (r
0
)
= U (p
0
p
00
) ,
(4.83)
thus the momentum wave function
(p
0
) satises the following equation
i~
d
dt
=
p
02
2m
+
Z
dp
00
U (p
0
p
00
)
. (4.84)
4. The Hamiltonian is given by
H =
p
2
2m
+V (r) . (4.85)
Using Eq. (4.38) one has
dhxi
dt
=
1
i~
h[x, H]i =
1
i~2m
x, p
2
x
=
hp
x
i
m
, (4.86)
and
dhp
x
i
dt
=
1
i~
h[p
x
, V (r)]i , (4.87)
or with the help of Eq. (3.75)
dhp
x
i
dt
=
V
x
. (4.88)
This together with Eq. (4.86) yield
m
d
2
hxi
dt
2
=
V
x
. (4.89)
Similar equations are obtained for hyi and hzi, which together yield Eq.
(4.56).
5. Substituting a solution having the form
(r) =
1
(x
1
)
2
(x
2
)
3
(x
3
) (4.90)
into the time-independent Schr odinger equation, which is given by
2
(r) +
2m
~
2
[E V (r)] (r) = 0 , (4.91)
and dividing by (r) yield
3
X
i=1
i
(x
i
)
d
2
i
(x
i
)
dx
2
i

2m
~
2
V
i
(x
i
)
=
2m
~
2
E . (4.92)
In the sum, the i th term (i {1, 2, 3}) depends only on x
i
, thus each
term must be a constant
1
i
(x
i
)
d
2
i
(x
i
)
dx
2
i

2m
~
2
V
i
(x
i
) =
2m
~
2
E
i
, (4.93)
where E
1
+E
2
+E
3
= E.
6. Consider two eigen-wave-functions
1
(x) and
2
(x) having the same
eigenenergy E. The following holds
d
2
1
dx
2
+
2m
~
2
(E V (x))
1
= 0 , (4.94)
d
2
2
dx
2
+
2m
~
2
(E V (x))
2
= 0 , (4.95)
thus
1
1
d
2
1
dx
2
=
1
2
d
2
2
dx
2
, (4.96)
or
2
d
2
1
dx
2

1
d
2
2
dx
2
=
d
dx
2
d
1
dx

1
d
2
dx
= 0 , (4.97)
therefore
2
d
1
dx

1
d
2
dx
= C , (4.98)
where C is a constant. However, for bound states
lim
x
(x) = 0 , (4.99)
thus C = 0, and consequently
1
1
d
1
dx
=
1
2
d
2
dx
. (4.100)
Integrating the above equation yields
log
1
= log
2
+ , (4.101)
where is a constant. Therefore
1
= e
2
, (4.102)
and therefore
2
is just proportional to
1
(both represent the same
physical state).
4.7. Solutions
7. Consider two eigen-wave-functions
n
(x) and
n+1
(x) with E
n
< E
n+1
.
As we saw in the previous exercise, the spectrum is non-degenerate. More-
over, the Schr odinger equation
d
2
dx
2
+
2m
~
2
(E V (x)) = 0 , (4.103)
which the eigen-wave-functions satisfy, is real. Therefore given that (x)
is a solution with a given eigenenergy E, then also
(x) is a solution
with the same E. Therefore, all eigen-wave-functions can be chosen to be
real (i.e., by the transformation (x) ((x) +
(x)) /2). We have

d
2
n
dx
2
+
2m
~
2
(E
n
V (x))
n
= 0 , (4.104)
d
2
n+1
dx
2
+
2m
~
2
(E
n+1
V (x))
n+1
= 0 . (4.105)
By multiplying the rst Eq. by
n+1
, the second one by
n
, and sub-
tracting one has
n+1
d
2
n
dx
2

n
d
2
n+1
dx
2
+
2m
~
2
(E
n
E
n+1
)
n
n+1
= 0 , (4.106)
or
d
dx
n+1
d
n
dx

n
d
n+1
dx
+
2m
~
2
[E
n
E
n+1
]
n
n+1
= 0 . (4.107)
Let x
1
and x
2
be two consecutive zeros of
n
(x) (i.e.,
n
(x
1
) =
n
(x
2
) = 0). Integrating from x
1
to x
2
yields
_
_
n+1
d
n
dx

n
|{z}
=0
d
n+1
dx
x2
x1
=
2m
~
2
(E
n+1
E
n
)
| {z }
>0
Z
x
2
x
1
dx
n
n+1
.
(4.108)
Without lost of generality, assume that
n
(x) > 0 in the range (x
1
, x
2
).
Since
n
(x) is expected to be continuous, the following must hold
d
n
dx
x=x1
> 0 , (4.109)
d
n
dx
x=x2
< 0 . (4.110)
As can be clearly seen from Eq. (4.108), the assumption that
n+1
(x) > 0
in the entire range (x
1
, x
2
) leads to contradiction. Similarly, the possibil-
ity that
n+1
(x) < 0 in the entire range (x
1
, x
2
) is excluded. Therefore,
n+1
must have at least one zero in this range.
8. Clearly if (x) is an eigen function with energy E, also (x) is an
eigen function with the same energy. Consider two cases: (i) The level E
is non-degenerate. In this case (x) = c(x), where c is a constant.
Normalization requires that |c|
2
= 1. Moreover, since the wavefunctions
can be chosen to be real, the following holds: (x) = (x). (ii) The
level E is degenerate. In this case every superposition of (x) and (x)
can be written as a superposition of an odd eigen function
odd
(x) and
an even one
even
(x), which are dened by
odd
(x) = (x) (x) , (4.111)
even
(x) = (x) +(x) . (4.112)
9. The time-independent Schrodinger equation reads
d
2
(x)
dx
2
+
2m
~
2
(E V (x)) (x) = 0 . (4.113)
Assume V (x) has a nite discontinuity at x = x
0
. Integrating the
Schr odinger equation in the interval (x
0
, x
0
+) yields
d(x)
dx
x0+
x0
=
2m
~
2
x0+
Z
x0
(V (x) E) (x) = 0 . (4.114)
In the limit 0 the right hand side vanishes (assuming (x) is
bounded). Therefore d(x) /dx is continuous at x = x
0
.
10. Since V
s
(x) = V
s
(x) the ground state wavefunction is expected to be
an even function of x. Consider a solution having an energy E and a
wavefunction of the form
(x) =
_
_
_
Ae
x
if x > a
Bcos (kx) if a x a
Ae
x
if x < a
, (4.115)
where
=
2mE
~
, (4.116)
and
k =
p
2m(W +E)
~
. (4.117)
Requiring that both (x) and d(x) /dx are continuous at x = a yields
Ae
a
= Bcos (ka) , (4.118)
and
4.7. Solutions
Ae
a
= kBsin(ka) , (4.119)
or in a matrix form
C
A
B
=

0
0
, (4.120)
where
C =

e
a
cos (ka)
e
a
k sin(ka)
. (4.121)
A nontrivial solution exists i Det (C) = 0, namely i
k
= tan(ka) . (4.122)
This condition can be rewritten using Eqs. (4.116) and (4.117) and the
dimensionless parameters
K = ka , (4.123)
K
0
=
2mW
~
a , (4.124)
as
cos
2
K =
1
1 + tan
2
K
=
1
1 +
2
=

K
K
0
2
. (4.125)
Note, however, that according to Eq. (4.122) tanK > 0. Thus, Eq. (4.122)
is equivalent to the set of equations
|cos K| =
K
K
0
, (4.126)
tanK > 0 . (4.127)
This set has at least one solution (this can be seen by plotting the func-
tions |cos K| and K/K
0
).
11. Final answers: (a) |a
1
|
2
+|a
2
|
2
. (b)
E =

2
~
2
2ma
2
v
u
u
t
3
X
n=1
|a
n
|
2
n
4
3
X
n=1
|a
n
|
2
n
2
!
2
. (4.128)
(c) The same as at t = 0. (d) hEi = 2
2
~
2
/
ma
2
, hEi = 0.
12. The Schrodinger equation for the wavefunction (x) is given by
d
2
dx
2
+
2m
~
2
(E V )
(x) = 0 . (4.129)
The boundary conditions imposed upon (x) by the potential are
(a) = 0 , (4.130)
0
+
, (4.131)
d(0
+
)
dx

d(0
)
dx
=
2
a
0
(0) , (4.132)
where
a
0
=
~
2
m
. (4.133)
Due to symmetry V (x) = V (x) the solutions are expected to have
denite symmetry (even (x) = (x) or odd (x) = (x)). For
the ground state, which is expected to have even symmetry, we consider
a wavefunction having the form
(x) =

Asinh((x a)) x > 0
Asinh((x +a)) x < 0
, (4.134)
where A is a normalization constants and where
=
2mE
0
~
. (4.135)
The parameter is real for E
0
< 0. This even wavefunction satises Eq.
(4.129) for x 6= 0 and the boundary conditions (4.130) and (4.131). The
condition (4.132) reads
a
0
= tanh(a) . (4.136)
Nontrivial ( 6= 0) real solution exists only when a > a
0
, thus E
0
< 0 i
a > a
0
=
~
2
m
. (4.137)
13. Using Eq. (4.37) one has
dx
(H)
dt
=
1
i~
h
x
(H)
, H
i
, (4.138)
therefore
hk|
dx
(H)
dt
|li =
1
i~
hk| x
(H)
HHx
(H)
|li =
i (E
k
E
l
)
~
hk| x
(H)
|li .
(4.139)
Integrating yields
hk| x
(H)
(t) |li = hk| x
(H)
(t = 0) |li exp
i (E
k
E
l
) t
~
. (4.140)
4.7. Solutions
Using this result one has
X
k
(E
k
E
l
) |hk| x|li|
2
=
X
k
(E
k
E
l
)
hk| x
(H)
|li
2
=
X
k
(E
k
E
l
) hk| x
(H)
|li hl| x
(H)
|ki
=
~
2i
X
k
hk|
dx
(H)
dt
|li hl| x
(H)
|ki hk| x
(H)
|li hl|
dx
(H)
dt
|ki
=
~
2i
X
k
hl| x
(H)
|ki hk|
dx
(H)
dt
|li hl|
dx
(H)
dt
|ki hk| x
(H)
|li
=
~
2i
hl| x
(H)
dx
(H)
dt

dx
(H)
dt
x
(H)
|li .
(4.141)
Using again Eq. (4.37) one has
dx
(H)
dt
=
1
i~
h
x
(H)
, H
i
=
p
(H)
x
m
, (4.142)
therefore
X
k
(E
k
E
l
) |hk| x|li|
2
=
~
2im
hl|
h
x
(H)
, p
(H)
x
i
|li
=
~
2im
i~
=
~
2
2m
.
(4.143)
14. The wavefunctions of the normalized eigenstates are given by
n
(x) =
r
2
a
sin
nx
a
, (4.144)
and the corresponding eigenenergies are
E
n
=
~
2
2
n
2
2ma
2
. (4.145)
(a) The wavefunction after the measurement is a normalized wavepacket
centered at x = a/2 and having a width x
(x) =

1
x
a
2
x
2
0 else
. (4.146)
Thus in the limit x << a
p
n
=
Z
a
0
dx
n
(x) (x)
2
' 2
x
a
sin
2
n
2
. (4.147)
Namely, p
n
= 0 for all even n, and the probability of all energies with
odd n is equal. (b) Generally, for every bound state in one dimension
hpi = 0 [see Eq. (4.51)].
15. For a well of width a the wavefunctions of the normalized eigenstates are
given by
(a)
n
(x) =
r
2
a
sin
nx
a
, (4.148)
E
(a)
n
=
~
2
2
n
2
2ma
2
. (4.149)
(a) The probability is given by
p =
Z
a
0
dx
(a)
1
(x)
(2a)
1
(x)
2
=
32
9
2
. (4.150)
(b) For times t < 0 it is given that hHi = E
(a)
1
. Immediately after the
change (t = 0
+
) the wavefunction remains unchanged. A direct evaluation
of hHi using the new Hamiltonian yields the same result hHi = E
(a)
1
as for
t < 0. At later times t > 0 the expectation value hHi remains unchanged
due to energy conservation.
16. The Schrodinger equation is given by
i~
d|i
dt
= H|i , (4.151)
where the Hamiltonian is given by [see Eq. (1.62)]
H =
p
q
c
A
2
2m
+q . (4.152)
Multiplying from the left by hx
0
| yields
i~
d
dt
=
1
2m
i~
q
c
A
2
+q , (4.153)
where
= (x
0
) = hx
0
|i . (4.154)
Multiplying Eq. (4.153) by
, and subtracting the complex conjugate

of Eq. (4.153) multiplied by yields
4.7. Solutions
i~
d
dt
=
1
2m
i~
q
c
A
i~
q
c
A
, (4.155)
where
=
(4.156)
is the probability density. Moreover, the following holds
i~
q
c
A
i~
q
c
A
~
2
2
+
q
c
2
A
2
+
i~q
c
A+
i~q
c
A
~
2
2
+
q
c
2
A
2
i~q
c
A
i~q
c
A
= ~
2
2

2
+
i~q
c
(
A +
A +A
+A
)
= ~
2
(
) +
i~q
c
(
A +A
) .
(4.157)
Thus, Eq. (4.155) can be written as
d
dt
+J = 0 , (4.158)
where
J =
~
m
Im(
)
q
mc
(A) . (4.159)
A(x, p) =
1
(2~)
2
Z Z Z Z
p
(c)
x
(c)
e
i
~
[(x
(c)
x)+(p
(c)
p)]
dddx
(c)
dp
(c)
.
(4.160)
With the help of Eq. (2.176), which is given by
e
A
e
B
= e
A+B
e
(1/2)[A,B]
, (4.161)
one has
e
i
~
x
e
i
~
p
= e
i
~
(x+p)
e
1
2~
2
[x,p]
, (4.162)
thus
A(x, p) =
1
(2~)
2
Z Z Z Z
p
(c)
x
(c)
e
i
~
(x
(c)
+p
(c)
)
e
i
~

2
e
i
~
x
e
i
~
p
dddx
(c)
dp
(c)
=
1
(2~)
2
Z Z Z Z
p
(c)
x
(c)
e
i
~
[((x
(c)
+
2
)+p
(c)
)]
e
i
~
x
e
i
~
p
dddx
(c)
dp
(c)
.
(4.163)
Changing the integration variable
x
(c)
= x
(c)0

2
, (4.164)
one has
A(x, p) =
1
(2~)
2
Z Z Z Z
p
(c)
x
(c)0
e
i
~
(x
(c)0
+p
(c)
)
e
i
~
x
e
i
~
p
dddx
(c)0
dp
(c)
=
1
(2~)
2
Z Z Z Z
p
(c)
x
(c)0
e
i
~
(x
(c)0
x)
e
i
~
(p
(c)
p)
dddx
(c)0
dp
(c)
.
(4.165)
Using the identity
dke
ik(x
0
x
00
)
= 2 (x
0
x
00
) , (4.166)
one nds that
1
2~
Z
e
i
~
(x
(c)0
x)
d =
x
(c)0
x
, (4.167)
1
2~
Z
e
i
~
(p
(c)
p)
d =
p
(c)
p
, (4.168)
thus
A(x, p) =
1
2~
Z Z Z
p
(c)
x
(c)0
e
i
~
(p
(c)
p)
ddx
(c)0
dp
(c)
1
2~
Z
e
i
~
(x
(c)0
x)
d
=
1
2~
Z Z Z
p
(c)
x
(c)0
e
i
~
(p
(c)
p)
ddx
(c)0
dp
(c)
x
(c)0
x
=
1
2~
Z Z
p
(c)
x

2
e
i
~
(p
(c)
p)
ddp
(c)
=
Z
p
(c)
xdp
(c)
1
2~
Z
e
i
~
(p
(c)
p)
d
1
2~
Z Z
p
(c)
2
e
i
~
(p
(c)
p)
ddp
(c)
= px
1
2~
Z Z
p
(c)
2
e
i
~
(p
(c)
p)
ddp
(c)
= px
1
2~
~
2i
Z Z
p
(c)
e
i
~
(p
(c)
p)
p
(c)
ddp
(c)
= px
~
2i
Z
dp
(c)
p
(c)

p
(c)
1
2~
Z
de
i
~
(p
(c)
p)
| {z }
(p
(c)
p)
.
(4.169)
Integration by parts yields
4.7. Solutions
A(x, p) = px
~
2i
Z
p
(c)
p
(c)
p
(c)
p
dp
(c)
= px
~
2i
= px +
[x, p]
2
=
xp +px
2
.
(4.170)
18. Below we derive an expression for the variable A
x
(c)
, p
(c)
in terms
of the matrix elements of the operator A(x, p) in the basis of position
eigenvectors |x
0
i. To that end we begin by evaluating the matrix element
D
x
0
x
00
2
A(x, p)
x
0
+
x
00
2
E
using Eqs. (4.163), (3.19) and (4.167)
x
0
x
00
2
A(x, p)
x
0
+
x
00
2
=
1
(2~)
2
Z Z Z Z
A
x
(c)
, p
(c)
e
i
~
[((x
(c)
+
2
)+p
(c)
)]
x
0
x
00
2
i
~
x
e
i
~
p
x
0
+
x
00
2
dddx
(c)
dp
(c)
=
1
(2~)
2
Z Z Z Z
A
x
(c)
, p
(c)
e
i
~
[((x
(c)
+
2
)+p
(c)
)]
e
i
~
x
0
x
00
2
x
0
x
00
2
x
0
+
x
00
2
+
dddx
(c)
dp
(c)
=
1
(2~)
2
Z Z
A
x
(c)
, p
(c)
i
~
x
00
p
(c)
dx
(c)
dp
(c)
Z
e
i
~
[(x
(c)
x
0
)]
d
=
1
2~
Z Z
A
x
(c)
, p
(c)
i
~
x
00
p
(c)
dx
(c)
dp
(c)
x
(c)
x
0
=
1
2~
Z
A
x
0
, p
(c)
i
~
x
00
p
(c)
dp
(c)
.
Applying the inverse Fourier transform, i.e. multiplying by e
i
~
x
00
p
0
and
integrating over x
00
yields
Z
x
0
x
00
2
A(x, p)
x
0
+
x
00
2
e
i
~
x
00
p
0
dx
00
=
1
2~
Z
A
x
0
, p
(c)
dp
(c)
Z
e
i
~
x
00
(p
0
p
(c)
)
dx
00
,
(4.171)
thus with the help of Eq. (4.168) one nds the desired inversion of Eq.
(4.45) is given by
A(x
0
, p
0
) =
Z
x
0
x
00
2
A(x, p)
x
0
+
x
00
2
e
i
~
x
00
p
0
dx
00
. (4.172)
A useful relations can be obtained by integrating A(x
0
, p
0
) over p
0
. With
the help of Eq. (4.167) one nds that
Z
A(x
0
, p
0
) dp
0
=
Z
dx
00
x
0
x
00
2
A(x, p)
x
0
+
x
00
2
Z
e
i
~
x
00
p
0
dp
0
= 2~ hx
0
| A(x, p) |x
0
i .
(4.173)
Another useful relations can be obtained by integrating A(x
0
, p
0
) over
x
0
.With the help of Eqs. (3.51) and (4.168) one nds that
Z
A(x
0
, p
0
) dx
0
=
Z Z
x
0
x
00
2
A(x, p)
x
0
+
x
00
2
e
i
~
x
00
p
0
dx
00
dx
0
=
Z Z Z Z
x
0
x
00
2
|p
00
i hp
00
| A(x, p) |p
000
i hp
000
x
0
+
x
00
2
e
i
~
x
00
p
0
dx
00
dx
0
dp
00
dp
000
=
1
2~
Z Z Z Z
e
i
~
x
0
(p
00
p
000
)
e
i
~
x
00
2
(p
00
p
000
)
hp
00
| A(x, p) |p
000
i e
i
~
x
00
p
0
dx
00
dx
0
dp
00
dp
000
=
Z Z Z
(p
00
p
000
) e
i
~
x
00
2
(p
00
p
000
)
hp
00
| A(x, p) |p
000
i e
i
~
x
00
p
0
dx
00
dp
00
dp
000
=
Z Z
hp
00
| A(x, p) |p
00
i e
i
~
x
00
(p
0
p
00
)
dx
00
dp
00
= 2~
Z
hp
00
| A(x, p) |p
00
i (p
0
p
00
) dp
00
= 2~ hp
0
| A(x, p) |p
0
i .
(4.174)
5. The Harmonic Oscillator
Consider a particle of mass m in a parabolic potential well
U (x) =
1
2
m
2
x
2
,
where the angular frequency is a constant. The classical equation of motion
for the coordinate x is given by [see Eq. (1.19)]
m x =
U
x
= m
2
x . (5.1)
It is convenient to introduce the complex variable , which is given by
=
1
x
0
x +
i
, (5.2)
where x
0
is a constant having dimension of length. Using Eq. (5.1) one nds
that
=
1
x
0
x +
i
=
1
x
0
x
i
2
x
= i . (5.3)
The solution is given by
=
0
e
it
, (5.4)
where
0
= (t = 0). Thus, x and x oscillate in time according to
x = x
0
Re
0
e
it
, (5.5)
x = x
0
Im
0
e
it
. (5.6)
The Hamiltonian is given by [see Eq. (1.34)]
H =
p
2
2m
+
m
2
x
2
2
. (5.7)
In quantum mechanics the variables x and p are regarded as operators satis-
fying the following commutation relations [see Eq. (3.9)]
[x, p] = xp px = i~ . (5.8)
Chapter 5. The Harmonic Oscillator
5.1 Eigenstates
The annihilation and creation operators are dened as
a =
r
m
2~
x +
ip
m
, (5.9)
a
=
r
m
2~
x
ip
m
. (5.10)
The inverse transformation is given by
x =
r
~
2m
a +a
, (5.11)
p = i
r
m~
2
a +a
. (5.12)
The following holds
a, a
=
i
2~
([p, x] [x, p]) = 1 , (5.13)
The number operator, which is dened as
N = a
a, (5.14)
can be expressed in terms of the Hamiltonian
N = a
a
=
m
2~
x
ip
m
x +
ip
m
=
m
2~
p
2
m
2
2
+x
2
+
i [x, p]
m
=
1
~
p
2
2m
+
m
2
x
2
2
1
2
=
H
~

1
2
.
(5.15)
Thus, the Hamiltonian can be written as
H = ~
N +
1
2
. (5.16)
The operator N is Hermitian, i.e. N = N
, therefore its eigenvalues are

expected to be real. Let {|ni} be the set of eigenvectors of N and let {n} be
the corresponding set of eigenvalues
5.1. Eigenstates
N |ni = n|ni . (5.17)
According to Eq. (5.16) the eigenvectors of N are also eigenvectors of H
H|ni = E
n
|ni , (5.18)
where the eigenenergies E
n
are given by
E
n
= ~
n +
1
2
. (5.19)
Theorem 5.1.1. Let |ni be a normalized eigenvector of the operator N with
eigenvalue n. Then (i) the vector
|n + 1i = (n + 1)
1/2
a
|ni (5.20)
is a normalized eigenvector of the operator N with eigenvalue n +1; (ii) the
vector
|n 1i = n
1/2
a |ni (5.21)
is a normalized eigenvector of the operator N with eigenvalue n 1
Proof. Using the commutation relations
N, a
= a
a, a
= a
, (5.22)
[N, a] =

a
, a
a = a , (5.23)
one nds that
Na
|ni =

N, a
+a
|ni = (n + 1) a
|ni , (5.24)
and
Na|ni = ([N, a] +aN) |ni = (n 1) a |ni . (5.25)
Thus, the vector a
|ni, which is proportional to |n + 1i, is an eigenvector of

the operator N with eigenvalue n + 1 and the vector a |ni, which is propor-
tional to |n 1i, is an eigenvector of the operator N with eigenvalue n 1.
Normalization is veried as follows
hn + 1 |n + 1i = (n + 1)
1
hn| aa
|ni = (n + 1)
1
hn|
a, a
+a
a |ni = 1 ,
(5.26)
and
hn 1 |n 1i = n
1
hn| a
a |ni = 1 . (5.27)
As we have seen from the above theorem the following hold
a|ni =
n|n 1i , (5.28)
a
|ni =
n + 1 |n + 1i . (5.29)
Claim. The spectrum (i.e. the set of eigenvalues) of N are the nonnegative
integers {0, 1, 2, }.
Proof. First, note that since the operator N is positive-denite the eigenval-
ues are necessarily non negative
n = hn| a
a |ni 0 . (5.30)
On the other hand, according to Eq. (5.28), if n is an eigenvalue also n 1
is an eigenvalue, unless n = 0. For the later case according to Eq. (5.28)
a |0i = 0. Therefore, n must be an integer, since otherwise one reaches a
contradiction with the requirement that n 0.
According to exercise 6 of set 4, in one-dimensional problems the energy
spectrum of the bound states is always non-degenerate. Therefore, one con-
cludes that all eigenvalues of N are non-degenerate. Therefore, the closure
relation can be written as
1 =

X
n=0
|ni hn| . (5.31)
Furthermore, using Eq. (5.29) one can express the state |ni in terms of the
ground state |0i as
|ni =
n!
|0i . (5.32)
5.2 Coherent States
As can be easily seen from Eqs. (5.11), (5.12), (5.28) and (5.29), all energy
eigenstates |ni have vanishing position and momentum expectation values
hn| x|ni = 0 , (5.33)
hn| p |ni = 0 . (5.34)
Clearly these states dont oscillate in phase space as classical harmonic os-
cillators do. Can one nd quantum states having dynamics that resembles
classical harmonic oscillators?
5.2. Coherent States
Denition 5.2.1. Consider an harmonic oscillator having ground state |0i.
A coherent state |i with a complex parameter is dened by
|i = D() |0i , (5.35)
where
D() = exp
, (5.36)
is the displacement operator.
In the set of problems at the end of this chapter the following results are
obtained:
The displacement operator is unitary D
() D() = D() D
() = 1.
The coherent state |i is an eigenvector of the operator a with an eigenvalue
, namely
a |i = |i . (5.37)
For any function f

a, a
having a power series expansion the following

holds
D
() f

a, a
D() = f

a +, a
. (5.38)
The displacement operator satises the following relations
D() = e
||
2
2
e
a
a
= e
||
2
2
e
a
e
a
, (5.39)
D() = e
m
~

2
x
e
m~
+
2
p
e
2
4
, (5.40)
D() D(
0
) = exp
0
2
D( +
0
) . (5.41)
Coherent state expansion in the basis of number states
|i = e
||
2
2
X
n=0
n!
|ni . (5.42)
The following expectation values hold
hHi
= h| H|i = ~
||
2
+ 1/2
, (5.43)
h| H
2
|i = ~
2
||
4
+ 2 ||
2
+ 1/4
, (5.44)
H
=
q
h| (H)
2
|i = ~ || , (5.45)
hxi
= h| x|i =
r
2~
m
Re () , (5.46)
hpi
= h| p |i =
2~m Im() , (5.47)

x
=
q
h| (x)
2
|i =
r
~
2m
, (5.48)
p
=
q
h| (p)
2
|i =
r
~m
2
, (5.49)
x
=
~
2
. (5.50)
The wave function of a coherent state is given by
(x
0
) = hx
0
|i
= exp
2
4
m
~
1/4
exp
"
x
0
hxi
2x
2
+i hpi
x
0
~
#
.
(5.51)
The following closure relation holds
1 =
1
Z Z
|i h| d
2
, (5.52)
where d
2
denotes innitesimal area in the complex plane, namely d
2
=
d{Re } d{Im}.
Given that at time t = 0 the oscillator is in a coherent state with param-
eter
0
, namely |(t = 0)i = |
0
i, the time evolution can be found with the
help of Eqs. (4.14), (5.19) and (5.42)
|(t)i = e
|
0
|
2
2
X
n=0
exp
iE
n
t
~

n
0
n!
|ni
= e
it/2
e
|
0
|
2
2
X
n=0
exp(int)

n
0
n!
|ni
= e
it/2
e
|
0
|
2
2
X
n=0
0
e
it
n!
|ni
= e
it/2
=
0
e
it
.
(5.53)
5.3. Problems
In view of Eqs. (5.43), (5.45) (5.48) and (5.49), we see from this results that
hHi
, H
, x
and p
are all time independent. On the other hand, as

can be seen from Eqs. (5.46) and (5.47) the following holds
hxi
= h| x|i =
r
2~
m
Re
0
e
it
, (5.54)
hpi
= h| p |i =
2~m Im
0
e
it
. (5.55)
These results show that indeed, hxi
and hpi
have oscillatory time depen-

dence identical to the dynamics of the position and momentum of a classical
harmonic oscillator [compare with Eqs. (5.5) and (5.6)].
5.3 Problems
1. Calculate the wave functions
n
(x
0
) = hx
0
|ni of the number states |ni
of a harmonic oscillator.
2. Show that
exp
2Xt t
2
=

X
n=0
H
n
(X)
t
n
n!
, (5.56)
where H
n
(X) is the Hermite polynomial of order n, which is dened by
H
n
(X) = exp
X
2
2
X
d
dX
n
exp
X
2
2
. (5.57)
3. Show that for the state |ni of a harmonic oscillator
D
(x)
2
ED
(p)
2
E
=

n +
1
2
2
~
2
. (5.58)
4. Consider a free particle in one dimension having mass m. Express the
Heisenberg operator x
(H)
(t) in terms x
(H)
(0) and p
(H)
(0).
5. Consider a harmonic oscillator of angular frequency and mass m.
a) Express the Heisenberg picture x
(H)
(t) and p
(H)
(t) in terms x
(H)
(0)
and p
(H)
(0).
b) Calculate the following commutators
p
(H)
(t
1
) , x
(H)
(t
2
)
p
(H)
(t
1
) , p
(H)
(t
2
)
and

x
(H)
(t
1
) , x
(H)
(t
2
)
.
6. Consider an harmonic oscillator having angular resonance frequency
and mass m. The oscillator at time t = 0 is in its ground state. Calculate
the correlation function G(t) =
x
(H)
(t) x
(H)
(0)
, where x
(H)
(t) is the
Heisenberg representation of the position operator.
7. Consider a particle having mass m conned by a one dimensional poten-
tial V (x), which is given by
V (x) =

m
2
2
x
2
x > 0
x 0
, (5.59)
where is a constant.
a) Calculate the eigenenergies of the system.
b) Calculate the expectation values
x
2
of all energy eigenstates of the

particle.
8. Calculate the possible energy values of a particle in the potential given
by
V (x) =
m
2
2
x
2
+x . (5.60)
9. A particle is in the ground state of harmonic oscillator with potential
energy
V (x) =
m
2
2
x
2
. (5.61)
Find the probability p to nd the particle in the classically forbidden
region.
10. Consider an harmonic oscillator having angular resonance frequency
0
.
At time t = 0 the systems state is given by
|(t = 0)i =
1
2
(|0i +|1i) , (5.62)
where the states |0i and |1i are the ground and rst excited states, re-
spectively, of the oscillator. Calculate as a function of time t the following
quantities:
a) hxi
b) hpi
c)

x
2
d) xp
11. Harmonic oscillator having angular resonance frequency is in state
|(t = 0)i =
1
2
(|0i +|ni) (5.63)
at time t = 0, where |0i is the ground state and |ni is the eigenstate
with eigenenergy ~ (n + 1/2) (n is a non zero integer). Calculate the
expectation value hxi for time t 0.
5.3. Problems
12. Consider a harmonic oscillator having mass m and angular resonance
frequency . At time t = 0 the systems state is given by |(0)i = c
0
|0i+
c
1
|1i , where |ni are the eigenstates with energies E
n
= ~ (n + 1/2).
Given that hHi = ~, |(0)i is normalized, and hxi (t = 0) =
1
2
q
~
m
,
calculate hxi (t) at times t > 0.
13. Show that
D() = e
||
2
2
e
a
a
= e
||
2
2
e
a
e
a
. (5.64)
14. Show that the displacement operator D() is unitary.
15. Show that
|i = e
||
2
2
X
n=0
n!
|ni . (5.65)
16. Show that the coherent state |i is an eigenvector of the operator a with
an eigenvalue , namely
a|i = |i . (5.66)
17. Show that
D() = exp
r
m
~

2
x
exp
m~
+
2
p
exp
2
4
.
(5.67)
18. Show that for any function f

a, a
having a power series expansion the

following holds
D
() f

a, a
D() = f

a +, a
. (5.68)
19. Show that the following holds for a coherent state |i:
a) h| H|i = ~
||
2
+ 1/2
.
b) h| H
2
|i = ~
2
||
4
+ 2 ||
2
+ 1/4
.
c)
q
h| (H)
2
|i = ~ ||.
d) hxi
= h| x|i =
q
2~
m
Re ().
e) hpi
= h| p |i =
2~m Im().
f) x
=
q
h| (x)
2
|i =
q
~
2m
.
g) p
=
q
h| (p)
2
|i =
q
~m
2
.
20. Consider a harmonic oscillator of mass m and angular resonance fre-
quency . The Hamiltonian is given by
H =
p
2
2m
+
1
2
m
2
x
2
. (5.69)
The system at time t is in a normalized state |i, which is an eigenvector
of the annihilation operator a, thus
a|i = |i , (5.70)
where the eigenvalue is a complex number. At time t > 0 the energy of
the system is measured. What are the possible results E
n
and what are
the corresponding probabilities p
n
(t)?
21. Show that the wave function of a coherent state is given by
(x
0
) = hx
0
|i
= exp
2
4
m
~
1/4
exp
"
x hxi
2x
2
+i hpi
x
~
#
.
(5.71)
22. Show that
D() D(
0
) = exp
0
2
D( +
0
) . (5.72)
23. Show that the following closure relation holds
1 =
1
Z Z
|i h| d
2
, (5.73)
where d
2
denotes innitesimal area in the complex plane, namely
d
2
= d{Re } d{Im}.
24. Calculate the inner product between two coherent states |i and |i,
where , C.
25. A one dimensional potential acting on a particle having mass m is given
by
V
1
(x) =
1
2
m
2
x
2
+m
2
x . (5.74)
a) Calculate the Heisenberg representation of the position operator
x
(H)
(t) and its canonically conjugate operator p
(H)
(t).
b) Given that the particle at time t = 0 is in the state |0i, where the
state |0i is the ground state of the potential
V
1
(x) =
1
2
m
2
x
2
. (5.75)
Calculate the expectation value hxi at later times t > 0.
5.3. Problems
26. A particle having mass m is in the ground state of the one-dimensional
potential well V
1
(x) = (1/2) m
2
(x
x
)
2
for times t < 0 . At time
t = 0 the potential suddenly changes and becomes V
2
(x) = (1/2) m
2
x
2
.
a) Calculate the expectation value hxi at times t > 0.
b) Calculate the variance
D
(x)
2
E
at times t > 0 , where x = xhxi.
c) The energy of the particle is measured at time t > 0 . What are the
possible results and what are the probabilities to obtain any of these
results.
27. Consider a particle having mass m in the ground state of the potential
well V
a
(x) = (1/2) m
2
x
2
for times t < 0 . At time t = 0 the potential
suddenly changes and becomes V
b
(x) = gx . (a) Calculate the expecta-
tion value hxi at times t > 0 . (b) Calculate the variance
D
(x)
2
E
at
times t > 0 , where x = x hxi.
28. Consider a particle of mass m in a potential of a harmonic oscillator
having angular frequency . The operator S (r) is dened as
S (r) = exp
h
r
2
a
2
2
i
, (5.76)
where r is a real number, and a and a
are the annihilation and creation

operators respectively. The operator T is dened as
T = S (r) aS
(r) . (5.77)
a) Find an expression for the operator T of the form T = Aa + Ba
,
where both A and B are constants.
b) The vector state |ri is dened as
|ri = S
(r) |0i , (5.78)

where |0i is the ground state of the harmonic oscillator. Calculate
the expectation values hr| x|ri of the operator x (displacement) and
the expectation value hr| p |ri of the operator p (momentum).
c) Calculate the variance (x)
2
of x and the variance (p)
2
of p.
29. Consider one dimensional motion of a particle having mass m. The Hamil-
tonian is given by
H = ~
0
a
a +~
1
a
aa , (5.79)
where
a =
r
m
0
2~
x +
ip
m
0
, (5.80)
is the annihilation operator, x is the coordinate and p is its canonical
conjugate momentum. The frequencies
0
and
1
are both positive.
a) Calculate the eigenenergies of the system.
b) Let |0i be the ground state of the system. Calculate
i. h0|x|0i
ii. h0|p|0i
iii.
D
0| (x)
2
|0
E
iv.
D
0| (p)
2
|0
E
30. The Hamiltonian of a system is given by
H = N , (5.81)
where the real non-negative parameter has units of energy, and where
the operator N is given by
N = b
b . (5.82)
The following holds
b
b +bb
= 1 , (5.83)
b
2
= 0 , (5.84)
2
= 0 . (5.85)
a) Find the eigenvalues of H. Clue: show rst that N
2
= N.
b) Let |0i be the ground state of the system, which is assumed to be
non-degenerate. Dene the two states
|+i = A
+
1 +b
|0i , (5.86a)
|i = A
1 b
|0i , (5.86b)
where the real non-negative numbers A
+
and A
are normalization
constants. Calculate A
+
and A
. Clue: show rst that b
|0i is an
eigenvector of N.
c) At time t = 0 the system is in the state
|(t = 0)i = |+i , (5.87)
Calculate the probability p (t) to nd the system in the state |i at
time t > 0.
31. Normal ordering - Let X
a, a
be a function of the annihilation a

and creation a
operators. The normal ordering of X
a, a
, which is
denoted by : X
a, a
: places the a operators on the right and the a
operators on the left. Some examples are given below

: aa
: = a
a , (5.88)
: a
a : = a
a , (5.89)
:

a
n
: =

a
n
a
n
. (5.90)
5.4. Solutions
Normal ordering is linear, i.e. : X + Y :=: X : + : Y :. Show that
the projection operator P
n
= |ni hn|, where |ni is an eigenvector of the
Hamiltonian of a harmonic oscillator, can be expressed as
P
n
=
1
n!
:

a
n
exp
a
n
: . (5.91)
32. Consider a harmonic oscillator of angular frequency and mass m. A
time dependent force is applied f (t). The function f (t) is assumed to
vanish f (t) 0 in the limit t . Given that the oscillator was
initially in its ground state |0i at t calculate the probability p
n
to nd the oscillator in the number state |ni in the limit t .
5.4 Solutions
H =
p
2
2m
+
m
2
x
2
2
.
Using Eqs. (3.21), (3.29), (5.9) and (5.10) one has
hx
0
| a |ni =

2x
2
0
1/2
x
0
n
(x
0
) +x
2
0
d
n
dx
0
, (5.92)
hx
0
| a
|ni =

2x
2
0
1/2
x
0
n
(x
0
) x
2
0
d
n
dx
0
, (5.93)
where
x
0
=
r
~
m
. (5.94)
For the ground state |0i, according to Eq. (5.28), a|0i = 0, thus
x
0
0
(x
0
) +x
2
0
d
0
dx
0
= 0 . (5.95)
0
(x
0
) = A
0
exp
1
2
x
0
x
0
2
!
, (5.96)
where the normalization constant A
0
is found from the requirement
Z

|
0
(x
0
)|
2
dx = 1 , (5.97)
thus
|A
0
|
2
Z

exp
x
x
0
2
!
dx
| {z }
x0
= 1 . (5.98)
Choosing A
0
to be real leads to
0
(x
0
) =
1
1/4
x
1/2
0
exp
1
2
x
0
x
0
2
!
. (5.99)
All other wavefunctions are found using Eqs. (5.32) and (5.93)
n
(x
0
) =
1
(2x
0
)
n/2
n!
x
0
x
2
0
d
dx
0
0
(x
0
)
=
1
1/4
2
n
n!
1
x
n+1/2
0
x
0
x
2
0
d
dx
0
n
exp
1
2
x
0
x
0
2
!
.
(5.100)
Using the notation
H
n
(X) = exp
X
2
2
X
d
dX
n
exp
X
2
2
, (5.101)
the expression for
n
(x
0
) can be rewritten as
n
(x
0
) =
exp
x
02
2x
2
0
H
n
x
0
x
0
1/4
x
1/2
0
2
n
n!
. (5.102)
The term H
n
(X), which is called the Hermite polynomial of order n, is
calculated below for some low values of n
H
0
(X) = 1 , (5.103)
H
1
(X) = 2X , (5.104)
H
2
(X) = 4X
2
2 , (5.105)
H
3
(X) = 8X
3
12X , (5.106)
H
4
(X) = 16X
4
48X
2
+ 12 . (5.107)
2. The relation (5.56), which is a Taylor expansion of the function f (t) =
exp
2Xt t
2
around the point t = 0, implies that

H
n
(X) =
d
n
dt
n
exp
2Xt t
2
t=0
. (5.108)
The identity 2Xt t
2
= X
2
(X t)
2
yields
5.4. Solutions
H
n
(X) = exp
X
2
d
n
dt
n
exp
(X t)
2
t=0
. (5.109)
Moreover, using the relation
d
dt
exp
(X t)
2
=
d
dX
exp
(X t)
2
, (5.110)
one nds that
H
n
(X) = exp
X
2
(1)
n
d
n
dX
n
exp
(X t)
2
t=0
= exp
X
2
(1)
n
d
n
dX
n
exp
X
2
.
(5.111)
Note that for an arbitrary function g (X) the following holds
exp
X
2
d
dX
exp
X
2
g =

2X
d
dX
g , (5.112)
and
exp
X
2
2
X
d
dX
exp
X
2
2
g =

2X
d
dX
g , (5.113)
thus
H
n
(X) = exp
X
2
2
X
d
dX
n
exp
X
2
2
. (5.114)
3. With the help of Eqs. (5.9), (5.10), (5.11), (5.12) and (5.13) one nds
hn| x|ni = 0 , (5.115)
hn| x
2
|ni =
~
2m
hn| aa
+a
a |ni =
~
2m
(2n + 1) , (5.116)
hn| p |ni = 0 , (5.117)
hn| p
2
|ni =
m~
2
hn| aa
+a
a |ni =
m~
2
(2n + 1) , (5.118)
thus
D
(x)
2
ED
(p)
2
E
=

n +
1
2
2
~
2
.
H =
p
2
2m
. (5.119)
Using Eqs. (4.37) and (5.8) one nds that
dx
(H)
dt
=
1
i~
h
x
(H)
, H
(H)
i
=
p
(H)
im~
h
x
(H)
, p
(H)
i
=
p
(H)
m
(5.120)
dp
(H)
dt
=
1
i~
h
p
(H)
, H
(H)
i
= 0 (5.121)
The solution is thus
x
(H)
(t) = x
(H)
(0) +
1
m
p
(H)
(0) t . (5.122)
H =
p
2
2m
+
m
2
x
2
2
. (5.123)
dx
(H)
dt
=
1
i~
h
x
(H)
, H
(H)
i
=
p
(H)
m
, (5.124)
and
dp
(H)
dt
=
1
i~
h
p
(H)
, H
(H)
i
= m
2
x
(H)
. (5.125)
a) The solutions of the above equations are given by
x
(H)
(t) = x
(H)
(0) cos (t) +
sin(t)
m
p
(H)
(0) , (5.126)
and
p
(H)
(t) = p
(H)
(0) cos (t) m sin(t) x
(H)
(0) . (5.127)
b) Using the expressions for x
(H)
(t) and p
(H)
(t) and Eq. (5.8) one nds
that h
p
(H)
(t
1
) , x
(H)
(t
2
)
i
= (cos (t
1
) cos (t
2
) + sin(t
1
) sin(t
2
))
h
x
(H)
(0) , p
(H)
(0)
i
= i~cos ( (t
1
t
2
)) ,
(5.128)
h
p
(H)
(t
1
) , p
(H)
(t
2
)
i
= m (cos (t
1
) sin(t
2
) sin(t
1
) cos (t
2
))
h
x
(H)
(0) , p
(H)
(0)
i
= i~m sin( (t
1
t
2
)) ,
(5.129)
and
5.4. Solutions
h
x
(H)
(t
1
) , x
(H)
(t
2
)
i
=
1
m
(cos (t
1
) sin(t
2
) sin(t
1
) cos (t
2
))
h
x
(H)
(0) , p
(H)
(0)
i
=
i~
m
sin( (t
1
t
2
)) .
(5.130)
6. The correlation function is dened as
G(t) =
x
(H)
(t) x
(H)
(0)
. (5.131)
Using Eq. (5.126), which is given by
x
(H)
(t) = x
(H)
(0) cos (t) +
p
(H)
(0)
m
sin(t) , (5.132)
one nds
G(t) = cos (t)
D
x
2
(H)
(0)
E
+
sin(t)
m
p
(H)
(0) x
(H)
(0)
. (5.133)
Using the relations
x =
r
~
2m
a +a
, (5.134)
p = i
r
m~
2
a +a
, (5.135)
a, a
= 1 , (5.136)
one nds
x
2
=
~
2m
a
2
+
2
+ 2a
a + 1
, (5.137)
px
m
= i
~
2m
a
2
+
2
1
, (5.138)
thus for the ground state
G(t) =
~
2m
[cos (t) i sin(t)] =
~
2m
exp(it) . (5.139)
7. Due to the innite barrier for x 0 the wavefunction must vanish at
x = 0. This condition is satised by the wavefunction of all number
states |ni with odd value of n (the states |ni are eigenstates of the regu-
lar harmonic oscillator with potential V (x) =

m
2
/2
x
2
). These wave-
functions obviously satisfy the Schr odinger equation for x > 0.
a) Thus the possible energy values are E
k
= ~ (2k + 3/2) where k =
0, 1, 2, .
b) The corresponding normalized wavefunctions are given by
k
(x) =

2
2k+1
(x) x > 0
0 x 0
, (5.140)
where
n
(x) is the wavefunction of the number states |ni. Thus for
a given k
x
2
k
=
Z
0
dx

k
(x)
2
x
2
= 2
Z
0
dx

2k+1
(x)
2
x
2
=
dx

2k+1
(x)
2
x
2
= h2k + 1| x
2
|2k + 1i ,
(5.141)
thus with the help of Eq. (5.116) one nds that
x
2
k
=
~
m
2k +
3
2
. (5.142)
8. The potential can be written as
V (x) =
m
2
2
x +

m
2

2
2m
2
. (5.143)
This describes a harmonic oscillator centered at x
0
= /m
2
having
angular resonance frequency . The last constant term represents energy
shift. Thus, the eigenenergies are given by
E
n
= ~ (n + 1/2)
2
/2m
2
, (5.144)
where n = 0, 1, 2, .
9. In the classically forbidden region V (x) > E
0
= ~/2, namely |x| > x
0
where
x
0
=
r
~
m
. (5.145)
Using Eq. (5.99) one nds
5.4. Solutions
p = 2
Z

x
0
|
0
(x)|
2
dx
=
2
1/2
x
0
Z

x0
exp
x
x
0
2
!
dx
= 1 erf (1)
= 0.157 .
(5.146)
10. With the help of Eq. (4.14) one has
|(t)i =
1
2
e
i
0
t
2

|0i +e
i0t
|1i
. (5.147)
Moreover, the following hold
x =
r
~
2m
0
a +a
, (5.148)
p = i
r
m~
0
2
a +a
, (5.149)
a |ni =
n|n 1i , (5.150)
a
|ni =
n + 1 |n + 1i , (5.151)
a, a
= 1 , (5.152)
thus
a)
hxi =
r
~
2m
0
h(t)|
a +a
|(t)i
=
r
~
2m
0
1
2
h0| +e
i0t
h1|

a +a

|0i +e
i0t
|1i
=
r
~
2m
0
1
2
e
i0t
+e
i0t
=
r
~
2m
0
cos (
0
t) .
(5.153)
b)
hpi = i
r
m~
0
2
h(t)|
a +a
|(t)i
= i
r
m~
0
2
1
2
h0| +e
i0t
h1|

a +a

|0i +e
i0t
|1i
=
r
m~
0
2
sin(
0
t) .
(5.154)
c)
x
2
=
~
2m
0
h(t)|
a +a
2
|(t)i
=
~
2m
0
h(t)|
a
2
+
2
+
a, a
+ 2a
|(t)i
=
~
2m
0
1 + 2
1
2
=
~
m
0
.
(5.155)
d) Similarly
p
2
=
m~
0
2
h(t)|
a +a
2
|(t)i
=
m~
0
2
h(t)|
a
2
+
a, a
2a
|(t)i
= m~
0
,
(5.156)
thus
xp = ~
r
1
cos
2
(
0
t)
2
s
1
sin
2
(
0
t)
2
=
~
2
r
2 +
1
4
sin
2
(2
0
t) .
(5.157)
11. The state |(t)i is given by
|(t)i =
1
exp
iE
0
t
~
|0i + exp
iE
n
t
~
|ni
, (5.158)
where
E
n
= ~
n +
1
2
, (5.159)
thus, using
x =
r
~
2m
a +a
, (5.160)
and
a |ni =
n|n 1i , (5.161)
a
|ni =
n + 1 |n + 1i , (5.162)
one nds that hxi (t) = 0 if n > 1, and for n = 1
5.4. Solutions
hxi (t) =
r
~
2m
h(t)|
a +a
|(t)i
=
r
~
2m
cos (t) .
(5.163)
12. Since hHi = ~ and |(0)i is normalized one has
|c
0
|
2
= |c
1
|
2
=
1
2
, (5.164)
thus |(0)i can be written as
|(0)i =
r
1
2
|0i +e
i
|1i
, (5.165)
where is real. Given that at time t = 0
hxi (t = 0) =
1
2
r
~
m
, (5.166)
one nds using the identities
x =
r
~
2m
a +a
, (5.167)
a |ni =
n|n 1i , (5.168)
a
|ni =
n + 1 |n + 1i , (5.169)
that
cos =
2
2
. (5.170)
Using this result one can evaluate hpi (t = 0), where
p = i
r
m~
2
a +a
, (5.171)
thus
hpi (t = 0) =
r
m~
2
sin =
r
m~
2
2
2
= mhxi (t = 0) . (5.172)
Using these results together with Eq. (5.126) yields
hxi (t) =
1
2
r
~
m
(cos (t) sin(t))
=
r
~
2m
cos
t

4
.
(5.173)
13. According to identity (2.176), which states that
e
A+B
= e
A
e
B
e
1
2
[A,B]
= e
B
e
A
e
1
2
[A,B]
, (5.174)
provided that
[A, [A, B]] = [B, [A, B]] = 0 , (5.175)
one nds with the help of Eq. (5.13) that
D() = exp
= e
||
2
2
e
a
a
= e
||
2
2
e
a
e
a
.
(5.176)
D
() = e
||
2
2
e
a
a
= e
||
2
2
e
a
e
a
, (5.177)
thus
D
() D() = D() D
() = 1 . (5.178)
15. Using Eqs. (5.35), (5.28) and (5.29) one nds that
|i = e
||
2
2
e
a
a
|0i = e
||
2
2
e
a
|0i
= e
||
2
2
X
n=0
n!
|ni .
(5.179)
16. Using Eqs. (5.42) and (5.28) one has
a|i = e
||
2
2
X
n=0
n!
a |ni
= e
||
2
2
X
n=1
n1
p
(n 1)!
|n 1i
= |i .
(5.180)
17. Using Eqs. (5.36), (5.9) and (5.10) one has
D() = exp
"
r
m
2~
(
) x i
r
1
2~m
( +
) p
#
, (5.181)
thus with the help of Eqs. (2.176) and (5.8) the desired result is obtained
5.4. Solutions
D() = exp
r
m
~

2
x
exp
m~
+
2
p
exp
2
4
.
(5.182)
18. Using the operator identity (2.174)
e
L
Ae
L
= A+[L, A] +
1
2!
[L, [L, A]] +
1
3!
[L, [L, [L, A]]] + , (5.183)
and the denition (5.36)
D() = exp
, (5.184)
one nds that
D
() aD() = a + , (5.185)
D
() a
D() = a
. (5.186)
Exploiting the unitarity of D()
D() D
() = 1
it is straightforward to show that for any function f

a, a
having a
power series expansion the following holds
D
() f

a, a
D() = f

a +, a
(5.187)
(e.g., D
a
2
D = D
aDD
aD = (a +)
2
).
19. Using Eq. (5.68) and the following identities
H = ~
a +
1
2
, (5.188)
x =
r
~
2m
a +a
, (5.189)
p = i
r
m~
2
a +a
, (5.190)
all these relations are easily obtained.
20. Expressing the state |i in the basis of eigenvectors of the Hamiltonian
|ni
|i =

X
n=0
c
n
|ni , (5.191)
using
a|i = |i , (5.192)
and
a|ni =
n|n 1i , (5.193)
one nds
X
n=0
c
n
n|n 1i =

X
n=0
c
n
|ni , (5.194)
thus
c
n+1
=

n + 1
c
n
, (5.195)
therefore
|i = A

X
n=0
n!
|ni . (5.196)
The normalization constant A is found by
1 = |A|
2

X
n=0
||
2
n
n!
= |A|
2
e
||
2
. (5.197)
Choosing A to be real yields
A = e
||
2
2
, (5.198)
thus
c
n
= e
||
2
2

n
n!
. (5.199)
Note that this result is identical to Eq. (5.42), thus |i is a coherent
state. The possible results of the measurement are
E
n
= ~
n +
1
2
, (5.200)
and the corresponding probabilities, which are time independent, are
given by
p
n
(t) = |c
n
|
2
= e
||
2
||
2
n
n!
. (5.201)
5.4. Solutions
21. Using the relations
hxi
=
r
2~
m
Re () , (5.202)
hpi
2~m Im() , (5.203)

Eq. (5.67) can be written as
D() = exp
i hpi
x
~
exp
i hxi
p
~
exp
2
4
. (5.204)
exp
i hxi
p
~
|x
0
i = |x
0
+hxi
i ,
thus
hx
0
|i = hx
0
| exp
i hpi
x
~
exp
i hxi
p
~
exp
2
4
|0i
= exp
2
4
exp
i hpi
x
0
~
hx
0
hxi
|0i .
(5.205)
Using Eq. (5.99) the wavefunction of the ground state is given by
hx
0
|0i =
1
(2)
1/4
1
exp
x
0
2x
2
!
, (5.206)
where
x
=
r
~
2m
, (5.207)
thus
hx
0
|i = exp
2
4
exp
i hpi
x
0
~
exp
x
0
hxi
2x
(2)
1/4
= exp
2
4
m
~
1/4
exp
"
x hxi
2x
2
+i hpi
x
~
#
.
(5.208)
22. Using Eqs. (5.36) and (2.176) this relation is easily obtained.
23. With the help of Eq. (5.42) one has
1
Z Z
|i h| d
2
=
1
X
n,m
|ni hm|
1
n!m!
Z Z
e
||
2
m
d
2
.
(5.209)
Employing polar coordinates in the complex plane = e
i
, where is
non-negative real and is real, leads to
1
Z Z
|i h| d
2
=
1
X
n,m
|ni hm|
1
n!m!
Z
0
d
n+m+1
e
2
2
Z
0
de
i(nm)
| {z }
2
nm
=
X
n
|ni hn|
2
n!
Z
0
d
2n+1
e
2
=
X
n
|ni hn|
1
n!
(n + 1)
| {z }
=n!
=
X
n
|ni hn|
= 1 .
(5.210)
24. Using Eqs. (5.35) and (5.41) one nds that
h |i = h0| D
() D() |0i
= h0| D() D() |0i
= exp
h0| D( +) |0i
= exp
h0 | i .
(5.211)
Thus, with the help of Eq. (5.42) one has
h |i = exp
||
2
2
= exp
||
2
2

||
2
2
+
!
= exp
| |
2
2
+i Im(
)
!
.
(5.212)
5.4. Solutions
V
1
(x) =
1
2
m
2
(x +)
2
1
2
m
2
2
=
1
2
m
2
x
02
1
2
m
2
2
,
(5.213)
where
x
0
= x + . (5.214)
a) Thus, using Eqs. (5.126) and (5.127) together with the relations
x
0(H)
(t) = x
(H)
(t) + , (5.215)
p
(H)
(t) = p
0(H)
(t) , (5.216)
one nds
x
(H)
(t) =

x
(H)
(0) +
cos (t) +
sin(t)
m
p
(H)
(0) , (5.217)
p
(H)
(t) = p
(H)
(0) cos (t) m sin(t)
x
(H)
(0) +
. (5.218)
b) For this case at time t = 0
D
x
(H)
(0)
E
= 0 , (5.219)
D
p
(H)
(0)
E
= 0 , (5.220)
thus
D
x
(H)
(t)
E
= (cos (t) 1) . (5.221)
26. The state of the system at time t = 0 is given by
|(t = 0)i = exp
i
x
~
p
|0i , (5.222)
where |0i is the ground state of the potential V
2
. In general a coherent
state with parameter can be written as
|i = exp
r
m
~

2
x
exp
m~
+
2
p
exp
2
4
|0i .
(5.223)
a) Thus |(t = 0)i = |
0
i, where
0
=
x
r
m
2~
. (5.224)
The time evolution of a coherent state is given by
|(t)i = e
it/2
=
0
e
it
, (5.225)
hxi (t) =
r
2~
m
Re
0
e
it
=
x
cos (t) , (5.226)
b) According to Eq. (5.48)
D
(x)
2
E
(t) =
~
2m
. (5.227)
c) In general a coherent state can be expanded in the basis of number
states |ni
|i = e
||
2
/2
X
n
n!
|ni , (5.228)
thus the probability to measure energy E
n
= ~ (N + 1/2) at time t
is given by
P
n
= |hn|(t)i|
2
=
e
|
2
0
|
2n
0
n!
=
1
n!
exp
m
2
x
2~
m
2
x
2~
n
.
(5.229)
27. At time t = 0 the following holds
hxi = 0 , (5.230)
hpi = 0 , (5.231)
D
(x)
2
E
=
x
2
=
~
2m
, (5.232)
D
(p)
2
E
=
p
2
=
~m
2
. (5.233)
Moreover, to calculate hxpi it is convenient to use
x =
r
~
2m
a +a
, (5.234)
p = i
r
m~
2
a +a
, (5.235)
a, a
= 1 , (5.236)
thus at time t = 0
hxpi = i
~
2
h0| aa
a |0i = i
~
2
. (5.237)
The Hamiltonian for times t > 0 is given by
H =
p
2
2m
+gx . (5.238)
5.4. Solutions
Using the Heisenberg equation of motion for the operators x and x
2
one
nds
dx
(H)
dt
=
1
i~
x
(H)
, H
, (5.239)
dp
(H)
dt
=
1
i~
p
(H)
, H
, (5.240)
dx
2
(H)
dt
=
1
i~
h
x
2
(H)
, H
i
, (5.241)
or using [x, p] = i~
dx
(H)
dt
=
p
(H)
m
, (5.242)
dp
(H)
dt
= g , (5.243)
dx
2
(H)
dt
=
1
m
x
(H)
p
(H)
+p
(H)
x
(H)
=
1
m
2x
(H)
p
(H)
i~
, (5.244)
thus
p
(H)
(t) = p
(H)
(0) gt , (5.245)
x
(H)
(t) = x
(H)
(0) +
p
(H)
(0) t
m

gt
2
2m
, (5.246)
x
2
(H)
(t) = x
2
(H)
(0)
i~t
m
+
2
m
Z
t
0
x
(H)
(t
0
) p
(H)
(t
0
) dt
0
= x
2
(H)
(0)
i~t
m
+
2
m
Z
t
0
x
(H)
(0) +
p
(H)
(0) t
0
m

gt
02
2m
p
(H)
(0) gt
0
dt
0
= x
2
(H)
(0)
i~t
m
+
2
m
Z
t
0
x
(H)
(0) p
(H)
(0) +
p
2
(H)
(0) t
0
m

gt
02
2m
p
(H)
(0) x
(H)
(0) gt
0
p
(H)
(0) gt
02
m
+
g
2
t
03
2m
!
dt
0
= x
2
(H)
(0)
i~t
m
+
2
m
x
(H)
(0) p
(H)
(0) t +
p
2
(H)
(0) t
2
2m

p
(H)
(0) gt
3
6m

x
(H)
(0) gt
2
2

p
(H)
(0) gt
3
3m
+
g
2
t
4
8m
!
.
(5.247)
Using the initial conditions Eqs. (5.230), (5.231), (5.232), (5.233) and
(5.237) one nds
hx(t)i =
gt
2
2m
, (5.248)
hx(t)i
2
=
g
2
t
4
4m
2
, (5.249)
hp (t)i = gt , (5.250)
x
2
(t)
=
~
2m

i~t
m
+
2
m
i~t
2
+
~t
2
4
+
g
2
t
4
8m
, (5.251)
and
D
(x)
2
(t)
E
=
x
2
(t)
hx(t)i
2
=
~
2m
+
~t
2
2m
=
~
2m
1 +
2
t
2
.
(5.252)
28. Using the operator identity (2.174), which is given by
e
L
Oe
L
= O+[L, O] +
1
2!
[L, [L, O]] +
1
3!
[L, [L, [L, O]]] + , (5.253)
for the operators
O = a , (5.254)
L =
r
2
a
2
, (5.255)
and the relations
a, a
= 1 , (5.256)
[L, O] = ra
, (5.257)
[L, [L, O]] = r
2
a , (5.258)
[L, [L, [L, O]]] = r
3
a
, (5.259)
[L, [L, [L, [L, O]]]] = r
4
a , (5.260)
etc., one nds
T =

1 +
r
2
2!
+
r
4
4!
+
a +
r +
r
3
3!
+
+ , (5.261)
a) Thus
T = Aa +Ba
, (5.262)
where
A = coshr , (5.263)
B = sinhr . (5.264)
b) Using the relations
x =
r
~
2m
a +a
, (5.265)
p = i
r
m~
2
a +a
. (5.266)
5.4. Solutions
one nds
hr| x|ri =
r
~
2m
h0| S (r)
a +a
(r) |0i
=
r
~
2m
h0| T |0i +h0| T
|0i
= 0 ,
(5.267)
hr| p |ri = i
r
m~
2
h0| S (r)
a +a
(r) |0i
=
r
~
2m
h0| T |0i +h0| T
|0i
= 0 .
(5.268)
c) Note that S (r) is unitary, namely S
(r) S (r) = 1, since the operator

a
2
2
is anti Hermitian. Thus
hr| x
2
|ri =
~
2m
h0| S (r)
a +a

a +a
(r) |0i
=
~
2m
h0| S (r)
a +a
(r) S (r)
a +a
(r) |0i
=
~
2m
h0|
T +T
2
|0i
=
~ (A+B)
2
2m
h0|
a +a
2
|0i
=
~ (coshr + sinhr)
2
2m
=
~e
2r
2m
,
(5.269)
and
hr| p
2
|ri =
m~
2
h0| S (r)
a a
2
S
(r) |0i
=
m~
2
h0|
T T
2
|0i
=
m~ (AB)
2
2
h0|
a a
2
|0i
=
m~ (coshr sinhr)
2
2
=
m~e
2r
2
.
(5.270)
Thus
(x)
2
=
~e
2r
2m
, (5.271)
(p)
2
=
m~e
2r
2
, (5.272)
(x) (p) =
~
2
. (5.273)
29. Using the commutation relation
a, a
= 1 , (5.274)
one nds
H = ~
0
N +~
1
N
2
N
, (5.275)
where
N = a
a (5.276)
is the number operator.
a) The eigenvectors of N
N |ni = n|ni , (5.277)
(where n = 0, 1, ) are also eigenvectors of H and the following
holds
H|ni = E
n
|ni , (5.278)
where
E
n
= ~
0
n +
1
n
2
n
. (5.279)
Note that
E
n+1
E
n
~
=
0
+ 2
1
n , (5.280)
thus E
n+1
> E
n
.
b) Using the relations
x =
r
~
2m
0
+a
, (5.281)
p = i
r
m~
0
2
, (5.282)
x
2
=
~
2m
0
+aa + 2N + 1
, (5.283)
p
2
=
m~
0
2
aa + 2N + 1
, (5.284)
a|ni =
n|n 1i , (5.285)
a
|ni =
n + 1 |n + 1i , (5.286)
one nds
5.4. Solutions
i. h0|x|0i = 0
ii. h0|p|0i = 0
iii.
D
0| (x)
2
|0
E
=
~
2m0
iv.
D
0| (p)
2
|0
E
=
m~0
2
30. The proof of the clue is:
N
2
= b
bb
b = b
1 b
b = N . (5.287)
Moreover, N is Hermitian, thus N is a projector.
a) Let |ni be the eigenvectors of N and n the corresponding real eigen-
values (N is Hermitian)
N |ni = n|ni . (5.288)
Using the clue one nds that n
2
= n, thus the possible values of n
are 0 (ground state) and 1 (excited state). Thus, the eigenvalues of
H are 0 and .
b) To verify the statement in the clue we calculate
Nb
|0i = b
bb
|0i = b
(1 N) |0i = b
|0i , (5.289)
thus the state b
|0i is indeed an eigenvector of N with eigenvalue 1

(excited state). In what follows we use the notation
|1i = b
|0i . (5.290)
Note that |1i is normalized since
h1|1i = h0| bb
|0i = h0| (1 N) |0i = h0|0i = 1 . (5.291)

Moreover, since |0i and |1i are eigenvectors of an Hermitian operator
with dierent eigenvalues they must be orthogonal to each other
h0|1i = 0 . (5.292)
Using Eqs. (5.290), (5.291) and (5.292) one nds
h+|+i = 2 |A
+
|
2
, (5.293)
h|i = 2 |A
|
2
. (5.294)
choosing the normalization constants to be non-negative real num-
bers lead to
A
+
= A
=
1
2
. (5.295)
c) Using N
2
= N one nds
exp
iHt
~
= 1 +

X
n=1
1
n!
iHt
~
n
= 1 +N

X
n=1
1
n!
it
~
n
= 1 +N
1 +

X
n=0
1
n!
it
~
n
!
= 1 +N

1 + exp
it
~
.
(5.296)
Thus
p
0
(t) =
h| exp
iHt
~
|+i
2
=
1
4
(h0| h1|)
1 +N

1 + exp
it
~
(|0i +|1i)
2
=
1
4
1 exp
it
~
2
= sin
2
t
2~
.
(5.297)
31. The closure relation (5.31) can be written as
1 = |ni hm|
n,m
. (5.298)
With the help of Eq. (5.32) together with the relation
1
n!
d
d
=0
=
n,m
, (5.299)
which is obtained using the Taylor power expansion series of the function
m
, one nds that
5.4. Solutions
1 =

X
n,m=0
|ni hm|
n,m
=

X
n,m=0
1
n!
m!
|ni hm|

d
d
=0
=

X
n,m=0
n
n!
|0i h0|
a
m
m!
d
d
=0
=

X
n=0
d
d
n
n!
!
|0i h0|

X
m=0
a
m
m
m!
!
=0
= exp
d
d
|0i h0| exp(a)
=0
.
(5.300)
Denote the normal ordering representation of the operator |0i h0| by Z,
i.e.
|0i h0| =: Z: . (5.301)
For general operators X and Y it is easy to show that the following holds
: X (: Y : ) : =: XY : . (5.302)
Thus
1 = exp
d
d
: Z: exp(a)
=0
=: exp
d
d
Z exp(a)
=0
:
=: exp
Z:
=: exp
(: Z: ) : ,
(5.303)
and therefore
|0i h0| =: exp
: . (5.304)
Using again Eq. (5.32) one nds that
P
n
= |ni hn| =
1
n!
:

a
n
exp
a

a
n
: . (5.305)
32. The Hamiltonian H, which is given by
H =
p
2
2m
+
m
2
x
2
2
+xf (t) , (5.306)
can be expressed in terms of the annihilation a and creation a
operators
[see Eqs. (5.11) and (5.12)] as
H = ~
a +
1
2
+f (t)
r
~
2m
a +a
. (5.307)
The Heisenberg equation of motion for the operator a is given by [see
Eq. (4.37)]
da
dt
= ia i
r
1
2m~
f (t) . (5.308)
The solution of this rst order dierential equation is given by
a(t) = e
i(tt0)
a (t
0
) i
r
1
2m~
Z
t
t0
dt
0
e
i(tt
0
)
f (t
0
) , (5.309)
where the initial time t
0
will be taken below to be . The operator
a
(t) is found from the Hermitian conjugate of the last result. Let P
n
(t)
be the Heisenberg representation of the projector |ni hn|. The probability
p
n
(t) to nd the oscillator in the number state |ni at time t is given by
p
n
(t) = h0| P
n
(t) |0i . (5.310)
To evaluate p
n
(t) it is convenient to employ the normal ordering repre-
sentation of the operator P
n
(5.91). In normal ordering the rst term of
Eq. (5.309), which is proportional to a (t
0
) does not contribute to p
n
(t)
since a (t
0
) |0i = 0 and also h0| a
(t
0
) = 0. To evaluate p
n
= p
n
(t )
the integral in the second term of Eq. (5.309) is evaluate from t
0
=
to t = +. Thus one nds that
p
n
=
e
n
n!
, (5.311)
where
=
1
2m~
dt
0
e
it
0
f (t
0
)
2
. (5.312)
6. Angular Momentum
Consider a point particle moving in three dimensional space. The orbital
angular momentum L is given by
L = r p = det
_
_
x y z
x y z
p
x
p
y
p
z
_
_
,
where r = (x, y, z) is the position vector and where p = (p
x
, p
y
, p
z
) is the
momentum vector. In classical physics the following holds:
Claim.
{L
i
, L
j
} =
ijk
L
k
, (6.1)
where
ijk
=
_
_
_
0 i, j, k are not all dierent
1 i, j, k is an even permutation of x, y, z
1 i, j, k is an odd permutation of x, y, z
. (6.2)
Proof. Clearly, Eq. (6.1) holds for the case i = j. Using Eq. (1.48), which
reads
{x
i
, p
j
} =
ij
, (6.3)
one has
{L
x
, L
y
} = {yp
z
zp
y
, zp
x
xp
z
}
= {yp
z
, zp
x
} +{zp
y
, xp
z
}
= y {p
z
, z} p
x
+x{z, p
z
} p
y
= yp
x
+xp
y
= L
z
.
(6.4)
In a similar way one nds that {L
y
, L
z
} = L
x
and {L
z
, L
x
} = L
y
. These
results together with Eq. (1.49) complete the proof.
Using the rule (4.41) {, } (1/i~) [, ] one concludes that in quantum
mechanics the following holds:
[L
i
, L
j
] = i~
ijk
L
k
. (6.5)
Chapter 6. Angular Momentum
6.1 Angular Momentum and Rotation
We have seen before that the unitary operator u(t, t
0
) is the generator of time
evolution [see Eq. (4.4)]. Similarly, we have seen that the unitary operator
J () = exp
i p
~
(6.6)
[see Eq. (3.72)] is the generator of linear translations:
J () |r
0
i = |r
0
+i . (6.7)
Below we will see that one can dene a unitary operator that generates
rotations.
Exercise 6.1.1. Show that
D
z
()
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
D
z
() = R
z
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
, (6.8)
where
D
z
() = exp
iL
z
~
, (6.9)
and where
R
z
=
_
_
cos sin 0
sin cos 0
0 0 1
_
_
. (6.10)
Solution 6.1.1. Equation (6.8) is made of 3 identities:
D
z
() xD
z
() = xcos y sin , (6.11)
D
z
() yD
z
() = xsin +y cos , (6.12)
D
z
() zD
z
() = z . (6.13)
As an example, we prove below the rst one. Using the identity (2.174), which
is given by
e
L
Ae
L
= A+ [L, A] +
1
2!
[L, [L, A]] +
1
3!
[L, [L, [L, A]]] + , (6.14)
one has
D
z
() xD
z
()
= x +
i
~
[L
z
, x] +
1
2!
i
~
2
[L
z
, [L
z
, x]] +
1
3!
i
~
3
[L
z
, [L
z
, [L
z
, x]]] + .
(6.15)
6.1. Angular Momentum and Rotation
Furthermore with the help of
L
z
= xp
y
yp
x
, (6.16)
[x
i
, p
j
] = i~
ij
, (6.17)
one nds that
[L
z
, x] = y [p
x
, x] = i~y ,
[L
z
, [L
z
, x]] = i~x[p
y
, y] = (i~)
2
x ,
[L
z
, [L
z
, [L
z
, x]]] = (i~)
2
[L
z
, x] = (i~)
3
y ,
[L
z
, [L
z
, [L
z
, [L
z
, x]]]] = (i~)
4
x ,
.
.
. (6.18)
thus
D
z
() xD
z
() = x
1

2
2!
+

4
4!
+

3
3!
+
= xcos y sin .
(6.19)
The other 2 identities in Eq. (6.8) can be proven in a similar way.
The matrix R
z
[see Eq. (6.10)] represents a geometrical rotation around
the z axis with angle . Therefore, in view of the above result, we refer to the
operator D
z
() as the generator of rotation around the z axis with angle .
It is straightforward to generalize the above results and to show that rotation
around an arbitrary unit vector n axis with angle is given by
D
n
() = exp
iL n
~
. (6.20)
In view of Eq. (3.72), it can be said that linear momentum p generates
translations. Similarly, in view of the above equation (6.20), angular momen-
tum L generates rotation. However, there is an important distinction between
these two types of geometrical transformations. On one hand, according to
Eq. (3.7) the observables p
x
, p
y
and p
z
commute with each other, and con-
sequently translation operators with dierent translation vectors commute
[J (
1
) , J (
2
)] = 0 . (6.21)
On the other hand, as can be seen from Eq. (6.5), dierent components of L do
not commute and therefore rotation operators D
n
() with dierent rotations
axes n need not commute. Both the above results, which were obtained from
commutation relations between quantum operators, demonstrate two well
known geometrical facts: (i) dierent linear translations commute, whereas
(ii) generally, dierent rotations do not commute.
6.2 General Angular Momentum
Elementary particles carry angular momentum in two dierent forms. The
rst one is the above discussed orbital angular momentum, which is com-
monly labeled as L. This contribution L = r p has a classical analogue,
which was employed above to derive the commutation relations (6.5) from
the corresponding Poissons brackets relations. The other form of angular
momentum is spin, which is commonly labeled as S. Contrary to the orbital
angular momentum, the spin does not have any classical analogue. In a gen-
eral discussion on angular momentum in quantum mechanics the label J is
commonly employed.
L - orbital angular momentum
S - spin angular momentum
J - general angular momentum
In the discussion below we derive some properties of angular momentum
in quantum mechanics, where our only assumption is that the components of
the angular momentum vector of operators J = (J
x
, J
y
, J
z
) obey the following
commutation relations
[J
i
, J
j
] = i~
ijk
J
k
. (6.22)
Namely, we assume that Eq. (6.5), which was obtained from the correspond-
ing Poissons brackets relations for the case of orbital angular momentum
holds for general angular momentum.
6.3 Simultaneous Diagonalization of J
2
and J
z
As we have seen in chapter 2, commuting operators can be simultaneously
diagonalized. In this section we seek such simultaneous diagonalization of the
operators J
2
and J
z
, where
J
2
= J
2
x
+J
2
y
+J
2
z
. (6.23)
As is shown by the claim below, these operators commute.
Claim. The following holds
J
2
, J
x
=

J
2
, J
y
=

J
2
, J
z
= 0 .
Proof. Using Eq. (6.22) one nds that
J
2
, J
z
=

J
2
x
, J
z
J
2
y
, J
z
= i~ (J
x
J
y
J
y
J
x
+J
y
J
x
+J
x
J
y
) = 0 .
(6.24)
In a similar way one can show that

J
2
, J
x
=

J
2
, J
y
= 0.
6.3. Simultaneous Diagonalization of J
2
and J
z
The common eigenvectors of the operators J
2
and J
z
are labeled as |a, bi,
and the corresponding eigenvalues are labeled as a~
2
and b~ respectively
J
2
|a, bi = a~
2
|a, bi , (6.25)
J
z
|a, bi = b~ |a, bi . (6.26)
Recall that we have shown in chapter 5 for the case of harmonic oscillator
that the ket-vectors a |ni and a
|ni are eigenvectors of the number operator

N provided that |ni is an eigenvector of N. Somewhat similar claim can
be made regrading the current problem under consideration of simultaneous
diagonalization of J
2
and J
z
:
Theorem 6.3.1. Let |a, bi be a normalized simultaneous eigenvector of the
operators J
2
and J
z
with eigenvalues ~
2
a and ~b respectively, i.e.
J
2
|a, bi = a~
2
|a, bi , (6.27)
J
z
|a, bi = b~ |a, bi , (6.28)
ha, b |a, bi = 1 . (6.29)
Then (i) the vector
|a, b + 1i ~
1
[a b (b + 1)]
1/2
J
+
|a, bi (6.30)
where
J
+
= J
x
+iJ
y
, (6.31)
is a normalized simultaneous eigenvector of the operators J
2
and J
z
with
eigenvalues ~
2
a and ~ (b + 1) respectively, namely
J
2
|a, b + 1i = a~
2
|a, b + 1i , (6.32)
J
z
|a, b + 1i = (b + 1) ~|a, b + 1i . (6.33)
(ii) The vector
|a, b 1i ~
1
[a b (b 1)]
1/2
J
|a, bi (6.34)
where
J
= J
x
iJ
y
, (6.35)
is a normalized simultaneous eigenvector of the operators J
2
and J
z
with
eigenvalues ~
2
a and ~ (b 1) respectively, namely
J
2
|a, b 1i = a~
2
|a, b 1i , (6.36)
J
z
|a, b 1i = (b 1) ~|a, b 1i . (6.37)
Proof. The following holds
J
2
(J
|a, bi) =
_
_
_
J
2
, J
| {z }
0
+J
J
2
_
_
_|a, bi = a~
2
(J
|a, bi) . (6.38)

Similarly
J
z
(J
|a, bi) = ([J

z
, J
] +J
J
z
) |a, bi , (6.39)
where
[J
z
, J
] = [J
z
, J
x
iJ
y
] = ~ (iJ
y
J
x
) = ~J
, (6.40)
thus
J
z
(J
|a, bi) = (b 1) ~ (J
|a, bi) . (6.41)

Using the following relations
J
+
J
+
= J
J
+
= (J
x
iJ
y
) (J
x
+iJ
y
)
= J
2
x
+J
2
y
+i [J
x
, J
y
]
= J
2
J
2
z
~J
z
,
(6.42)
J
= J
+
J
= (J
x
+iJ
y
) (J
x
iJ
y
)
= J
2
x
+J
2
y
+i [J
y
, J
x
]
= J
2
J
2
z
+~J
z
,
(6.43)
one nds that
ha, b| J
+
J
+
|a, bi = ha, b| J
2
|a, bi ha, b| J
z
(J
z
+~) |a, bi
= ~
2
[a b (b + 1)] ,
(6.44)
and
ha, b| J
|a, bi = ha, b| J
2
|a, bi ha, b| J
z
(J
z
~) |a, bi
= ~
2
[a b (b 1)] .
(6.45)
Thus the states |a, b + 1i and |a, b 1i are both normalized.
6.3. Simultaneous Diagonalization of J
2
and J
z
What are the possible values of b? Recall that we have shown in chapter 5
for the case of harmonic oscillator that the eigenvalues of the number operator
N must be nonnegative since the operator N is positive-denite. Below we
employ a similar approach to show that:
Claim. b
2
a
Proof. Both J
2
x
and J
2
y
are positive-denite, therefore
hj, b| J
2
x
+J
2
y
|j, bi 0 . (6.46)
On the other hand, J
2
x
+J
2
y
= J
2
J
2
z
, therefore a b
2
0.
As we did in chapter 5 for the case of the possible eigenvalues n of the
number operator N, also in the present case the requirement b
2
a restricts
the possible values that b can take:
Claim. For a given value of a the possible values of b are {b
max
, b
max
+ 1, , b
max
1, b
max
}
where a = b
max
(b
max
+ 1). Moreover, the possible values of b
max
are 0, 1/2, 1, 3/2, 2, .
Proof. There must be a maximum value b
max
for which
J
+
|a, b
max
i = 0 . (6.47)
Thus, also
J
+
J
+
|a, b
max
i = 0 (6.48)
holds. With the help of Eq. (6.42) this can be written as
J
2
J
2
z
~J
z
|a, b
max
i = [a b
max
(b
max
+ 1)] ~
2
|a, b
max
i = 0 . (6.49)
Since |a, b
max
i 6= 0 one has
a b
max
(b
max
+ 1) = 0 , (6.50)
or
a = b
max
(b
max
+ 1) . (6.51)
In a similar way with the help of Eq. (6.43) one can show that there exists a
minimum value b
min
for which
a = b
min
(b
min
1) . (6.52)
From the last two equations one nds that
b
max
(b
max
+ 1) = b
min
(b
min
1) , (6.53)
or
(b
max
+b
min
) (b
max
b
min
+ 1) = 0 . (6.54)
Thus, since b
max
b
min
+ 1 > 0 one nds that
b
min
= b
max
. (6.55)
The formal solutions of Eqs. (6.51) and (6.52) are given by
b
max
=
1
2

1
2
1 + 4a , (6.56)
and
b
min
=
1
2

1
2
1 + 4a . (6.57)
Furthermore, a is an eigenvalue of a positive-denite operator J
2
, therefore
a 0. Consequently, the only possible solutions for which b
max
b
min
are
b
max
=
1
2
+
1
2
1 + 4a 0 , (6.58)
and
b
min
=
1
2

1
2
1 + 4a = b
max
0 . (6.59)
That is, for a given value of a, both b
max
and b
min
are uniquely de-
termined. The value b
min
is obtained by successively applying the oper-
ator J
to the state |a, b

max
i an integer number of times, and therefore
b
max
b
min
= 2b
max
must be an integer. Consequently, the possible values of
b
max
are 0, 1/2, 1, 3/2, .
We now change the notation |a, bi for the simultaneous eigenvectors to
the more common notation |j, mi, where
j = b
max
, (6.60)
m = b . (6.61)
Our results can be summarized by the following relations
J
2
|j, mi = j (j + 1) ~
2
|j, mi , (6.62)
J
z
|j, mi = m~|j, mi , (6.63)
J
+
|j, mi =
p
j (j + 1) m(m+ 1)~|j, m+ 1i , (6.64)
J
|j, mi =
p
j (j + 1) m(m1)~|j, m1i , (6.65)
where the possible values j can take are
j = 0,
1
2
, 1,
3
2
, , (6.66)
and for each given j, the quantum number m can take any of the 2j + 1
possible values
m = j, j + 1, , j 1, j . (6.67)
6.5. Orbital Angular Momentum
The vector space of a spin 1/2 system is the subspace spanned by the ket-
vectors |j = 1/2, m = 1/2i and |j = 1/2, m = 1/2i. In this subspace the
spin angular momentum is labeled using the letter S, as we have discussed
above. The matrix representation of some operators of interest in this basis
can be easily found with the help of Eqs. (6.62), (6.63), (6.64) and (6.65):
S
2
=
3~
2
4
1 0
0 1
, (6.68)
S
z
=
~
2
1 0
0 1
~
2
z
, (6.69)
S
+
= ~
0 1
0 0
, (6.70)
S
= ~
0 0
1 0
. (6.71)
The above results for S
+
and S
together with the identities

S
x
=
S
+
+S
2
, (6.72)
S
y
=
S
+
S
2i
, (6.73)
can be used to nd the matrix representation of S
x
and S
y
S
x
=
~
2
0 1
1 0
~
2
x
, (6.74)
S
y
=
~
2
0 i
i 0
~
2
y
. (6.75)
The matrices
x
,
y
and
z
are called Paulis matrices, and are related to
the corresponding spin angular momentum operators by the relation
S
k
=
~
2
k
. (6.76)
6.5 Orbital Angular Momentum
As we have discussed above, orbital angular momentum L = r p refers to
spatial motion. For this case the states |l, mi (here, the letter l is used instead
of j since we are dealing with orbital angular momentum) can be described
using wave functions. In this section we calculate these wave functions. For
this purpose it is convenient to employ the transformation from Cartesian to
spherical coordinates
x = r sin cos , (6.77)
y = r sin sin , (6.78)
x = r cos , (6.79)
where
r 0 , (6.80)
0 , (6.81)
0 2 . (6.82)
Exercise 6.5.1. Show that:
1.
hr
0
| L
z
|i = i~

hx
0
|i . (6.83)
2.
hr
0
| L
|i = i~ exp(i)
cot

hr
0
|i . (6.84)
3.
hr
0
| L
2
|i = ~
2
1
sin
2
2
+
1
sin

sin

hr
0
|i . (6.85)
Solution 6.5.1. Using the relations
L = r p = det
_
_
x y z
x y z
p
x
p
y
p
z
_
_
, (6.86)
hr
0
| r |i = r
0
hr
0
|i , (6.87)
hr
0
| p|i =
~
i
hr
0
|i , (6.88)
[see Eqs. (3.21) and (3.29)] one nds that
hr
0
| L
x
|i =
~
i
y

z
z

y
(r
0
) , (6.89)
hr
0
| L
y
|i =
~
i
z

x
x

z
(r
0
) , (6.90)
hr
0
| L
z
|i =
~
i
x

y
y

x
(r
0
) , (6.91)
where
(r
0
) = hr
0
|i . (6.92)
r =
p
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
, (6.93)
cos =
z
p
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
, (6.94)
cot =
x
y
. (6.95)
=
x

x
+
y

y
+
z

z
= r sin sin

x
+r sin cos

y
= y

x
+x

y
,
(6.96)
thus using Eq. (6.91) one has
hr
0
| L
z
|i = i~

(r
0
) . (6.97)
2. Using Eqs. (6.89) and (6.90) together with the relation L
+
= L
x
+ iL
y
one has
i
~
hr
0
| L
+
|i =
i
~
hr
0
| L
x
+iL
y
|i
=

y

z
z

y
+iz

x
ix

z
(r
0
)
=

z
i

x

y
i (x +iy)

z
(r
0
)
=

z
i

x

y
ir sine
i

z
(r
0
) .
(6.98)
Thus, by using the identity
=
x

x
+
y

y
+
z

z
= r cos
cos

x
+ sin

y
r sin

z
,
(6.99)
or
r sin

z
= r cos
cos

x
+ sin

y
, (6.100)
one nds that
i
~
hr
0
| L
+
|i =

z
i

x

y
ie
i
cot
x

x
+y

y
(r
0
)
=

i
z e
i
xcot
z +ie
i
y cot

y
+ie
i

(r
0
)
= e
i
_
_
i cot
_
_
ze
i
tan
| {z }
xiy
x
_
_

x
cot
_
_
ze
i
tan
| {z }
xiy
+iy
_
_

y
+i

_
_
(r
0
)
= e
i
cot
y

x
x

y
+i

(r
0
)
= e
i
cot

(r
0
) .
(6.101)
In a similar way one evaluates hr
0
| L
|i. Both results can be expressed

as
hr
0
| L
|i = i~ exp(i)
cot

(r
0
) . (6.102)
3. Using the result of the previous section one has
hr
0
| L
x
|i =
1
2
hr
0
| (L
+
+L
) |i
=
i~
2
e
i
cot

+e
i
cot

+i

(r
0
)
= i~
cos cot

+ sin

(r
0
) .
(6.103)
Similarly
hr
0
| L
y
|i = i~
sincot

cos

(r
0
) , (6.104)
thus
hr
0
| L
2
|i = hr
0
| L
2
x
+L
2
y
+L
2
z
|i
= ~
2
"
cos cot

+ sin

2
+
sincot

cos

2
+

2
2
#
(r
0
)
= ~
2
1 + cot
2
2
+ cot

+

2
(r
0
)
= ~
2
1
sin
2
2
+
1
sin

sin

(r
0
) .
(6.105)
Spherical Harmonics. The above exercise allows translating the relations
(6.62) and (6.63), which are given by
L
2
|l, mi = l (l + 1) ~
2
|l, mi , (6.106)
L
z
|l, mi = m~ |l, mi , (6.107)
into dierential equations for the corresponding wavefunctions
1
sin
2
2
+
1
sin

sin

(r
0
) = l (l + 1)
(r
0
) , (6.108)
i

(r
0
) = m
(r
0
) , (6.109)
where
m = l, l + 1, , l 1, l . (6.110)
We seek solutions having the form
(r
0
) = f (r) Y
m
l
(, ) . (6.111)
We require that both f (r) and Y
m
l
(, ) are normalized
1 =
Z
0
drr
2
|f (r)|
2
, (6.112)
1 =
Z
0
d sin
2
Z
0
d|Y
m
l
(, )|
2
. (6.113)
These normalization requirements guarantee that the total wavefunction is
normalized
1 =
dx
dy
dz |
(r
0
)|
2
. (6.114)
Substituting into Eqs. (6.108) and (6.109) yields
"
1
sin
2
2
+
1
sin

sin

#
Y
m
l
= l (l + 1) Y
m
l
, (6.115)
i

Y
m
l
= mY
m
l
. (6.116)
The functions Y
m
l
(, ) are called spherical harmonics
In the previous section, which discusses the case of general angular mo-
mentum, we have seen that the quantum number m can take any half integer
value 0, 1/2, 1, 3/2, [see Eq. (6.66)]. Recall that the only assumption em-
ployed in order to obtain this result was the commutation relations (6.22).
However, as is shown by the claim below, only integer values are allowed for
the case of orbital angular momentum. In view of this result, one may argue
that the existence of spin, which corresponds to half integer values, is in fact
predicted by the commutation relations (6.22) only.
Claim. The variable m must be an integer.
Proof. Consider a solution having the form
Y
m
l
(, ) = F
m
l
() e
im
. (6.117)
Clearly, Eq. (6.116) is satised. The requirement
Y
m
l
(, ) = Y
m
l
(, + 2) , (6.118)
namely, the requirement that Y
m
l
(, ) is continuos, leads to
e
2im
= 1 , (6.119)
thus m must be an integer.
The spherical harmonics Y
m
l
(, ) can be obtained by solving Eqs. (6.115)
and (6.116). However, we will employ an alternative approach, in which in
the rst step we nd the spherical harmonics Y
l
l
(, ) by solving the equation
L
+
|l, li = 0 , (6.120)
which is of rst order [contrary to Eq. (6.115), which is of the second order].
Using the identity (6.84), which is given by
hr
0
| L
+
|i = i~e
i
cot

hr
0
|i , (6.121)
one has
l cot
F
l
l
() = 0 . (6.122)
F
l
l
() = C
l
(sin)
l
, (6.123)
where C
l
is a normalization constant. Thus, Y
l
l
is given by
Y
l
l
(, ) = C
l
(sin)
l
e
il
. (6.124)
In the second step we employ the identity (6.65), which is given by
J
|j, mi =
p
j (j + 1) m(m1)~ |j, m1i , (6.125)
6.6. Problems
and Eq. (6.84), which is given by
hr
0
| L
|i = i~exp(i)
cot

hr
0
|i , (6.126)
to derive the following recursive relation
e
i
mcot
Y
m
l
(, ) =
p
l (l + 1) m(m1)Y
m1
l
(, ) ,
(6.127)
which allows nding Y
m
l
(, ) for all possible values of m provided that
Y
l
l
(, ) is given. The normalized spherical harmonics are found using this
method to be given by
Y
m
l
(, ) =
(1)
l
2
l
l!
s
2l + 1
4
(l +m)!
(l m)!
e
im
(sin)
m
d
lm
d(cos )
lm
(sin)
2l
.
(6.128)
As an example, closed form expressions for the cases l = 0 and l = 1 are
given below
Y
0
0
(, ) =
1
4
, (6.129)
Y
1
1
(, ) =
r
3
8
sine
i
, (6.130)
Y
0
1
(, ) =
r
3
4
cos . (6.131)
6.6 Problems
1. Let R
(where i {x, y, z} ) be the 33 rotation matrices (as dened in

the lecture). Show that for innitesimal angle the following holds
[R
x
() , R
y
()] = 1 R
z
, (6.132)
where
[R
x
() , R
y
()] = R
x
() R
y
() R
y
() R
x
() . (6.133)
2. Show that
exp
iJ
z
J
x
exp
iJ
z
= J
x
cos J
y
sin . (6.134)
3. The components of the Pauli matrix vector are given by:
x
=

0 1
1 0
,
y
=

0 i
i 0
,
z
=

1 0
0 1
. (6.135)
a) Show that
( a) ( b) = a b +i (a b) , (6.136)
where a and b are vector operators which commute with , but not
necessarily commute with each other.
b) Show that
exp
i n
2
= 1cos

2
i nsin

2
, (6.137)
where n is a unit vector and where 1 is the 2 2 identity matrix.
4. Find the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the matrix n ( n is a unit
vector).
5. Consider an electron in a state in which the component of its spin along
the z axis is +~/2 . What is the probability that the component of the spin
along an axis z
0
, which makes an angle with the z axis, will measured
to be +~/2 or ~/2 . What is the average value of the component of the
spin along this axis?
6. The 2 2 matrix U is given by
U =
1 +i( n)
1 i( n)
, (6.138)
where
=
x
x +
y
y +
z
z (6.139)
is the Pauli vector matrix,
n = n
x
x +n
y
y +n
z
z (6.140)
is a unit vector, i.e. n n = 1, and n
x
, n
y
, n
z
and are all real parameters.
Note that generally for a matrix or an operator
1
A
A
1
.
a) show that U is unitary.
b) Show that
dU
d
=
2i ( n)
1 +
2
U . (6.141)
c) Calculate U by solving the dierential equation in the previous sec-
tion.
6.6. Problems
7. A particle is located in a box, which is divided into a left and right
sections. The corresponding vector states are denoted as |Li and |Ri
respectively. The Hamiltonian of the system is given by
H = E
L
|Li hL| +E
R
|Ri hR| +(|Li hR| +|Ri hL|) . (6.142)
The particle at time t = 0 is in the left section
|(t = 0)i = |Li . (6.143)
Calculate the probability p
R
(t) to nd the particle in the state |Ri at
time t.
8. A magnetic eld given by
B(t) = B
0
z +B
1
( xcos (
1
t) + ysin(
1
t)) (6.144)
is applied to a spin 1/2 particle. At time t = 0 the state is given by
|i (t = 0) = |+; zi . (6.145)
Calculate the probability P
+
(t) to nd the system in the state |; zi
at time t > 0.
9. Find the time evolution of the state vector of a spin 1/2 particle in
a magnetic eld along the z direction with time dependent magnitude
B(t) = B(t) z.
10. A magnetic eld given by B = Bcos (t) z, where B is a constant, is
applied to a spin 1/2. At time t = 0 the spin is in state |(t)i, which
satises
S
x
|(t = 0)i =
~
2
|(t = 0)i , (6.146)
Calculate the expectation value hS
z
i at time t 0.
11. Consider a spin 1/2 particle. The time dependent Hamiltonian is given
by
H =
4S
z
1 + (t)
2
, (6.147)
where is a real non-negative constant and S
z
is the z component of the
angular momentum operator. Calculate the time evolution operator u of
the system.
12. Consider a spin 1/2 particle in an eigenstate of the operator S n with
eigenvalue +~/2 , where S is the vector operator of angular momentum
and where n is a unit vector. The angle between the unit vector n and
the z axis is . Calculate the expectation values
a) hS
z
i
b)
D
(S
z
)
2
E
13. An ensemble of spin 1/2 particles are in a normalized state
|i = |+i + |i ,
where the states |+i and |i are the eigenstates of S
z
(the z component
of the angular momentum operator). At what direction the magnetic eld
should be aligned in a Stern-Gerlach experiment in order for the beam
not to split.
14. Consider a spin 1/2 particle having gyromagnetic ratio in a magnetic
eld given by B(t) u . The unit vector is given by
u =(sin cos , sin sin, cos ) , (6.148)
where , are angles in spherical coordinates. The eld intensity is given
by
B(t) =
_
_
_
0 t < 0
B
0
0 < t <
0 t >
. (6.149)
At times t < 0 the spin was in state |+i , namely in eigenstate of S
z
with
positive eigenvalue. Calculate the probability P
(t) to nd the spin in

state |i at time t , where t > .
15. Consider a spin 1/2 particle. The Hamiltonian is given by
H = S
x
, (6.150)
where is a Larmor frequency and where S
x
is the x component of the
angular momentum operator. The z component of the angular momen-
tum is measured at the times t
n
= nT/N where n = 0, 1, 2, , N, N is
integer and T is the time of the last measurement.
a) Find the matrix representation of the time evolution operator u(t)
in the basis of |; zi states.
b) What is the probability p
same
to get the same result in all N + 1
measurements. Note that the initial state of the particle is unknown.
c) For a xed T calculate the limit lim
N
p
same
.
16. Consider a spin 1/2 particle. No external magnetic eld is applied. Three
measurements are done one after the other. In the rst one the z com-
ponent of the angular momentum is measured, in the second one the
component along the direction u is measured and in the third measure-
ment, again the z component is measured. The unit vector u is described
using the angles and
u =(sin cos , sin sin, cos ) . (6.151)
Calculate the probability p
same
to have the same result in the 1st and
3rd measurements.
6.6. Problems
17. Let hi (t) be the expectation value of the magnetic moment associated
with spin 1/2 particle ( = S , where S is the angular momentum and
is the gyromagnetic ratio). Show that in the presence of a time varying
magnetic eld B(t) the following holds
d
dt
hi (t) = hi (t) B(t) . (6.152)
18. The Hamiltonian of an electron of mass m, charge q, spin 1/2, placed in
electromagnetic eld described by the vector potential A(r, t) and the
scalar potential (r, t), can be written as [see Eq. (1.62)]
H =
p
q
c
A
2
2m
+q
q~
2mc
B , (6.153)
where B = A. Show that this Hamiltonian can also be written as
H =
1
2m
h

p
q
c
A
i
2
+q . (6.154)
19. Show that
hj, m|
h
(J
x
)
2
+ (J
y
)
2
i
|j, mi = ~
2
j
2
+j m
2
. (6.155)
20. Find the condition under which the Hamiltonian of a charged particle in
a magnetic eld
H =
1
2m
p
q
c
A
2
. (6.156)
can be written as
H =
1
2m
p
2
q
mc
p A+
q
2
2mc
2
A
2
. (6.157)
21. Consider a point particle having mass m and charge q moving under the
inuence of electric eld E and magnetic eld B, which are related to
the scalar potential and to the vector potential A by
E =
1
c
A
t
, (6.158)
and
B = A . (6.159)
Find the coordinates representation of the time-independent Schrodinger
equation H|i = E|i.
22. A particle of mass m and charge e interacts with a vector potential
A
x
= A
z
= 0 , (6.160)
A
y
= Bx . (6.161)
Calculate the ground state energy. Clue: Consider a wave function of the
form
(x, y, z) = (x) exp(ik
y
y) exp(ik
z
z) . (6.162)
23. Find the energy spectrum of a charged particle having mass mand charge
q moving in uniform and time-independent magnetic eld B = Bz and
electric eld E = E x.
24. Consider a particle having mass m and charge e moving in xy plane under
the inuence of the potential U (y) =
1
2
m
2
0
y
2
. A uniform and time-
independent magnetic eld given by B = Bz is applied perpendicularly
to the xy plane. Calculate the eigenenergies of the particle.
25. Consider a particle with charge q and mass conned to move on a circle
of radius a in the xy plane, but is otherwise free. A uniform and time
independent magnetic eld B is applied in the z direction.
a) Find the eigenenergies.
b) Calculate the current J
m
for each of the eigenstates of the system.
26. The Hamiltonian of a non isotropic rigid rotator is given by
H =
L
2
x
2I
xy
+
L
2
y
2I
xy
+
L
2
z
2I
z
, (6.163)
where L is the vector angular momentum operator. At time t = 0 the
state of the system is described by the wavefunction
(, ) = Asin cos , (6.164)
where , are angles in spherical coordinates and A is a normalization
constant. Calculate the expectation value hL
z
i at time t > 0 .
27. The eigenstates of the angular momentum operators L
2
and L
z
with
l = 1 and m = 1, 0, 1 are denoted as |1, 1i, |1, 0i and |1, 1i.
a) Write the 3 3 matrix of the operator L
x
in this l = 1 subspace.
b) Calculate the expectation value hL
x
i for the state
1
2
|1, 1i +
2 |1, 0i +|1, 1i
.
c) The same as the previous section for the state
1
2
[|1, 1i |1, 1i].
d) Write the 3 3 matrix representation in this basis of the rotation
operator at angle around the z axis.
e) The same as in the previous section for an innitesimal rotation with
angle d around the x axis.
28. Consider a particle of mass m in a 3D harmonic potential
V (x, y, z, ) =
1
2
m
2
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
. (6.165)
6.6. Problems
The state vector |i of the particle satisfy
a
x
|i =
x
|i , (6.166)
a
y
|i =
y
|i , (6.167)
a
z
|i =
z
|i , (6.168)
where
x
,
y
and
z
are complex and a
x
, a
y
and a
z
are annihilation
operators
a
x
=
r
m
2~
x +
ip
x
m
, (6.169)
a
y
=
r
m
2~
y +
ip
y
m
, (6.170)
a
z
=
r
m
2~
z +
ip
z
m
, (6.171)
Let L be the vector operator of the orbital angular momentum.
a) Calculate hL
z
i.
b) Calculate L
z
.
29. A rigid rotator is prepared in a state
|i = A(|1, 1i |1, 1i) , (6.172)
where A is a normalization constant, and where the symbol |l, mi denotes
an angular momentum state with quantum numbers l and m. Calculate
a) hL
x
i.
b)
D
(L
x
)
2
E
.
30. The Hamiltonian of a top is given by
H =
L
2
x
+L
2
y
2I
1
+
L
2
z
2I
2
, (6.173)
where L is the angular momentum vector operator. Let |
0
i be the
ground state of the system.
a) Calculate the quantity A
z
(), which is dened as
A
z
() = h
0
| exp
iL
z
Hexp
iL
z
|
0
i . (6.174)
b) Calculate the quantity A
x
(), which is dened as
A
x
() = h
0
| exp
iL
x
Hexp
iL
x
|
0
i .
6.7 Solutions
1. By cyclic permutation of
R
z
=
_
_
cos sin 0
sin cos 0
0 0 1
_
_
, (6.175)
one has
R
x
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos
_
_
, (6.176)
R
y
=
_
_
cos 0 sin
0 1 0
sin 0 cos
_
_
. (6.177)
On one hand
1 [R
x
() , R
y
()]
=
_
_
1 1 + cos
2
sin sincos
1 cos
2
1 sincos sin
sin sincos sincos sin 1
_
_
=
_
_
1
2
0
2
1 0
0 0 1
_
_
+O
.
(6.178)
On the other hand
R
z
=
_
_
cos
2
sin
2
0
sin
2
cos
2
0
0 0 1
_
_
=
_
_
1
2
0
2
1 0
0 0 1
_
_
+O
, (6.179)
thus
1 [R
x
() , R
y
()] = R
z
+O
. (6.180)
2. Using the identity (2.174), which is given by
e
L
Ae
L
= A+[L, A] +
1
2!
[L, [L, A]] +
1
3!
[L, [L, [L, A]]] + , (6.181)
and the commutation relations (6.22), which are given by
[J
i
, J
j
] = i~
ijk
J
k
, (6.182)
one has
6.7. Solutions
exp
iJ
z
J
x
exp
iJ
z
= J
x
+
i
~
[J
z
, J
x
] +
1
2!
i
~
2
[J
z
, [J
z
, J
x
]]
+
1
3!
i
~
3
[J
z
, [J
z
, [J
z
, J
x
]]] +
= J
x
1
1
2!
2
+
J
y

1
3!
3
+
J
x
cos J
y
sin .
(6.183)
3. The components of the Pauli matrix vector are given by:
x
=

0 1
1 0
,
y
=

0 i
i 0
,
z
=

1 0
0 1
. (6.184)
a) The following holds
a =

a
z
a
x
ia
y
a
x
+ia
y
a
z
, (6.185)
b =

b
z
b
x
ib
y
b
x
+ib
y
b
z
, (6.186)
thus
( a) ( b) =

a
z
b
z
+ (a
x
ia
y
) (b
x
+ib
y
) a
z
(b
x
ib
y
) (a
x
ia
y
) b
z
(a
x
+ia
y
) b
z
a
z
(b
x
+ib
y
) a
z
b
z
+ (a
x
+ia
y
) (b
x
ib
y
)
= a b
1 0
0 1
+i (a
y
b
z
a
z
b
y
)
0 1
1 0
+i (a
z
b
x
a
x
b
z
)
0 i
i 0
+i (a
x
b
y
a
y
b
x
)
1 0
0 1
= a b +i (a b) .
(6.187)
b) Using (a) one has
( n)
2
= 1 , (6.188)
thus with the help of the Taylor expansion of the functions cos (x)
and sin(x) one nds
exp
i n
2
= cos
n
2
i sin
n
2
= 1cos

2
i nsin

2
.
(6.189)
4. In spherical coordinates the unit vectors n is expressed as
n = (cos sin, sinsin, cos ) , (6.190)
thus
n =

cos sine
i
sine
i
cos
. (6.191)
The eigen values
+
and
are found solving
+
+
= Tr ( n) = 0 , (6.192)
and
= Det ( n) = 1 , (6.193)
thus
= 1 . (6.194)
The normalized eigenvectors can be chosen to be given by
|+i =

cos

2
exp
i
2
sin

2
exp
i
2

, (6.195)
|i =

sin

2
exp
i
2
cos

2
exp
i
2

. (6.196)
5. Using Eq. (6.195) one nds the probability p
+
to measure +~/2 is given
by
p
+
=
1 0
cos

2
exp
i
2
sin

2
exp
i
2
2
= cos
2

2
, (6.197)
and the probability p
to measure ~/2 is
p
= 1 p
+
= sin
2

2
. (6.198)
The average value of the component of the spin along z
0
axis is thus
~
2
cos
2

2
sin
2

2
=
~
2
cos . (6.199)
6.7. Solutions
6. In general, note that all smooth functions of the matrix ( n) commute,
a fact that greatly simplies the calculations.
1
1 i( n)
= 1 +i( n) + [i( n)]
2
+ , (6.200)
thus
1
1 i( n)
= 1 i( n) + [(i) ( n)]
2
+
=
1
1 +i( n)
,
(6.201)
therefore
UU
=
1 +i( n)
1 i( n)
1 i( n)
1 +i( n)
= 1 , (6.202)
and similarly U
U = 1.
b) Exploiting again the fact that all smooth functions of the matrix
( n) commute and using Eq. (6.188) one has
dU
d
= i
[1 i( n)] ( n) + [1 +i( n)] ( n)
[1 i( n)]
2
= i
2 ( n)
[1 i( n)]
2
= i
2 ( n)
[1 i( n)] [1 +i( n)]
1 +i( n)
1 i( n)
=
2i ( n)
1 +
2
U .
(6.203)
c) By integration one has
U = U
0
exp
2i ( n)
Z

0
d
0
1 +
02
U
0
exp
2i ( n) tan
1
,
(6.204)
where U
0
is a the matrix U at = 0. With the help of Eq. (6.137)
one thus nds that
U = U
0
1 cos
2 tan
1
+i nsin
2 tan
1
, (6.205)
Using the identities
cos
2 tan
1
=
1
2
1 +
2
, (6.206)
sin
2 tan
1
=
2
1 +
2
, (6.207)
and assuming U
0
= 1 one nds that
U =
1
2
1 +
2
+i n
2
1 +
2
. (6.208)
7. In terms of Pauli matrices
H =E
a
0
+
x
+E
d
z
, (6.209)
where
E
a
=
E
L
+E
R
2
, E
d
=
E
L
E
R
2
, (6.210)
and
0
=

1 0
0 1
,
x
=

0 1
1 0
,
z
=

1 0
0 1
. (6.211)
Using Eq. (6.137), which is given by
exp
i n
2
= cos

2
i nsin

2
, (6.212)
the time evolution operator u(t) can be calculated
u(t) = exp
iHt
~
= exp
iE
a
0
t
~
exp
i (
x
+E
d
z
) t
~
= exp
iE
a
t
~
exp
i n
p
2
+E
2
d
t
~
!
,
(6.213)
where
n =
(, 0, E
d
)
p
2
+E
2
d
, (6.214)
thus
u(t) = exp
iE
a
t
~
cos
p
2
+E
2
d
t
~
i
x
+E
d
z
p
2
+E
2
d
sin
t
p
2
+E
2
d
~
!
.
(6.215)
The probability p
R
(t) is thus given by
6.7. Solutions
p
R
(t) = |hR| u(t) |(t = 0)i|
2
= |hR| u(t) |Li|
2
=

2
2
+
ELER
2
2
sin
2
t
q
2
+
ELER
2
2
~
.
(6.216)
H =
0
S
z
+
1
(cos (t) S
x
+ sin(t) S
y
) , (6.217)
where
0
=
|e| B
0
m
e
c
, (6.218)
1
=
|e| B
1
m
e
c
. (6.219)
The matrix representation in the basis {|+i , |i} (where |+i = |+; zi
and |i = |; zi) is found using Eqs. (6.69), (6.74) and (6.75)
H =
~
2

0

1
exp(it)
1
exp(it)
0
. (6.220)
The Schrodinger equation is given by
i~
d
dt
|i = H|i . (6.221)
It is convenient to express the general solution as
|i (t) = b
+
(t) exp
it
2
|+i +b
(t) exp
it
2
|i . (6.222)
Substituting into the Schrodinger equation yields
i
d
dt
it
2
0
0 e
it
2
b
+
b
=
1
2

0

1
e
it
1
e
it
it
2
0
0 e
it
2
b
+
b
,
(6.223)
or
i
2
it
2
0
0 e
it
2
b
+
b
it
2
0
0 e
it
2
b
+
=
i
2

0

1
e
it
1
e
it
it
2
0
0 e
it
2
b
+
b
.
(6.224)
By multiplying from the left by
e
it
2
0
0 e
it
2
one has
i
2
1 0
0 1
b
+
b
b
+
=
i
2
0

1
1

0
b
+
b
, (6.225)
or
i
b
+
=

2
b
+
b
, (6.226)
where
=

1
=
z
+
1
x
, (6.227)
and
=
0
. (6.228)
At time t = 0
b
+
(0)
b
(0)
=

1
0
. (6.229)
The time evolution is found using Eq. (6.137)
b
+
(t)
b
(t)
= exp
it
2
b
+
(0)
b
(0)
=
_
_
cos i
sin
2
1
+()
2
i
1 sin
2
1
+()
2
i
1 sin
2
1
+()
2
cos +i
sin
2
1
+()
2
_
_
1
0
,
(6.230)
where
=
q
2
1
+ ()
2
t
2
. (6.231)
The probability is thus given by
P
+
(t) =

2
1
2
1
+ ()
2
sin
2
q
2
1
+ ()
2
t
2
. (6.232)
6.7. Solutions
9. The Schrodinger equation is given by
i~
d|i
dt
= H|i , (6.233)
where
H = S
z
, (6.234)
and
(t) =
|e| B(t)
m
e
c
. (6.235)
In the basis of the eigenvectors of S
z
one has
|i = c
+
|+i +c
|i , (6.236)
and
i~ ( c
+
|+i + c
|i) = S
z
(c
+
|+i +c
|i) , (6.237)
where
S
z
|i =
~
2
|i , (6.238)
thus one gets 2 decoupled equations
c
+
=
i
2
c
+
, (6.239)
c
=
i
2
c
. (6.240)
c
(t) = c
(0) exp
i
2
Z
t
0
(t
0
) dt
0
= c
(0) exp
i |e|
2m
e
c
Z
t
0
B(t
0
) dt
0
.
(6.241)
10. At time t = 0
|(t = 0)i =
1
2
(|+i +|i) . (6.242)
Using the result of the previous problem and the notation
c
=
eB
mc
, (6.243)
one nds
|(t)i =
1
2
_
_
exp
_
_
i
c
2
t
Z
0
cos (t
0
) dt
0
_
_
|+i + exp
_
_
i
c
2
t
Z
0
cos (t
0
) dt
0
_
_
|i
_
_
=
1
exp
i
c
sint
2
|+i + exp
i
c
sint
2
|i
,
(6.244)
thus
hS
z
i (t) = h(t)| S
z
|(t)i = 0 . (6.245)
11. The Schrodinger equation for u is given by
i~
du
dt
= Hu , (6.246)
thus
du
dt
=
4iS
z
~
1
1 + (t)
2
u . (6.247)
By integration one nds
u(t) = u(0) exp
_
_
4iS
z
~
t
Z
0
dt
0
1 + (t
0
)
2
_
_
= u(0) exp
4iS
z
~
tan
1
(t)
.
(6.248)
Setting an initial condition u(t = 0) = 1 yields
u(t) = exp
4iS
z
~
tan
1
(t)
. (6.249)
The matrix elements of u(t) in the basis of the eigenstates |i of S
z
are
given by
h+| u(t) |+i = exp
2i tan
1
(t)
=
1 +it
1 it
, (6.250)
h| u(t) |i = exp
2i tan
1
(t)
=
1 it
1 +it
, (6.251)
h+| u(t) |i = h| u(t) |+i = 0 . (6.252)
12. The eigenvector of S n, where n =(sin cos , sin sin, cos ) with
eigenvalue +~/2 is given by [see Eq. (6.195)]
6.7. Solutions
|+; S ni = cos

2
e
i
2
|+i + sin

2
e
i
2
|i . (6.253)
The operator S
z
is written as
S
z
=
~
2
(|+i h+| |i h|) . (6.254)
a) Thus
h+; S n| S
z
|+; S ni =
~
2
cos
2

2
sin
2
=
~
2
cos . (6.255)
b) Since S
2
z
is the identity operator times ~
2
/4 one has
D
(S
z
)
2
E
=
S
2
z
hS
z
i
2
=
~
2
4
1 cos
2
=
~
2
4
sin
2
. (6.256)
13. We seek a unit vector n such that
|i = |+; S ni , (6.257)
where |+; S ni is given by Eq. (6.195)
|+; S ni = cos

+
2
exp
i
+
2
|+i+sin

+
2
exp
i
+
2
|i , (6.258)
thus the following hold
ctg

+
2
=
, (6.259)
and
+
= arg () arg () . (6.260)
Similarly, by requiring that
|i = |; S ni , (6.261)
where
|; S ni = sin

2
exp
|+i+cos

2
exp
|i , (6.262)
one nds
tan

2
=
, (6.263)
= arg () arg () + . (6.264)

14. The Hamiltonian at the time interval 0 < t < is given by
H = B
0
(S u) , (6.265)
where is the gyromagnetic ratio and S is the angular momentum op-
erator. The eigenvectors of S u with eigenvalue ~/2 are given by [see
Eqs. (6.195) and (6.196)]
|+; S ui = cos

2
e
i
2
|+i + sin

2
e
i
2
|i , (6.266)
|; S ui = sin

2
e
i
2
|+i + cos

2
e
i
2
|i , (6.267)
Thus in the time interval 0 < t < the state vector is given by
|i = |+; S ui h+; S u |+i exp
iB
0
t
2
+|; S ui h; S u |+i exp
iB
0
t
2
= |+; S ui cos

2
e
i
2
exp
iB
0
t
2
|; S ui sin

2
e
i
2
exp
iB
0
t
2
= e
i
cos
2

2
exp
iB
0
t
2
+ sin
2

2
exp
iB
0
t
2
|+i
+sin

2
cos

2
exp
iB
0
t
2
exp
iB
0
t
2
|i
= e
i
1 + cos
2
exp
iB
0
t
2
+
1 cos
2
exp
iB
0
t
2
|+i
+i sin sin
B
0
t
2
|i
= e
i
cos
B
0
t
2
+i cos sin
B
0
t
2
|+i +i sin sin
B
0
t
2
|i .
(6.268)
Thus for t >
P
(t) = sin
2
sin
2
B
0
. (6.269)
An alternative solution - The Hamiltonian in the basis of |i states is
given by
H =
B
0
~
2
( u) , (6.270)
where is the Pauli matrix vector
1
=

0 1
1 0
,
2
=

0 i
i 0
,
3
=

1 0
0 1
. (6.271)
6.7. Solutions
The time evolution operator is given by
u(t) = exp
iHt
~
= exp
iB
0
t
2
( u)
. (6.272)
Using the identity (6.137) one nds
u(t) = I cos
B
0
t
2
+i u sin
B
0
t
2
=
_
_
cos
B
0
t
2
+i cos sin
B
0
t
2
i sine
i
sin
B
0
t
2
i sine
i
sin
B0t
2
cos
B0t
2
i cos sin
B0t
2
_
_
,
(6.273)
thus for t >
P
(t) =
0 1
u(t)
1
0
2
= sin
2
sin
2
B
0
. (6.274)
15. The matrix representation of the Hamiltonian in the basis of |; S
z
i
states is given by
H =
~
2
( x ) , (6.275)
where is the Pauli matrix vector
x
=

0 1
1 0
,
y
=

0 i
i 0
,
z
=

1 0
0 1
. (6.276)
a) The time evolution operator is given by
u(t) = exp
iHt
~
=exp
it
2
( x )
. (6.277)
Using the identity
exp(iu ) = 1cos +i u sin , (6.278)
where u = u is a three-dimensional real vector and u is a three-
dimensional real unit vector, one nds
u(t) = 1cos
t
2
i
1
sin
t
2
=

cos
t
2
i sin
t
2
i sin
t
2
cos
t
2
.
(6.279)
b) Let P
++
(t) be the probability to measure S
z
= +~/2 at time t > 0
given that at time t = 0 the spin was found to have S
z
= +~/2.
Similarly, P
(t) is the probability to measure S

z
= ~/2 at time
t > 0 given that at time t = 0 the spin was found to have S
z
= ~/2.
These probabilities are given by
P
++
(t) =
1 0
u(t)
1
0
2
= cos
2
t
2
, (6.280)
P
(t) =
0 1
u(t)
0
1
2
= cos
2
t
2
. (6.281)
Thus, assuming that the rst measurement has yielded S
z
= +~/2
one nds p
same
=

P
++
T
N
N
, whereas assuming that the rst mea-
surement has yielded S
z
= ~/2 one nds p
same
=

P
T
N
N
.
Thus in general independently on the result of the rst measurement
one has
p
same
= cos
2N
T
2N
. (6.282)
c) Using
p
same
= exp
2N log
cos
T
2N
= exp
2N log
1
1
2
T
2N
2
+O
1
N
4
!!
= exp
(T)
2
4N
+O
1
N
3
!
,
(6.283)
one nds
lim
N
p
same
= 1 . (6.284)
This somewhat surprising result is called the quantum Zeno eect or
the watched pot never boils eect.
16. The eigenvectors of S u with eigenvalues ~/2 are given by
|+; ui = cos

2
e
i
2
|+i + sin

2
e
i
2
|i , (6.285a)
|; ui = sin

2
e
i
2
|+i + cos

2
e
i
2
|i , (6.285b)
where the states |i are eigenvectors of S z. Let P (
3
,
2
|
1
) be the
probability to measure S u =
2
(~/2) in the second measurement and to
measure S z =
3
(~/2) in the third measurement given that the result
of the rst measurement was S z =
1
(~/2), and where
n
{+, }.
The following holds
6.7. Solutions
P (+, +|+) = |h+|+; ui|
2
|h+|+; ui|
2
= cos
4

2
, (6.286a)
P (+, |+) = |h+|; ui|
2
|h+|; ui|
2
= sin
4
2
, (6.286b)
P (, |) = |h|; ui|
2
|h|; ui|
2
= cos
4

2
, (6.286c)
P (, +|) = |h|+; ui|
2
|h|+; ui|
2
= sin
4
2
, (6.286d)
thus independently on what was the result of the rst measurement one
has
p
same
= cos
4

2
+ sin
4
2
= 1
1
2
sin
2
. (6.287)
H = B . (6.288)
Using Eq. (4.38) for
z
one has
dh
z
i
dt
=
1
i~
h[
z
, H]i
=
2
i~
hB
x
[S
z
, S
x
] +B
y
[S
z
, S
y
]i
=
2
hB
y
S
x
B
x
S
y
i
= ( B) z .
(6.289)
Similar expressions are obtained for
x
and
y
that together can be
written in a vector form as
d
dt
hi (t) = hi (t) B(t) . (6.290)
18. Using Eq. (6.136), which is given by
( a) ( b) = a b +i (a b) , (6.291)
one has
h

p
q
c
A
i
2
=

p
q
c
A
2
+i ((p qA) (p qA))
=

p
q
c
A
2
i
q
c
(Ap +p A) .
(6.292)
The z component of the term (Ap +p A) can be expressed as
(Ap +p A) z = A
x
p
y
A
y
p
x
+p
x
A
y
p
y
A
x
= [A
x
, p
y
] [A
y
, p
x
] ,
(6.293)
thus, with the help of Eq. (3.75) one nds that
(Ap +p A) z = i~
dA
x
dy

dA
y
dx
= i~ (A) z . (6.294)
Similar results can be obtained for the x and y components, thus
h

p
q
c
A
i
2
=

p
q
c
A
q~
c
B . (6.295)
19. Since
hj, m| J
x
|j, mi = hj, m| J
y
|j, mi = 0 , (6.296)
and
J
2
x
+J
2
y
= J
2
J
2
z
, (6.297)
one nds that
hj, m|
h
(J
x
)
2
+ (J
y
)
2
i
|j, mi = hj, m| J
2
|j, mi hj, m| J
2
z
|j, mi
= ~
2
j
2
+j m
2
.
(6.298)
20. The condition is
p A = A p , (6.299)
or
[p
x
, A
x
] + [p
y
, A
y
] + [p
z
, A
z
] = 0 , (6.300)
or using Eq. (3.75)
A
x
x
+
A
y
y
+
A
z
z
= 0 , (6.301)
or
A = 0 . (6.302)
21. The Hamiltonian is given by Eq. (1.62)
H =
p
q
c
A
2
2m
+q , (6.303)
thus, the the coordinates representation of H|i = E|i is given by
hr
0
| H|i = Ehr
0
|i . (6.304)
6.7. Solutions
Using the notation
hr
0
|i = (r
0
) (6.305)
for the wavefunction together with Eqs. (3.23) and (3.29) one has
1
2m
i~
q
c
A
2
+q
(r
0
) = E (r
0
) . (6.306)
H =
p
e
c
A
2
2m
=
p
2
x
+p
2
z
2m
+
p
y
eBx
c
2
2m
=
p
2
x
2m
+
1
2
m
2
c
x
cp
y
eB
2
+
p
2
z
2m
,
(6.307)
where
c
=
eB
mc
. (6.308)
Using the clue
y
y) exp(ik
z
z) (6.309)
one nds that the time independent Schrodinger equation for the wave
function (x) is thus given by
"
p
2
x
2m
+
1
2
m
2
c
x
c~k
y
eB
2
#
(x) =

E
~
2
k
2
z
2m
(x) , (6.310)
where p
x
= i~/x, thus the eigen energies are given by
E
n,k
= ~
c
n +
1
2
+
~
2
k
2
z
2m
, (6.311)
where n is integer and k is real, and the ground state energy is
E
n=0,k=0
=
~
c
2
. (6.312)
23. Using the gauge A = Bx y the Hamiltonian is given by [see Eq. (1.62)]
H =
p
q
c
A
2
2m
qEx
=
p
2
x
+p
2
z
2m
+
p
y
qBx
c
2
2m
qEx .
(6.313)
The last two terms can be written as
p
y
qBx
c
2
2m
qEx =
p
2
y
2m
+
1
2
m
2
c
h
(x x
0
)
2
x
2
0
i
, (6.314)
where
c
=
qB
mc
, (6.315)
and
x
0
=
mc
2
q
2
B
2
qE +
qp
y
mc
B
. (6.316)
Substituting the trial wavefunction
y
y) exp(ik
z
z) , (6.317)
into the three dimensional Schrodinger equation yields a one dimensional
Schr odinger equation
"
p
2
x
2m
+
1
2
m
2
c
(x x
0
)
2
1
2
m
2
c
x
2
0
+
~
2
k
2
y
+~
2
k
2
z
2m
#
(x) = E(x) ,
(6.318)
where p
x
= i~/x and where
x
0
=
mc
2
q
2
B
2
qE +
q~k
y
mc
B
. (6.319)
This equation describes a harmonic oscillator with a minimum potential
at x = x
0
, with added constant terms that give rise to a shift in the
energy level, which are thus given by
E
n,ky,kz
= ~
c
n +
1
2
1
2
m
2
c
x
2
0
+
~
2
k
2
y
+~
2
k
2
z
2m
= ~
c
n +
1
2
mc
2
E
2
2B
2

c~k
y
E
B
+
~
2
k
2
z
2m
,
(6.320)
where n = 0, 1, 2, and where the momentum variables k
y
and k
z
can
take any real value.
24. The Schrodinger equation reads
"
p
e
c
A
2
2m
+U (y)
#
(x, y) = E (x, y) , (6.321)
6.7. Solutions
where
p = i~.
Employing the gauge A = By x one has
"
p
x
+
e
c
By
2
2m
+
p
2
y
2m
+U (y)
#
(x, y) = E (x, y) , (6.322)
where p
x
= i~/x and p
y
= i~/y. By substituting the trial wave-
function
(x, y) = exp(ikx) (y) , (6.323)
one obtains a one dimensional Schrodinger equation for (y)
"
p
2
y
2m
+
e
c
By +~k
2
2m
+
1
2
m
2
0
y
2
#
(y) = E(y) , (6.324)
or
"
p
2
y
2m
+
~
2
k
2
2m
+
1
2
m
2
c0
y
2
eB~k
mc
y
#
(y) = E(y) , (6.325)
where
2
c0

2
c
+
2
0
and
c
= |e| B/mc. This can also be written as
"
p
2
y
2m
+
1
2
m
2
c0
y
eB~k
m
2
c
2
c0
2
+
~
2
k
2
2m

2
0
2
c0
#
(y) = E(y) . (6.326)
This is basically a one-dimensional Schr odinger equation with a parabolic
potential of an harmonic oscillator and the eigenenergies are thus given
by:
E(n, k) = ~
c0
n +
1
2
+
~
2
k
2
2m

2
0
2
c0
,
where n = 0, 1, 2, and k is real.
25. It is convenient to choose a gauge having cylindrical symmetry, namely
A =
1
2
r B . (6.327)
For this gauge A = 0, thus according to Eq. (6.157) the Hamiltonian
is given by
H =
1
2
p
2
q
c
p A+
q
2
2c
2
A
2
. (6.328)
The Schrodinger equation in cylindrical coordinates (, z, ) is given by
(note that A = (B/2)

)
~
2
2
+
1
2
+

2
z
2
+
i~qB
2c

+
q
2
2c
2
B
2
2
= E .
(6.329)
The particle is constrained to move along the ring, which is located at
z = 0 and = a, thus the eective one dimensional Schr odinger equation
of the system is given by
~
2
2a
2
2
+
i~qB
2c

+
q
2
a
2
B
2
8c
2
= E . (6.330)
a) Consider a solution of the form
() =
1
2a
exp(im) , (6.331)
where the pre factor (2a)
1/2
ensures normalization. The continu-
ity requirement that (2) = (0) implies that m must be an inte-
ger. Substituting this solution into the Schrodinger equation (6.330)
yields
E
m
=
~
2
m
2
2a
2

~qBm
2c
+
q
2
a
2
B
2
8c
2
=
~
2
2a
2
m
2
qBa
2
c~
m+
1
4
qBa
2
c~
2
!
=
~
2
2a
2
m
qBa
2
2c~
2
=
~
2
2a
2
2
,
(6.332)
where
= Ba
2
, (6.333)
is the magnetic ux threading the ring and
0
=
ch
q
. (6.334)
b) In general the current density is given by Eq. (4.159). For a wave-
function having the form
(r) = (r) e
i(r)
, (6.335)
6.7. Solutions
where both and are real, one has
J =
~
Im[(() +(i))]
q
c
(A)
=
~
2
()
q
c
2
A
=
||
2
~()
q
c
A
.
(6.336)
In the present case one has
A =
B
2
, (6.337)
() =
m
a

, (6.338)
and the normalized wavefunctions are
m
() =
1
2a
exp(im) , (6.339)
thus
J
m
=
1
2a
~
m
a
q
c
aB
2
=
~
2a
2
. (6.340)
Note that the following holds
|J
m
| =
c
q
E
m
. (6.341)
26. The Hamiltonian can be written as
H =
L
2
L
2
z
2I
xy
+
L
2
z
2I
z
=
L
2
2I
xy
+
1
2I
z

1
2I
xy
L
2
z
,
(6.342)
Thus the states |l, mi (the standard eigenstates of L
2
and L
z
) are eigen-
states of H and the following holds
H|l, mi = E
l,m
|l, mi , (6.343)
where
E
l,m
= ~
2
l (l + 1)
2I
xy
+
1
2I
z

1
2I
xy
m
2
. (6.344)
Using the expression
Y
1
1
(, ) =
r
3
8
sine
i
, (6.345)
one nds that
sin cos =
r
2
3
Y
1
1
Y
1
1
, (6.346)
thus the normalized state at t = 0 can be written as
|(0)i =
1
2
(|1, 1i |1, 1i) . (6.347)
Since E
1,1
= E
1,1
the state |(0)i is stationary. Moreover
h(t)| L
z
|(t)i = h(0)| L
z
|(0)i
=
1
2
((h1, 1| h1, 1|)) L
z
((|1, 1i |1, 1i))
=
1
2
((h1, 1| h1, 1|)) ((|1, 1i |1, 1i))
= 0 .
(6.348)
27. With the help of the relations
L
x
=
L
+
+L
2
, (6.349)
L
+
|l, mi = ~
p
l (l + 1) m(m+ 1) |l, m+ 1i , (6.350)
L
|l, mi = ~
p
l (l + 1) m(m1) |l, m1i . (6.351)
one nds
a)
L
x
=
~
2
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
. (6.352)
b)
hL
x
i =
~
1
2
1
2
1
2
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
_
_
1
2
1
2
1
2
_
_
= ~ . (6.353)
c)
hL
x
i =
~
2
0
1
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
_
_
2
0
1
2
_
_
= 0 . (6.354)
6.7. Solutions
d)
D
z
() = exp
iL
z
~
=
_
_
exp(i) 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 exp(i)
_
_
. (6.355)
e) In general
D
n
(d) = exp
i (d) L n
~
= 1
i (d) L n
~
+O
(d)
2
,
(6.356)
thus
D
x
(d) =
_
_
_
_
1
i(d)
2
0
i(d)
2
1
i(d)
2
0
i(d)
2
1
_
_
_
_
+O
(d)
2
. (6.357)
28. Using
L
z
= xp
y
yp
x
, (6.358)
x =
r
~
2m
a
x
+a
, (6.359)
y =
r
~
2m
a
y
+a
, (6.360)
p
x
= i
r
m~
2
a
x
+a
, (6.361)
p
y
= i
r
m~
2
a
y
+a
, (6.362)
one nds
L
z
=
i~
2
a
x
+a
x

a
y
+a
a
y
+a
y

a
x
+a
= i~
a
x
a
y
a
x
a
y
.
(6.363)
a) Thus
hL
z
i = i~
. (6.364)
b) Using the commutation relations
a
x
, a
= 1 , (6.365)
a
y
, a
= 1 , (6.366)
one nds
L
2
z
= ~
2
h
x
,
y
,
z
|
a
x
x
a
y

x
a
y
a
|
x
,
y
,
z
i
= ~
2
h
|
x
|
2
1 +|
y
|
2
+|
y
|
2
1 +|
x
|
2
2
(
x
a
y
)
2
i
,
(6.367)
thus
(L
z
)
2
= ~
2
h
|
x
|
2
1 +|
y
|
2
+|
y
|
2
1 +|
x
|
2
2
(
x
a
y
)
2
i
= ~
2
h
|
x
|
2
1 +|
y
|
2
+|
y
|
2
1 +|
x
|
2
2 |
x
|
2
|
y
|
2
i
= ~
2
|
x
|
2
+|
y
|
2
,
(6.368)
and
L
z
= ~
q
|
x
|
2
+|
y
|
2
. (6.369)
29. The normalization constant can be chosen to be A = 1/
2. In general:
L
x
=
L
+
+L
2
, (6.370)
L
+
|l, mi = ~
p
l (l + 1) m(m+ 1) |l, m+ 1i , (6.371)
L
|l, mi = ~
p
l (l + 1) m(m1) |l, m1i . (6.372)
L
x
|i =
(L
|1, 1i L
+
|1, 1i)
2
2
=
~ (|1, 0i |1, 0i)
2
= 0 ,
(6.373)
thus
hL
x
i = 0 . (6.374)
b) Using L
x
|i = 0 one nds
D
(L
x
)
2
E
=
L
2
x
hL
x
i
2
= 0 0 = 0 . (6.375)
30. The Hamiltonian can be expressed as
H =
L
2
2I
1
+
L
2
z
2I
2

L
2
z
2I
1
=
L
2
2I
1
+
L
2
z
2I
e
, (6.376)
where
I
e
=
I
1
I
2
I
1
I
2
. (6.377)
Thus, the angular momentum states |l, mi, which satisfy
6.7. Solutions
L
2
|l, mi = l (l + 1) ~
2
|l, mi , (6.378)
L
z
|l, mi = m~ |l, mi , (6.379)
are eigenvector of H
H|l, mi = E
l,m
|l, mi , (6.380)
where
E
l,m
=
l (l + 1) ~
2
2I
1
+
m
2
~
2
2I
e
=
~
2
2I
1
l (l + 1) m
2
+m
2
I
1
I
2
. (6.381)
a) Since [H, L
z
] = 0 one has
exp
iL
z
Hexp
iL
z
= H , (6.382)
thus for the ground state l = m = 0
A
z
() = h
0
| H|
0
i = E
0,0
= 0 . (6.383)
b) The operator L
x
can be expressed as
L
x
=
L
+
+L
2
. (6.384)
In general
L
+
|l, mi = ~
p
l (l + 1) m(m+ 1) |l, m+ 1i , (6.385)
L
|l, mi = ~
p
l (l + 1) m(m1) |l, m1i , (6.386)
thus
L
+
|0, 0i = L
|0, 0i = 0 , (6.387)
and consequently
exp
iL
x
|
0
i = |
0
i , (6.388)
thus
A
x
() = h
0
| H|
0
i = E
0,0
= 0 . (6.389)
7. Central Potential
Consider a particle having mass m in a central potential, namely a potential
V (r) that depends only on the distance
r =
p
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
(7.1)
from the origin. The Hamiltonian is given by
H =
p
2
2m
+V (r) . (7.2)
[H, L
z
] = 0 , (7.3)
H, L
2
= 0 . (7.4)
Solution 7.0.1. Using
[x
i
, p
j
] = i~
ij
, (7.5)
L
z
= xp
y
yp
x
, (7.6)
one has
p
2
, L
z
=

p
2
x
, L
z
p
2
y
, L
z
p
2
z
, L
z
=

p
2
x
, xp
y
p
2
y
, yp
x
= i~ (2p
x
p
y
+ 2p
y
p
x
)
= 0 ,
(7.7)
and
r
2
, L
z
=

x
2
, L
z
y
2
, L
z
z
2
, L
z
= y
x
2
, p
x
y
2
, p
y
x
= 0 .
(7.8)
Thus L
z
commutes with any smooth function of r
2
, and consequently
[H, L
z
] = 0. In a similar way one can show that [H, L
x
] = [H, L
y
] = 0,
and therefore

H, L
2
= 0.
Chapter 7. Central Potential
In classical physics the corresponding Poissons brackets relations hold
{H, L
x
} = {H, L
y
} = {H, L
z
} = 0 , (7.9)
and
H, L
2
= 0 . (7.10)
These relations imply that classically the angular momentum is a constant of
the motion [see Eq. (1.40)]. On the other in quantum mechanics, as we have
seen in section 2.12 of chapter 2, the commutation relations
[H, L
z
] = 0 , (7.11)
H, L
2
= 0 , (7.12)
imply that it is possible to nd a basis for the vector space made of common
eigenvectors of the operators H, L
2
and L
z
.
7.1 Simultaneous Diagonalization of the Operators H,
L
2
and L
z
We start by proving some useful relations:
L
2
= r
2
p
2
(r p)
2
+i~r p . (7.13)
Solution 7.1.1. The following holds
L
2
z
= (xp
y
yp
x
)
2
= x
2
p
2
y
+y
2
p
2
x
xp
y
yp
x
yp
x
xp
y
= x
2
p
2
y
+y
2
p
2
x
xp
x
([p
y
, y] +yp
y
) yp
y
([p
x
, x] +xp
x
)
= x
2
p
2
y
+y
2
p
2
x
xp
x
yp
y
yp
y
xp
x
+i~ (xp
x
+yp
y
) .
(7.14)
Using the relation
xp
x
xp
x
= x([p
x
, x] +xp
x
) p
x
= i~xp
x
+x
2
p
2
x
, (7.15)
or
i~xp
x
= x
2
p
2
x
xp
x
xp
x
, (7.16)
one has
7.1. Simultaneous Diagonalization of the Operators H, L
2
and L
z
L
2
z
= x
2
p
2
y
+y
2
p
2
x
xp
x
yp
y
yp
y
xp
x
+
i~
2
(xp
x
+yp
y
)
+
1
2
x
2
p
2
x
xp
x
xp
x
+y
2
p
2
y
yp
y
yp
y
.
(7.17)
By cyclic permutation one obtains similar expression for L
2
x
and for L
2
y
.
Combining these expressions lead to
L
2
= L
2
x
+L
2
y
+L
2
z
= y
2
p
2
z
+z
2
p
2
y
yp
y
zp
z
zp
z
yp
y
+
i~
2
(yp
y
+zp
z
) +
1
2
y
2
p
2
y
yp
y
yp
y
+z
2
p
2
z
zp
z
zp
z
+z
2
p
2
x
+x
2
p
2
z
zp
z
xp
x
xp
x
zp
z
+
i~
2
(zp
z
+xp
x
) +
1
2
z
2
p
2
z
zp
z
zp
z
+x
2
p
2
x
xp
x
xp
x
+x
2
p
2
y
+y
2
p
2
x
xp
x
yp
y
yp
y
xp
x
+
i~
2
(xp
x
+yp
y
) +
1
2
x
2
p
2
x
xp
x
xp
x
+y
2
p
2
y
yp
y
yp
y
=

x
2
+y
2
+z
2

p
2
x
+p
2
y
+p
2
z
(xp
x
+yp
y
+zp
z
)
2
+i~(xp
x
+yp
y
+zp
z
)
= r
2
p
2
(r p)
2
+i~r p .
(7.18)
hr
0
| p
2
|i = ~
2
1
r
0
2
r
02
r
0
hr
0
|i
1
~
2
r
02
hr
0
| L
2
|i
. (7.19)
Solution 7.1.2. Using the identities
L
2
= r
2
p
2
(r p)
2
+i~r p , (7.20)
hr
0
| r |i = r
0
hr
0
|i , (7.21)
and
hr
0
| p|i =
~
i
hr
0
|i , (7.22)
one nds that
hr
0
| L
2
|i = hr
0
| r
2
p
2
|i hr
0
| (r p)
2
|i +i~ hr
0
| r p|i . (7.23)
The following hold
hr
0
| r p|i = i~r
0
hr
0
|i = i~r
0

r
0
hr
0
|i , (7.24)
hr
0
| (r p)
2
|i = ~
2
r
0

r
0
2
hr
0
|i
= ~
2
r
02

2
r
02
+r
0

r
0
hr
0
|i ,
(7.25)
hr
0
| r
2
p
2
|i = r
02
hr
0
| p
2
|i , (7.26)
thus
hr
0
| p
2
|i = ~
2

2
r
02
+
2
r
0
r
0
hr
0
|i
1
~
2
r
02
hr
0
| L
2
|i
, (7.27)
or
hr
0
| p
2
|i = ~
2
1
r
0
2
r
02
r
0
hr
0
|i
1
~
2
r
02
hr
0
| L
2
|i
. (7.28)
The time-independent Schrodinger equation in the coordinates represen-
tation
hr
0
| H|i = Ehr
0
|i , (7.29)
where the Hamiltonian H is given by Eq. (7.2), can thus be written using the
above results as
hr
0
| H|i =
~
2
2m
1
r
0
2
r
02
r
0
hr
0
|i
1
~
2
r
02
hr
0
| L
2
|i
+V (r
0
) hr
0
|i . (7.30)
7.2 The Radial Equation
Consider a solution having the form
hr
0
|i = (r
0
) = R(r
0
) Y
m
l
0
,
0
. (7.31)
With the help of Eq. (6.106) one nds that
hr
0
| L
2
|i = ~
2
l (l + 1) (r
0
) . (7.32)
Substituting into Eq. (7.30) yields an equation for R(r)
~
2
2m
1
r
d
2
dr
2
rR(r)
1
r
2
l (l + 1) R(r)
+V (r) R(r) = ER(r) . (7.33)

The above equation, which is called the radial equation, depends on the quan-
tum number l, however, it is independent on the quantum number m. The
dierent solutions for a given l are labeled using the index k
~
2
2m
1
r
d
2
dr
2
rR
kl
1
r
2
l (l + 1) R
kl
+V R
kl
= ER
kl
. (7.34)
It is convenient to introduce the function u
kl
(r), which is related to R
kl
(r)
by the following relation
R
kl
(r) =
1
r
u
kl
(r) . (7.35)
7.2. The Radial Equation
Substituting into Eq. (7.34) yields an equation for u
kl
(r)
~
2
2m
d
2
dr
2
+V
e
(r)
u
kl
(r) = E
kl
u
kl
(r) , (7.36)
where the eective potential V
e
(r) is given by
V
e
(r) =
l (l + 1) ~
2
2mr
2
+V (r) . (7.37)
The total wave function is thus given by
klm
(r) =
1
r
u
kl
(r) Y
m
l
(, ) . (7.38)
Since the spherical harmonic Y
m
l
(, ) is assumed to be normalized [see Eq.
(6.113)], to ensure that
klm
(r) is normalized we require that
1 =
Z
0
drr
2
|R
kl
(r)|
2
=
Z
0
dr |u
kl
(r)|
2
. (7.39)
In addition solutions with dierent k are expected to be orthogonal, thus
Z
0
dru
k
0
l
(r) u
kl
(r) =
kk
0 . (7.40)
The wave functions
klm
(r) represent common eigenstates of the operators
H, L
z
and L
2
, which are denoted as |klmi and which satisfy the following
relations
klm
(r
0
) = hr
0
|klmi , (7.41)
and
H|klmi = E
kl
|klmi , (7.42)
L
2
|klmi = l (l + 1) ~
2
|klmi , (7.43)
L
z
|klmi = m~ |klmi . (7.44)
The following claim reveals an important property of the radial wavefunc-
tion near the origin (r = 0):
Claim. If the potential energy V (r) does not diverge more rapidly than 1/r
near the origin then
lim
r0
u(r) = 0 . (7.45)
Proof. Consider the case where near the origin u(r) has a dominant power
term having the form r
s
(namely, all other terms are of order higher than s,
and thus become negligibly small for suciently small r). Substituting into
Eq. (7.36) and keeping only the dominant terms (of lowest order in r) lead
to
~
2
2m
s (s 1) r
s2
+
l (l + 1) ~
2
2m
r
s2
= 0 , (7.46)
thus s = l or s = l + 1. However, the solution s = l for l 1 must
be rejected since for this case the normalization condition (7.39) cannot be
satised as the integral diverges near r = 0. Moreover, also for l = 0 the
solution s = l must be rejected. For this case (r) ' 1/r near the origin,
however, such a solution contradicts Eq. (7.30), which can be written as
~
2
2m
2
(r) +V (r) (r) = E(r) . (7.47)
since
2
1
r
= 4 (r) . (7.48)
We thus conclude that only the solution s = l + 1 is acceptable, and conse-
quently lim
r0
u(r) = 0.
7.3 Hydrogen Atom
The Hydrogen atom is made of two particles, an electron and a proton. It
is convenient to employ the center of mass coordinates system. As is shown
below, in this reference frame the two body problem is reduced into a central
potential problem of eectively a single particle.
Exercise 7.3.1. Consider two point particles having mass m
1
and m
2
re-
spectively. The potential energy V (r) depends only on the relative coordi-
nate r = r
1
r
2
. Show that the Hamiltonian of the system in the center of
mass frame is given by
H =
p
2
2
+V (r) , (7.49)
where the reduced mass is given by
=
m
1
m
2
m
1
+m
2
. (7.50)
7.3. Hydrogen Atom
Solution 7.3.1. The Lagrangian is given by
L =
m
1
r
2
1
2
+
m
2
r
2
2
2
V (r
1
r
2
) . (7.51)
In terms of center of mass r
0
and relative r coordinates, which are given by
r
0
=
m
1
r
1
+m
2
r
2
m
1
+m
2
, (7.52)
r = r
1
r
2
, (7.53)
the Lagrangian is given by
L =
m
1
r
0
+
m2
m1+m2
r
2
2
+
m
2
r
0
m1
m1+m2
r
2
2
V (r)
=
M r
2
0
2
+
r
2
2
V (r) ,
(7.54)
where the total mass M is given by
M = m
1
+m
2
, (7.55)
and the reduced mass by
=
m
1
m
2
2
+m
2
m
2
1
(m
1
+m
2
)
2
=
m
1
m
2
m
1
+m
2
. (7.56)
Note that the Euler Lagrange equation for the coordinate r
0
yields that
r
0
= 0 (since the potential is independent on r
0
). In the center of mass frame
r
0
= 0. The momentum canonically conjugate to r is given by
p =
L
r
. (7.57)
Thus the Hamiltonian is given by
H = p rL =
p
2
2
+V (r) . (7.58)
For the case of Hydrogen atom the potential between the electron having
charge e and the proton having charge e is given by
V (r) =
e
2
r
. (7.59)
Since the protons mass m
p
is signicantly larger than the electrons mass
m
e
(m
p
' 1800m
e
) the reduced mass is very close to m
e
=
m
e
m
p
m
e
+m
p
' m
e
. (7.60)
The radial equation (7.36) for the present case is given by
~
2
2
d
2
dr
2
+V
e
(r)
u
kl
(r) = E
kl
u
kl
(r) , (7.61)
where
V
e
(r) =
e
2
r
+
l (l + 1) ~
2
2r
2
. (7.62)
In terms of the dimensionless radial coordinate
=
r
a
0
, (7.63)
where
a
0
=
~
2
e
2
= 0.53 10
10
m , (7.64)
is the Bohrs radius, and in terms of the dimensionless parameter
kl
=
r
E
kl
E
I
, (7.65)
where
E
I
=
e
4
2~
2
= 13.6 eV , (7.66)
is the ionization energy, the radial equation becomes
d
2
d
2
+V
l
() +
2
kl
u
kl
= 0 (7.67)
where
V
l
() =
2
+
l (l + 1)
2
. (7.68)
The function V
l
() for l = 0 (solid line) and l = 1 (dashed line).
7.3. Hydrogen Atom
We seek solutions of Eq. (7.67) that represent bound states, for which E
kl
is negative, and thus
kl
is a nonvanishing real positive. In the limit
the potential V
l
() 0, and thus it becomes negligibly small in comparison
with
kl
[see Eq. (7.67)]. Therefore, in this limit the solution is expected to
be asymptotically proportional to e
kl
. To ensure that the solution is nor-
malizable the exponentially diverging solution e
+
kl
is excluded. Moreover,
as we have seen above, for small the solution is expected to be proportional
to
l+1
. Due to these considerations we express u
kl
(r) as
u
kl
(r) = y ()
l+1
e
kl
. (7.69)
Substituting into Eq. (7.67) yields an equation for the function y ()
d
2
d
2
+ 2
(l + 1)

kl
d
d
+
2 (1
kl
(l + 1))
y = 0 . (7.70)
Consider a power series expansion of the function y ()
y () =

P
q=0
c
q
q
. (7.71)
Substituting into Eq. (7.70) yields
P
q=0
q (q 1) c
q
q2
+ 2 (l + 1)

P
q=0
qc
q
q2
2
kl
P
q=0
qc
q
q1
+ 2 (1
kl
(l + 1))

P
q=0
c
q
q1
= 0 ,
(7.72)
thus
c
q
c
q1
=
2 [
kl
(q +l) 1]
q (q + 2l + 1)
. (7.73)
We argue below that for physically acceptable solutions y () must be a poly-
nomial function [i.e. the series (7.71) needs to be nite]. To see this note that
for large q Eq. (7.73) implies that
lim
q
c
q
c
q1
=
2
kl
q
. (7.74)
Similar recursion relation holds for the coecients of the power series expan-
sion of the function e
2
kl
e
2
kl
=

P
q=0
c
q
q
, (7.75)
where
c
q
=
(2
kl
)
q
q!
, (7.76)
thus
c
q
c
q1
=
2
kl
q
. (7.77)
This observation suggests that for large the function u
kl
asymptotically
becomes proportional to e
kl
. However, such an exponentially diverging so-

lution must be excluded since it cannot be normalized. Therefore, to avoid
such a discrepancy, we require that y () must be a polynomial function.
As can be see from Eq. (7.73), this requirement is satised provided that
kl
(q +l) 1 = 0 for some q. A polynomial function of order k 1 is ob-
tained when
kl
is taken to be given by
kl
=
1
k +l
, (7.78)
where k = 1, 2, 3, . With the help of Eq. (7.73) the polynomial function
can be evaluated. Some examples are given below
y
k=1,l=0
() = c
0
, (7.79)
y
k=1,l=1
() = c
0
, (7.80)
y
k=2,l=0
() = c
0
1

2
, (7.81)
y
k=2,l=1
() = c
0
1

6
. (7.82)
The coecient c
0
can be determined from the normalization condition.
As can be seen from Eqs. (7.65) and (7.78), all states having the same
sum k +l, which is denoted as
n = k +l , (7.83)
have the same energy. The index n is called the principle quantum number.
Due to this degeneracy, which is sometimes called accidental degeneracy, it
is common to label the states with the indices n, l and m, instead of k, l and
m. In such labeling the eigenenergies are given by
E
n
=
E
I
n
2
, (7.84)
where
n = 1, 2, . (7.85)
For a given n the quantum number l can take any of the possible values
l = 0, 1, 2, , n 1 , (7.86)
7.4. Problems
and the quantum number m can take any of the possible values
m = l, l + 1, , l 1, l . (7.87)
The level of degeneracy of the level E
n
is given by
g
n
= 2
n1
X
l=0
(2l + 1) = 2
2 (n 1) n
2
+n
= 2n
2
. (7.88)
Note that the factor of 2 is due to spin. The normalized radial wave functions
of the states with n = 1 and n = 2 are found to be given by
R
10
(r) = 2
1
a
0
3/2
e
r/a
0
, (7.89)
R
20
(r) =

2
r
a
0
1
2a
0
3/2
e
r
2a
0
, (7.90)
R
21
(r) =

1
2a
0
3/2
r
3a
0
e
r
2a
0
. (7.91)
The wavefunction
n,l,m
(r) of an eigenstate with quantum numbers n, l and
m is given by
nlm
(r, , ) = R
nl
(r) Y
m
l
(, ) . (7.92)
While the index n labels the shell number, the index l labels the sub-shell.
In spectroscopy it is common to label dierent sub-shells with letters:
l = 0 s
l = 1 p
l = 2 d
l = 3 f
l = 4 g
7.4 Problems
1. Consider the wave function with quantum numbers n, l, and m of a
hydrogen atom
n,l,m
(r).
a) Show that the probability current in spherical coordinates r, , is
given by
J
n,l,m
(r) =
~
n,l,m
(r)
2
r sin

, (7.93)
where is the reduced mass and

is a unit vector orthogonal to z
and r.
b) Use the result of the previous section to show that the total angular
momentum is given by L = m~z.
2. Show that the average electrostatic potential in the neighborhood of an
Hydrogen atom in its ground state is given by
= e
1
a
0
+
1
r
exp
2r
a
0
, (7.94)
where a
0
is the Bohr radius.
3. An hydrogen atom is in its ground state. The distance r between the
electron and the proton is measured. Calculate the expectation value hri
and the most probable value r
0
(at which the probability density obtains
a maximum).
4. Tritium, which is labeled as
3
H, is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen.
The nucleus of tritium contains 1 proton and two neutrons. An atom
of tritium is in its ground state, when the nucleus suddenly decays into
a Helium nucleus, with the emission of a fast electron, which leaves the
atom without perturbing the extra-nuclear electron. Find the probability
that the resulting He
+
ion will be left in:
a) 1s state.
b) 2s state.
c) a state with l 6= 0.
5. At time t = 0 an Hydrogen atom is in the state
|(t = 0)i = A(|2, 1, 1i +|2, 1, 1i) ,
where A is a normalization constant and where |n, l, mi denotes the eigen-
state with quantum numbers n, l and m. Calculate the expectation value
hxi at time t.
6. Consider a particle having mass m in a 3D potential given by
V (r) = A (r a) , (7.95)
where r =
p
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
is the radial coordinate, the length a is a
constant and () is the delta function. For what range of values of the
constant A the particle has a bound state.
7. A spinless point particle is in state |i. The state vector |i is an eigen-
vector of the operators L
x
, L
y
and L
z
(the x, y and z components of
the angular momentum vector operator). What can be said about the
wavefunction (r
0
) of the state |i?
7.5 Solutions
1. In general the current density is given by Eq. (4.159). For a wavefunction
having the form
7.5. Solutions
(r) = (r) e
i(r)
, (7.96)
where both and are real, one has
J =
~
Im[(() +(i))]
=
~
2
()
=
~ ||
2
() .
(7.97)
a) The wavefunction
n,l,m
(r) is given by
nlm
(r, , ) = R
nl
(r) Y
m
l
(, ) = R
nl
(r) F
m
l
() e
im
, (7.98)
where both R
nl
and F
m
l
are real, thus
J
n,l,m
(r) =
~
n,l,m
(r)
(m) . (7.99)
In spherical coordinates one has
= x

x
+ y

y
+z

z
= r

r
+
1
r

1
r sin

,
(7.100)
thus
J
n,l,m
(r) =
~
n,l,m
(r)
2
r sin

. (7.101)
b) The contribution of the volume element d
3
r to the angular momen-
tum with respect to the origin is given by dL = r J
n,l,m
(r) d
3
r.
In spherical coordinates the total angular momentum is given by
L =
Z
r J
n,l,m
(r) d
3
r = m~
Z

n,l,m
(r)
2
r sin
r d
3
r . (7.102)
By symmetry, only the component along z of r contributes, thus
L = m~z . (7.103)
2. The charge density of the electron in the ground state is given by
= e
1,0,0
(r)
2
=
e
a
3
0
exp
2r
a
0
. (7.104)
The Poissons equation is given by
2
= 4 . (7.105)
To verify that the electrostatic potential given by Eq. (7.94) solves this
equation we calculate
2
=
1
r
d
2
dr
2
(r)
=
e
r
d
2
dr
2
r
a
0
+ 1
exp
2r
a
0
=
4e exp
2r
a
0
a
3
0
= 4 .
(7.106)
Note also that
lim
r
(r) = 0 , (7.107)
as is required for a neutral atom.
3. The radial wave function of the ground state is given by
R
10
(r) = 2
1
a
0
3/2
exp
r
a
0
(7.108)
thus the probability density of the variable r is given by
f (r) = |rR
10
(r)|
2
=
4
r
r
a
0
3
exp
2r
a
0
. (7.109)
Thus
hri =
Z

0
rf (r) dr = 4a
0
Z

0
x
3
exp(2x) dx =
3
2
a
0
. (7.110)
The most probable value r
0
is found from the condition
0 =
df
dr
=
8r
0
a
4
0
exp
2r
0
a
0
(a
0
r
0
) , (7.111)
thus
r
0
= a
0
. (7.112)
4. The radial wave function of a hydrogen-like atom with a nucleus having
charge Ze is found by substituting e
2
by Ze
2
in Eqs. (7.89), (7.90) and
(7.91), namely
7.5. Solutions
R
(Z)
10
(r) = 2
Z
a
0
3/2
e
Zr/a
0
,
R
(Z)
20
(r) = (2 Zr/a
0
)
Z
2a
0
3/2
e
Zr
2a
0
,
R
(Z)
21
(r) =

Z
2a
0
3/2
Zr
3a
0
e
Zr
2a
0
.
The change in reduced mass is neglected. Therefore
a) For the 1s state
Pr (1s) =
_
_
Z
0
drr
2
R
(Z=1)
10
R
(Z=2)
10
_
_
2
=
2
7
a
3
0
2a
3
0
2
3
3
= 0.702 .
b) For the 2s state
Pr (2s) =
_
_
Z
0
drr
2
R
(Z=1)
10
R
(Z=2)
20
_
_
2
=
16
a
6
0
a
3
0
8
(2 3)
2
= 0.25 .
c) For this case the probability vanishes due to the orthogonality be-
tween spherical harmonics with dierent l.
5. The normalization constant is chosen to be A = 1/
2. Since both states

|2, 1, 1i and |2, 1, 1i have the same energy the state |i is stationary.
The following holds
nlm
(r, , ) = R
nl
(r) Y
m
l
(, ) , (7.113a)
R
21
(r) =

1
2a
0
3/2
r
3a
0
e
r
2a
0
, (7.113b)
Y
1
1
(, ) =
1
2
r
3
2
sine
i
, (7.113c)
Y
1
1
(, ) =
1
2
r
3
2
sine
i
, (7.113d)
x = r sin cos . (7.113e)
In general
hn
0
l
0
m
0
| x|nlmi =
Z
0
dr r
3
R
n
0
l
0 R
nl
1
Z
1
d(cos )
2
Z
0
d sin cos
Y
m
0
l
0
Y
m
l
.
(7.114)
thus
h2, 1, 1|x|2, 1, 1i
2
Z
0
d cos = 0 , (7.115)
h2, 1, 1|x|2, 1, 1i
2
Z
0
d cos = 0 , (7.116)
h2, 1, 1|x|2, 1, 1i
2
Z
0
d cos e
2i
= 0 , (7.117)
h2, 1, 1|x|2, 1, 1i
2
Z
0
d cos e
2i
= 0 , (7.118)
and therefore
hxi (t) = 0 . (7.119)
6. The radial equation is given by
~
2
2m
d
2
dr
2
+
l (l + 1) ~
2
2mr
2
+V (r)
u
k,l
(r) = E
k,l
u
k,l
(r) . (7.120)
The boundary conditions imposed upon u(r) by the potential are
u(0) = 0 , (7.121)
u
a
+
= u
(7.122)
du(a
+
)
dr

du(a
)
dr
=
2
a
0
u(a) . (7.123)
where
a
0
=
~
2
mA
. (7.124)
Since the centrifugal term l (l + 1) ~
2
/2mr
2
is non-negative the ground
state is obtained with l = 0. We seek a solution for that case having the
form
u(r) =

sinh(r) r < a
sinh(a) exp((r a)) r > a
, (7.125)
where
=
2mE
~
. (7.126)
The condition (7.123) yields
7.5. Solutions
sinh(a) cosh(a) =
2
a
0
sinh(a) , (7.127)
or
a
0
2
=
1
1 + coth(a)
.
A real solution exists only if
a
0
2
< a , (7.128)
or
A >
~
2
2ma
. (7.129)
7. The state vector |i is an eigenvector of the operators L
x
, L
y
, therefore it
is easy to see that it consequently must be an eigenvector of the operator
[L
x
, L
y
] with a zero eigenvalue. Thus, since [L
x
, L
y
] = i~L
z
, one has
L
z
|i = 0. Similarly, one nds that L
x
|i = L
y
|i = 0. Therefore, |i
is also an eigenvector of the operator L
2
= L
2
x
+ L
2
y
+ L
2
z
with a zero
eigenvalue. Therefore the wavefunction has the form
(r
0
) = R(r
0
) Y
m=0
l=0
0
,
0
=
R(r
0
)
4
, (7.130)
where the radial function R(r
0
) is an arbitrary normalized function.
8. Density Operator
Consider an ensemble of N identical copies of a quantum system. The en-
semble can be divided into subsets, where all systems belonging to the same
subset have the same state vector. Let Nw
i
be the number of systems having
state vector

(i)
, where
0 w
i
1 , (8.1)
and where
X
i
w
i
= 1 . (8.2)
The state vectors are all assumed to be normalized
D
(i)

(i)
E
= 1 . (8.3)
Consider a measurement of an observable A, having a set of eigenvalues
{a
n
} and corresponding set of eigenvectors {|a
n
i}
A|a
n
i = a
n
|a
n
i . (8.4)
The set of eigenvectors {|a
n
i} is assumed to be orthonormal and complete
ha
m
|a
n
i =
nm
, (8.5)
X
n
|a
n
i ha
n
| = 1 . (8.6)
Consider a measurement of the observable A done on a system that is ran-
domly chosen from the ensemble. The probability to choose a system having
state vector

(i)
is w
i
. Given that the state vector is

(i)
, the expectation
value of A is
(i)
(i)
[see Eq. (2.84)]. Thus, the expectation (average)

value of such a measurement done on a system that is randomly chosen from
the ensemble is given by
hAi =
X
i
w
i
D
(i)
(i)
E
=
X
i
X
n
w
i
ha
n
(i)
E
2
a
n
. (8.7)
Chapter 8. Density Operator
Claim. The expectation value can be expressed as
hAi = Tr (A) , (8.8)
where
=
X
i
w
i
(i)
ED
(i)
(8.9)
is the density operator.
Proof. Let {|b
m
i} be an orthonormal and complete basis for the vector space
X
m
|b
m
i hb
m
| = 1 . (8.10)
The following holds
hAi =
X
i
w
i
D
(i)
(i)
E
=
X
i
X
m
w
i
D
(i)
A|b
m
i hb
m
(i)
E
=
X
m
hb
m
|
X
i
w
i
(i)
ED
(i)
A|b
m
i
= Tr (A) ,
(8.11)
where
=
X
i
w
i
(i)
ED
(i)
.
Below we discuss some basic properties of the density operator:
= .
Solution 8.0.1. Trivial by the denition (8.9).
Exercise 8.0.2. Show that Tr () = 1.
Solution 8.0.2. Using a complete orthonormal basis
P
m
|b
m
i hb
m
| = 1 one
has
Tr () =
X
m
hb
m
|
X
i
w
i
(i)
ED
(i)
!
|b
m
i
=
X
i
w
i
D
(i)
X
m
|b
m
i hb
m
|
!
(i)
E
=
X
i
w
i
D
(i)

(i)
E
=
X
i
w
i
= 1 .
(8.12)
Exercise 8.0.3. Show that for any normalized state |i the following holds
0 h| |i 1 . (8.13)
Solution 8.0.3. Clearly, 0 h| |i since
h| |i =
X
i
w
i
h

(i)
ED
(i)
|i =
X
i
w
i
(i)
|i
2
0 . (8.14)
On the other hand, according to the Schwartz inequality [see Eq. (2.167)],
which is given by
|hu |vi|
p
hu |ui
p
hv |vi , (8.15)
one has
(i)
|i

p
h |i
q
(i)

(i)
= 1 . (8.16)
Moreover,
P
i
w
i
= 1, thus
h| |i =
X
i
w
i
(i)
|i
2
1 . (8.17)
Exercise 8.0.4. Show that Tr
1.
Solution 8.0.4. The fact that is Hermitian (i.e.,
= ) guaranties the
existence of a complete orthonormal basis {|q
m
i} of eigenvectors of , which
satisfy
hq
m
0 |q
m
i =
mm
0 , (8.18)
X
m
|q
m
i hq
m
| = 1 , (8.19)
and
|q
m
i = q
m
|q
m
i , (8.20)
where the eigenvalues q
m
are real. Using this basis one has
Tr
=
X
m
hq
m
|
2
|q
m
i =
X
m
q
2
m
. (8.21)
According to inequality (8.13)
0 q
m
= hq
m
| |q
m
i 1 , (8.22)
thus
Tr
=
X
m
q
2
m

X
m
q
m
!
2
= (Tr ())
2
= 1 . (8.23)
Denition 8.0.1. An ensemble is said to be pure if its density operator can
be expressed as
= |i h| .
Exercise 8.0.5. Show that Tr
= 1 i represents a pure ensemble.

Solution 8.0.5. (i) Assuming that represents a pure ensemble, one has
2
= , thus Tr
= Tr () = 1. (ii) Assume that Tr
= 1. Since
is Hermitian (i.e.,
= ), there is a complete orthonormal basis {|q

m
i} of
eigenvectors of , such that
hq
m
0 |q
m
i =
mm
0 , (8.24)
X
m
|q
m
i hq
m
| = 1 , (8.25)
and
|q
m
i = q
m
|q
m
i , (8.26)
where the eigenvalues q
m
are real. Moreover, according to inequality (8.22)
0 q
m
1 . (8.27)
For this basis the assumption Tr
= 1 yields
1 = Tr
=
X
m
q
2
m
. (8.28)
Moreover, also Tr () = 1, thus
1 =
X
m
q
m
. (8.29)
Both equalities can be simultaneously satised only if
q
m
=

1 m = m
0
0 m 6= m
0
. (8.30)
For this case = |q
m0
i hq
m0
|, thus represents a pure ensemble.
8.2. Quantum Statistical Mechanics
8.1 Time Evolution
Consider a density operator
(t) =
X
i
w
i
(i)
(t)
ED
(i)
(t)
, (8.31)
where the state vectors

(i)
(t)
evolve in time according to

i~
d
(i)
dt
= H
(i)
E
, (8.32)
i~
d
(i)
dt
=
D
(i)
H , (8.33)
where H is the Hamiltonian. Taking the time derivative yields
d
dt
=
1
i~
X
i
w
i
H
(i)
ED
(i)
(t)

X
i
w
i
(i)
(t)
ED
(i)
H
!
, (8.34)
thus
d
dt
=
1
i~
[, H] . (8.35)
This result resembles the equation of motion (4.37) of an observable in the
Heisenberg representation, however, instead of a minus sign on the right hand
side, Eq. (4.37) has a plus sign.
8.2 Quantum Statistical Mechanics
Consider an ensemble of identical copies of a quantum system. Let H be the
Hamiltonian having a set of eigenenergies {E
i
} and a corresponding set of
eigenstates {|ii}, which forms an orthonormal and complete basis
H|ii = E
i
|ii , (8.36)
X
i
|ii hi| = 1 . (8.37)
Consider the case where the ensemble is assumed to be in thermal equilib-
rium at temperature T. According to the laws of statistical mechanics the
probability w
i
to nd an arbitrary system in the ensemble in a state vector
|ii having energy E
i
is given by
w
i
=
1
Z
e
Ei
, (8.38)
where = 1/k
B
T, k
B
is Boltzmanns constant, and where
Z =
X
i
e
E
i
(8.39)
is the partition function.
Exercise 8.2.1. Show that the density operator can be written as
=
e
H
Tr (e
H
)
. (8.40)
Solution 8.2.1. According to the denition (8.9) one has
=
X
i
w
i
|ii hi| =
1
Z
X
i
e
Ei
|ii hi| . (8.41)
Z =
X
i
e
E
i
=
X
i
hi| e
H
|ii = Tr
e
H
, (8.42)
and
X
i
e
Ei
|ii hi| =
X
i
e
H
|ii hi| = e
H
X
i
|ii hi| = e
H
, (8.43)
thus
=
e
H
Tr (e
H
)
. (8.44)
8.3 Problems
1. Consider a spin 1/2 in a magnetic eld B = Bz and in thermal equilib-
rium at temperature T. Calculate hS ui , where S is the vector operator
of the angular momentum and where u is a unit vector, which can be
described using the angles and
u =(sin cos , sin sin, cos ) . (8.45)
2. A spin 1/2 particle is an eigenstate of the operator S
y
with eigenvalue
+~/2.
a) Write the density operator in the basis of eigenvectors of the operator
S
z
.
b) Calculate
n
, where n is integer.
c) Calculate the density operator (in the same basis) of an ensemble of
particles, half of them in an eigenstate of S
y
with eigenvalue +~/2,
and half of them in an eigenstate of S
y
with eigenvalue ~/2.
d) Calculate
n
for this case.
3. A spin 1/2 is at time t = 0 in an eigenstate of the operator S
= S
x
sin+
S
z
cos with an eigenvalue +~/2, where is real and S
x
and S
z
are
the x and z components, respectively, of the angular momentum vector
operator. A magnetic eld B is applied in the x direction between time
t = 0 and time t = T.
8.3. Problems
a) The z component of the angular momentum is measured at time
t > T. Calculate the probability P
+
to measure the value ~/2.
b) Calculate the density operator of the spin at times t = T.
4. A spin 1/2 electron is put in a constant magnetic eld given by B =
Bz, where B is a constant. The system is in thermal equilibrium at
temperature T.
a) Calculate the correlation function
C
z
(t) = hS
z
(t) S
z
(0)i . (8.46)
b) Calculate the correlation function
C
x
(t) = hS
x
(t) S
x
(0)i . (8.47)
5. Consider a harmonic oscillator with frequency . Show that the variance
of the number operator N =
q
hN
2
i hNi
2
(where N = a
a ) is given
by
a) N = 0 for energy eigenstates.
b) N =
p
hNi for coherent states.
c) N =
p
hNi (hNi + 1) for thermal states.
6. Consider a harmonic oscillator having angular resonance frequency .
The oscillator is in thermal equilibrium at temperature T. Calculate the
expectation value
x
2
.
7. Consider a harmonic oscillator in thermal equilibrium at temperature T,
whose Hamiltonian is given by
H =
p
2
2m
+
m
2
x
2
2
. (8.48)
Show that the density operator is given by
=
Z Z
d
2
|i h| P () , (8.49)
where |i is a coherent state, d
2
denotes innitesimal area in the
complex plane,
P () =
1
hNi
exp
||
2
hNi
!
, (8.50)
and where hNi is the expectation value of the number operator N.
8. Consider a harmonic oscillator in thermal equilibrium at temperature T,
whose Hamiltonian is given by
H =
p
2
2m
+
m
2
x
2
2
. (8.51)
Calculate the probability density f (x) of the random variable x.
9. An LC oscillator (see gure) made of a capacitor C in parallel with an
inductor L, is in thermal equilibrium at temperature T. The charge in
the capacitor q is being measured.
L C L C
a) Calculate the expectation value hqi of q.
b) Calculate the variance
D
(q)
2
E
.
10. Consider an observable A having a set of eigenvalues {a
n
}. Let P
n
be
a projector operator onto the eigensubspace corresponding to the eigen-
value a
n
. A given physical system is initially described by the density op-
erator
0
. A measurement of the observable A is then performed. What
is the density operator
1
of the system immediately after the measure-
ment?
11. The model that was proposed by von Neumann describes an indirect
measurement process of a given observable A. The observable A is as-
sumed to be a function of the degrees of freedom of a subsystem, which
we refer to as the measured system (MS). The indirect measurement is
performed by rst letting the MS to interact with a measuring device
(MD), having its own degrees of freedom, and then in the nal step,
performing a quantum measurement on the MD. The MS is assumed to
initially be in a pure state |i (i.e. its density operator is assumed to
initially be given by
0
= |i h|). Let A be an observable operating on
the Hilbert space of the MS. The initial state of the MS can be expanded
in the basis of eigenvectors {|a
n
i} of the observable A
|i =
X
n
c
n
|a
n
i , (8.52)
where c
n
= ha
n
|i and where
A|a
n
i = a
n
|a
n
i . (8.53)
For simplicity, the Hamiltonian of the MS is taken to be zero. The MD is
assumed to be a one dimensional free particle, whose Hamiltonian van-
ishes, and whose initial state is labeled by |
i
i. The position wavefunction
(x
0
) = hx
0
|
i
i of this state is taken to be Gaussian having width x
0
(x
0
) =
1
1/4
x
1/2
0
exp
1
2
x
0
x
0
2
!
. (8.54)
8.3. Problems
The interaction between the MS and the MD is taken to be given by
V (t) = f (t) xA , (8.55)
where f (t) is assumed to have compact support with a peak near the
time of the measurement.
a) Express the vector state of the entire system | (t)i at time t in the
basis of states {|p
0
i |a
n
0 i}. This basis spans the Hilbert space of the
entire system (MS and MD). The |p
0
i |a
n
0 i is both, an eigenvector
of A (with eigenvalue a
n
) and of the momentum p of the MD (with
eigenvalue p
0
).
b) In what follows the nal state of the system after the measurement
will be evaluated by taking the limit t . The outcome of the
measurement of the observable A, which is labeled by A, is deter-
mined by performing a measurement of the momentum variable p of
the MD. The outcome, which is labeled by P, is related to A by
A =
P
p
i
, (8.56)
where
p
i
=
Z

dt
0
f (t
0
) . (8.57)
Calculate the probability distribution g (A) of the random variable
A.
c) Consider another measurement that is performed after the entan-
glement between the MS and the MD has been fully created. The
additional measurement is associated with the observable B, which
is assumed to be a function of the degrees of freedom of the MS only.
Show that the expectation value

B of the observable B is given by
B =
X
n
0
ha
n
0 | B
R
|a
n
0 i , (8.58)
where the operator
R
, which is called the reduced density operator,
is given by
R
=
X
n
0
,n
00
c
n
0 c
n
00 e
a
n
0
a
n
00
2
2
|a
n
0 i ha
n
00 | . (8.59)
12. A particle having mass m moves in the xy plane under the inuence of
a two dimensional potential V (x, y), which is given by
V (x, y) =
m
2
2
x
2
+y
2
+m
2
xy , (8.60)
where both and are real constants. Calculate in thermal equilibrium
at temperature T the expectation values hxi,
x
2
.
8.4 Solutions
H = S
z
, (8.61)
where
=
|e| B
m
e
c
(8.62)
is the Larmor frequency. In the basis of the eigenvectors of S
z
S
z
|i =
~
2
|i , (8.63)
one has
H|i =
~
2
|i , (8.64)
thus
=
e
H
Tr (e
H
)
=
e
~
2
|+i h+| +e
~
2
|i h|
e
~
2
+e
~
2
,
(8.65)
where = 1/k
B
T, and therefore with the help of Eqs. (2.102) and (2.103),
which are given by
S
x
=
~
2
(|+i h| +|i h+|) , (8.66)
S
y
=
~
2
(i |+i h| +i |i h+|) , (8.67)
one has
hS
x
i = Tr (S
x
) = 0 , (8.68)
hS
y
i = Tr (S
y
) = 0 , (8.69)
and with the help of Eq. (2.99), which is given by
S
z
=
~
2
(|+i h+| |i h|) , (8.70)
one has
8.4. Solutions
hS
z
i = Tr (S
z
)
= Tr
~
2
|+i h+| +e
~
2
|i h|
e
~
2
+e
~
2
~
2
(|+i h+| |i h|)
!
=
~
2
e
~
2
e
~
2
e
~
2
+e
~
2
=
~
2
tanh
~
2
,
(8.71)
thus
hS ui =
~ cos
2
tanh
~
2
. (8.72)
2. Recall that
|; yi =
1
2
(|+i i |i) , (8.73)
a) thus
=
1
2
1
i
1 i
=
1
2
1 i
i 1
. (8.74)
b) For a pure state
n
= .
c) For this case
=
1
2
_
_
|+; yi h+; y| +|; yi h; y|
| {z }
=1
_
_
=
1
2
1 0
0 1
, (8.75)
d) and
n
=
1
2
n
1 0
0 1
. (8.76)
3. The state at time t = 0 is given by
|(t = 0)i =
cos

2
sin

2
, (8.77)
and the one at time t = T is
|(t = T)i = exp
iT
x
2
|(t = 0)i , (8.78)

where
x
is a Pauli matrix, and
=
eB
m
e
c
. (8.79)
Using the identity
exp
i n
2
= cos

2
i nsin

2
, (8.80)
one nds
exp
i n
2
= cos
T
2
+i
x
sin
T
2
=
cos
T
2
i sin
T
2
i sin
T
2
cos
T
2
, (8.81)
thus
|(t = T)i =

cos
T
2
i sin
T
2
i sin
T
2
cos
T
2
cos

2
sin

2
=

cos
T
2
cos

2
+i sin
T
2
sin

2
i sin
T
2
cos

2
+ cos
T
2
sin

2
.
(8.82)
a) The probabilities to measured ~/2 are thus given by
P
+
= cos
2
T
2
cos
2

2
+ sin
2
T
2
sin
2

2
=
1 + cos (T) cos
2
, (8.83)
and
P
= cos
2
T
2
sin
2
2
+ sin
2
T
2
cos
2
2
=
1 cos (T) cos
2
. (8.84)
b) The density operator is given by
11
= P
+
,
22
= P
21
=

cos
T
2
cos

2
+i sin
T
2
sin

2
i sin
T
2
cos

2
+ cos
T
2
sin

2
=
sin
2

i
2
sinT cos ,
12
=
21
.
H = S
z
, (8.85)
where
=
eB
m
e
c
, (8.86)
8.4. Solutions
thus, the density operator is given by
=
1
Z
_
_
exp
~
2k
B
T
0
0 exp
~
2kBT
_
_
, (8.87)
where
Z = exp
~
2k
B
T
+ exp
~
2k
B
T
. (8.88)
a) Using
S
z
(t) = exp
iHt
~
S
z
(0) exp
iHt
~
= S
z
(0) , (8.89)
one nds
C
z
(t) =
S
2
z
(0)
= Tr
S
2
z
(0)
=
~
2
4
. (8.90)
b) The following holds
S
x
(t) = exp
iS
z
t
~
S
x
(0) exp
iS
z
t
~
= S
x
cos (t) +S
y
sin(t) ,
(8.91)
thus
C
x
(t) = cos (t)
S
2
x
(0)
+ sin(t) hS
y
(0) S
x
(0)i (8.92)
=
cos (t) ~
2
4
+ sin(t) hS
y
(0) S
x
(0)i .
In terms of Pauli matrices
hS
y
(0) S
x
(0)i =
~
2
4Z
Tr
_
_
_
_
exp
~
2kBT
0
0 exp
~
2k
B
T
_
_
0 i
i 0
0 1
1 0
_
_
=
~
2
4Z
Tr
_
_
_
_
i exp
~
2kBT
0
0 i exp
~
2kBT
_
_
_
_
=
i~
2
4
tanh
~
2k
B
T
,
(8.93)
thus
C
x
(t) =
~
2
4
cos (t) i sin(t) tanh
~
2k
B
T
. (8.94)
5. The variance N is given by
a) For an energy eigenstate |ni one has
N |ni = n|ni , (8.95)
thus
hNi = hn| N |ni = n , (8.96)
and
N
2
= hn| N
2
|ni = n
2
, (8.97)
therefore
N = 0 . (8.98)
b) For a coherent state |i one has
a |i = |i , (8.99)
thus
hNi = h| N |i = h| a
a |i = ||
2
, (8.100)
and
N
2
= h| a
aa
a|i = h| a
_
_
_
a, a
| {z }
=1
+a
a
_
_
_a |i = ||
2
+||
4
,
(8.101)
therefore
N =
p
hNi . (8.102)
c) In general, for a thermal state one has
hOi = Tr (O) , (8.103)
where O is an operator,
=
1
Z
e
H
, (8.104)
Z = Tr
e
H
, (8.105)
and = 1/k
B
T and H is the Hamiltonian. For the present case
H = ~
N +
1
2
, (8.106)
8.4. Solutions
thus
hNi = Tr (N)
=
P
n=0
hn| e
H
N |ni
P
n=0
hn| e
H
|ni
=
P
n=0
ne
n~
P
n=0
e
n~
=
1
~
log

P
n=0
e
n~
=
e
~
1 e
~
,
(8.107)
and
N
2
= Tr
N
2
P
n=0
hn| e
H
N
2
|ni
P
n=0
hn| e
H
|ni
=
P
n=0
n
2
e
n~
P
n=0
e
n~
=
1
~
2

2
P
n=0
e
n~
P
n=0
e
n~
=
e
~
+ 1
e
~
(1 e
~
)
2
,
(8.108)
and therefore
(N)
2
=
N
2
hNi
2
=
e
~
(1 e
~
)
2
= hNi (hNi + 1) . (8.109)
6. The density operator is given by
=
1
Z
e
H
. (8.110)
where
Z = tr
e
H
=

X
n=0
e
~(n+
1
2
)
=
e
~
2
1 e
~
=
1
2 sinh
~
2
, (8.111)
and = 1/k
B
T. Thus using
x
2
=
~
2m
a
2
+
2
+ 2a
a + 1
, (8.112)
one nds
x
2
= Tr
x
2
=
1
Z
X
n=0
hn| x
2
e
H
|ni
=
1
Z
X
n=0
e
~(n+
1
2
)
hn| x
2
|ni
=
~
m
1
Z
X
n=0
n +
1
2
e
~(n+
1
2
)
=
~
m
1
Z
1
~
d
d
X
n=0
e
~(n+
1
2
)
.
(8.113)
However
X
n=0
e
~(n+
1
2
)
= Z , (8.114)
thus
x
2
=
1
m
2
d
d
log Z
1
=
1
m
2
d
d
sinh
~
2
sinh
~
2
=
1
m
2
~
2
coth
~
2
.
(8.115)
Note that at high temperatures ~ 1
x
2
'
k
B
T
m
2
, (8.116)
as is required by the equipartition theorem of classical statistical mechan-
ics.
8.4. Solutions
7. In the basis of number states the density operator is given by
=
e
H
Tr (e
H
)
=
P
n=0
e
H
|ni hn|
P
n=0
hn| e
H
|ni
=
P
n=0
e
~(N+
1
2
)
|ni hn|
P
n=0
hn| e
~(N+
1
2
)
|ni
=
P
n=0
e
n~
|ni hn|
P
n=0
e
n~
=

1 e
~

X
n=0
e
n~
|ni hn| ,
(8.117)
where = 1/k
B
T. Thus, hNi is given by
hNi = Tr (N)
=

1 e
~

X
n=0
ne
n~
= ~
1 e
~
X
n=0
e
n~
= ~
1 e
~
1
1 e
~
=
e
~
1 e
~
.
(8.118)
Moreover, the following holds
hNi + 1 =
1
1 e
~
, (8.119)
hNi
hNi + 1
= e
~
, (8.120)
thus, can be rewritten as
=

1 e
~

X
n=0
e
n~
|ni hn|
=
1
hNi + 1
X
n=0
hNi
hNi + 1
n
|ni hn| .
(8.121)
To verify the validity of Eq. (8.49) we calculate
hn| |mi =
Z Z
d
2
P () hn |i h |mi . (8.122)
With the help of Eq. (5.42), which is given by
|i = e
||
2
2
X
n=0
n!
|ni , (8.123)
one nds that
hn| |mi =
1
hNi
Z Z
d
2
exp
||
2
hNi
!
e
||
2
n
n!
m!
. (8.124)
Employing polar coordinates in the complex plane = re
i
, where r is
non-negative real and is real,
hn| |mi =
1
hNi
n!m!
Z
0
dre
(1+
1
hNi
)r
2
r
n+m+1
2
Z
0
de
i(nm)
| {z }
2nm
=
2
nm
hNi n!
Z
0
dre
(1+
1
hNi
)r
2
r
2n+1
,
(8.125)
and the transformation of the integration variable
t =

1 +
1
hNi
r
2
, (8.126)
dt =

1 +
1
hNi
2rdr , (8.127)
lead to
8.4. Solutions
hn| |mi =

nm
hNi
1 +
1
hNi
n+1
n!
Z
0
dte
t
t
n
| {z }
(n+1)=n!
=

nm
hNi
1 +
1
hNi
n+1
=
hNi
n
nm
(1 +hNi)
n+1
,
(8.128)
in agreement with Eq. (8.121).
8. The density operator [see Eq. (8.49)] is given by
=
Z Z
d
2
|i h| P () , (8.129)
where |i is a coherent state, d
2
denotes innitesimal area in the
complex plane,
P () =
1
hNi
exp
||
2
hNi
!
, (8.130)
and where
hNi =
e
~
1 e
~
(8.131)
is the expectation value of the number operator N. Thus,
f (x
0
) = hx
0
| |x
0
i =
Z Z
d
2
P () hx
0
|i h |x
0
i .
By employing the expression for the wave function
(x
0
) = hx
0
|i of a
coherent state which is given by [see Eq. (5.51)]
(x
0
) = hx
0
|i
= exp
2
4
m
~
1/4
exp
"
x
0
hxi
2x
2
+i hpi
x
0
~
#
,
(8.132)
where
hxi
= h| x|i =
r
2~
m
Re () , (8.133)
x
=
q
h| (x)
2
|i =
r
~
2m
, (8.134)
one nds that
f (x
0
) = hx
0
| |x
0
i =
1
hNi
m
~
1/2
Z Z
d
2
exp
||
2
hNi
!
exp
"
2
x
0
hxi
2x
2
#
=
1
hNi
m
~
1/2
Z Z
d
2
exp
||
2
hNi
!
exp
_
_
_2
_
_
x
0
q
2~
m
Re ()
_
_
2
_
_
_
=
m
~
1/2
p
1 + 2 hNi
e
2
_
_
_
x
0
2~
m
_
_
_
2
1+2hNi
=
1
s
1
~
m
(1 + 2 hNi)
e
2
_
_
_
x
0
2~
m
_
_
_
2
1+2hNi
=
1
x
0
2
,
where
=
r
~
m
(1 + 2 hNi) ,
and where
1 + 2 hNi = 1 + 2
e
~
1 e
~
= coth
~
2
. (8.135)
9. Recall that the LC circuit is a harmonic oscillator.
a) In terms of the annihilation and creation operators
a =
r
L
2~
q +
ip
L
, (8.136)
a
=
r
L
2~
q
ip
L
, (8.137)
one has
q =
r
~
2L
a +a
, (8.138)
H = ~
a +
1
2
. (8.139)
8.4. Solutions
The density operator is given by
=
1
Z
e
H
, (8.140)
where
=
1
k
B
T
, (8.141)
and
Z = Tr e
H
=

X
n=0
e
~(n+
1
2
)
=
e
~
2
1 e
~
=
1
2 sinh
~
2
, (8.142)
thus
hqi = Tr (q) =
1
Z
r
~
2L
X
n=0
hn|
a +a
e
H
|ni = 0 . (8.143)
b) Similarly
q
2
= Tr
q
2
=
~
2L
1
Z
X
n=0
hn|
a +a
2
e
H
|ni
=
1
L
2
1
Z
X
n=0
~
n +
1
2
e
~(n+
1
2
)
=
1
L
2
1
Z
dZ
d
=
C~
2
coth
~
2k
B
T
.
(8.144)
10. In general,
0
can be expressed as
0
=
X
i
w
i
(i)
ED
(i)
, (8.145)
where 0 w
i
1,
P
i
w
i
= 1, and where

(i)

(i)
= 1. Assume rst
that the system is initially in the state

(i)
. The probability for this to

be the case is w
i
. In general, the possible results of a measurement of the
observable A are the eigenvalues {a
n
}. The probability p
n
to measure the
eigenvalue a
n
given that the system is initially in state

(i)
is given by
p
n
=
D
(i)
P
n
(i)
E
. (8.146)
After a measurement of A with an outcome a
n
the state vector collapses
onto the corresponding eigensubspace and becomes
(i)
E
P
n
(i)
(i)
P
n
(i)
. (8.147)
Thus, given that the system is initially in state

(i)
the nal density

operator is given by
(i)
1
=
X
n
D
(i)
P
n
(i)
E
P
n
(i)
(i)
P
n
(i)
(i)
P
n
q
(i)
P
n
(i)
=
X
n
P
n
(i)
ED
(i)
P
n
.
(8.148)
Averaging over all possible initial states thus yields
1
=
X
i
w
i
(i)
1
=
X
n
P
n
X
i
w
i
(i)
ED
(i)
P
n
=
X
n
P
n
0
P
n
. (8.149)
11. Since [V (t) , V (t
0
)] = 0 the time evolution operator from initial time t
0
to time t is given by
u(t, t
0
) = exp
i
~
Z
t
t0
dt
0
V (t
0
)
= exp
ip
i
A
~
x
,
(8.150)
where
p
i
=
Z
t
t0
dt
0
f (t
0
) . (8.151)
While the initial state of the entire system at time t
0
is given by | (t
0
)i =
|
i
i |i, the nal state at time t is given by
| (t)i = u(t, t
0
) | (t
0
)i
=
X
n
c
n
J
n
|
i
i |a
n
i ,
(8.152)
where the operator J
n
is given by
J
n
= exp
ip
i
a
n
~
x
. (8.153)
8.4. Solutions
a) By introducing the identity operator
R
dp
0
|p
0
i hp
0
| = 1
MD
on the
Hilbert space of the MD, where |p
0
i are eigenvectors of the momen-
tum operator p, which is canonically conjugate to x, the state | (t)i
can be expressed as
| (t)i =
X
n
c
n
Z
dp
0
hp
0
| J
n
|
i
i |p
0
i |a
n
i . (8.154)
With the help of the general identity (3.75), which is given by
[p, A(x)] = i~
dA
dx
, (8.155)
where A(x) is a function of the operator x, one nds that
pJ
n
|p
0
i = ([p, J
n
] +J
n
p) |p
0
i
= (p
i
a
n
+p
0
) J
n
|p
0
i ,
(8.156)
thus the vector J
n
|p
0
i is an eigenvector of p with eigenvalue p
i
a
n
+p
0
.
Moreover, note that this vector, which is labeled as |p
0
+p
i
a
n
i
J
n
|p
0
i, is normalized, provided that |p
0
i is normalized, since J
n
is
unitary. The momentum wavefunction (p
0
) = hp
0
|
i
i of the state
|
i
i is related to the position wavefunction hx
0
|
i
i by a Fourier trans-
form [see Eq. (3.59)]
(p
0
) =
dx
0
e
ip
0
x
0
~
hx
0
|
i
i
2~
=
1
1/4
p
1/2
0
exp
1
2
p
0
p
0
2
!
,
(8.157)
where
p
0
=
~
x
0
. (8.158)
In terms of (p
0
) the state | (t)i thus can be expressed as
| (t)i =
X
n
c
n
Z
dp
0
hp
0
p
i
a
n
|
i
i |p
0
i |a
n
i
=
X
n
c
n
Z
dp
0
(p
0
p
i
a
n
) |p
0
i |a
n
i .
(8.159)
b) The probability distribution g (A) of the random variable A can be
calculated using Eq. (8.159)
g (A) = p
i
X
n
0
|(ha
n
0 | hp
i
A|) | (t)i|
2
= p
i
X
n
0
|c
n
0 |
2
|(p
i
(Aa
n
0 ))|
2
=

1/2
X
n
0
|c
n
0 |
2
e
2
(Aa
n
0 )
2
,
(8.160)
where
=
p
i
p
0
=
x
0
~
Z

t
0
dt
0
f (t
0
) . (8.161)
The expectation value of A is given by
hAi =
dA
0
g (A
0
) A
0
=
X
n
0
|c
n
0 |
2

1/2
dA
00
e
(A
00
)
2
(A
00
+a
n
0 )
=
X
n
0
|c
n
0 |
2
a
n
0 .
(8.162)
c) The density operator of the entire system is taken to be given by
f
= | ()i h ()| for this case. The additional measurement is
associated with the observable B, which is assumed to be a function
of the degrees of freedom of the MS only. This assumption allows
expressing the expectation value

B of the observable B as
B = Tr (B
f
)
=
X
n
0
Z
dp
0
ha
n
0 | hp
0
| B
f
|p
0
i |a
n
0 i
=
X
n
0
ha
n
0 | B
R
|a
n
0 i ,
(8.163)
where
R
, which is given by
R
=
Z
dp
0
hp
0
|
f
|p
0
i , (8.164)
8.4. Solutions
is called the reduced density operator. Note that
R
is an operator
on the Hilbert space of the MS. With the help of the expressions
| ()i =
X
n
c
n
0
Z
dp
00
(p
00
p
i
a
n
0 ) |p
00
i |a
n
0 i , (8.165)
h ()| =
X
n
0
c
n
00
Z
dp
000
(p
000
p
i
a
n
00 ) ha
n
00 | hp
000
| , (8.166)
one nds that
R
=
X
n
0
,n
00
c
n
0 c
n
00
Z
dp
0
(p
0
p
i
a
n
0 )
(p
0
p
i
a
n
00 ) |a
n
0 i ha
n
00 | .
(8.167)
Employing the transformation of integration variable
x =
2p
0
p
i
(a
n
0 +a
n
00 )
2p
0
, (8.168)
and its inverse
p
0
= p
0
x +
p
i
p
0
a
n
0 +a
n
00
2
, (8.169)
one nds that
Z
dp
0
(p
0
p
i
a
n
0 )
(p
0
p
i
a
n
00 ) = e
a
n
0
a
n
00
2
2
, (8.170)
thus
R
=
X
n
0
,n
00
c
n
0 c
n
00 e
a
n
0
a
n
00
2
2
|a
n
0 i ha
n
00 | . (8.171)
12. It is convenient to employ the coordinate transformation
x
0
=
x +y
2
, (8.172)
y
0
=
x y
2
. (8.173)
The Lagrangian of the system can be written using these coordinates [see
Eq. (9.167)] as
L = L
+
+L
, (8.174)
where
L
+
=
m x
02
2

m
2
2
(1 +) x
02
, (8.175)
and
L
=
m y
02
2

m
2
2
(1 ) y
02
. (8.176)
Thus, the system is composed of two decoupled harmonic oscillators with
angular resonance frequencies
1 + (for x
0
) and
1 (for y
0
). In
thermal equilibrium according to Eq. (8.115) one has
x
02
=
~
2m
1 +
coth
1 +
2
, (8.177)
y
02
=
~
2m
1
coth
1
2
, (8.178)
where = 1/k
B
T. Moreover, due to symmetry, the following holds
hx
0
i = hy
0
i = 0 , (8.179)
hx
0
y
0
i = 0 . (8.180)
With the help of the inverse transformation, which is given by
x =
x
0
+y
0
2
, (8.181)
y =
x
0
y
0
2
, (8.182)
one thus nds
hxi = 0 , (8.183)
and
x
2
=
1
2
x
02
+y
02
=
~
4m
_
_
coth
1+
2
1 +
+
coth
1
2
1
_
_
.
(8.184)
9. Time Independent Perturbation Theory
Consider a Hamiltonian H
0
having a set of eigenenergies {E
k
}. Let g
k
be
the degree of degeneracy of eigenenergy E
k
, namely g
k
is the dimension of
the corresponding eigensubspace , which is denoted by F
k
. The set {|k, ii}
of eigenvectors of H
0
is assumed to form an orthonormal basis for the vector
space, namely
H
0
|k, ii = E
k
|k, ii , (9.1)
and
hk
0
, i
0
|k, ii =
kk
0
ii
0 . (9.2)
For a given k the degeneracy index i can take the values 1, 2, , g
k
. The
set of vectors {|k, 1i , |k, 2i , , |k, g
k
i} forms an orthonormal basis for the
eigensubspace F
k
. The closure relation can be written as
1 =
X
k
g
k
X
i=1
|k, ii hk, i| =
X
k
P
k
, (9.3)
where
P
k
=
g
k
X
i=1
|k, ii hk, i| (9.4)
is a projector onto eigen subspace F
k
. The orthogonality condition (9.2)
implies that
P
k
P
k
0 = P
k
kk
0 . (9.5)
A perturbation V =
V is being added to the Hamiltonian

H = H
0
+
V , (9.6)
where R. We wish to nd the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of the
Hamiltonian H
H|i = E|i . (9.7)
Chapter 9. Time Independent Perturbation Theory
In many cases nding an analytical solution to the above equation is either
very hard or impossible. In such cases one possibility is to employ numerical
methods. However, another possibility arrises provided that the eigenvalues
and eigenvectors of H
0
are known and provided that the perturbation
V can
be considered as small, namely, provided the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
H do not signicantly dier from those of H
0
. In such a case an approximate
solution can be obtained by the time independent perturbation theory.
9.1 The Level E
n
Consider the level E
n
of the unperturbed Hamiltonian H
0
. Let P
n
be the
projector onto the eigensubspace F
n
, and let
Q
n
= 1 P
n
=
X
k6=n
P
k
. (9.8)
Equation (9.7) reads
V |i = (E H
0
) |i . (9.9)
It is useful to introduce the operator R, which is dened as
R =
X
k6=n
P
k
E E
k
. (9.10)
Claim. The eigenvector |i of the Hamiltonian H is given by
|i =

1 R
1
P
n
|i . (9.11)
Proof. Using Eq. (9.5) it is easy to show that
P
n
R = RP
n
= 0 . (9.12)
Q
n
R =
X
k6=n
X
k
0
6=n
P
k
P
k
0
E E
k
0
=
X
k6=n
P
k
E E
k
= R , (9.13)
and similarly
RQ
n
= R . (9.14)
Furthermore, by expressing H
0
as
H
0
=
X
k
g
k
X
i=1
E
k
|k, ii hk, i| = E
n
P
n
+
X
k6=n
E
k
P
k
, (9.15)
9.1. The Level E
n
one nds that
R(E H
0
) =
X
k6=n
P
k
E E
n
P
n
P
k
0
6=n
E
k
0 P
k
0
E E
k
=
X
k6=n
P
k
(E E
k
)
E E
k
= Q
n
,
(9.16)
and similarly
(E H
0
) R = Q
n
. (9.17)
The last two results suggest that the operator R can be considered as the
inverse of E H
0
in the subspace of eigenvalue zero of the projector P
n
(which is the subspace of eigenvalue unity of the projector Q
n
). Multiplying
Eq. (9.9) from the left by R yields
R
V |i = R(E H
0
) |i . (9.18)
With the help of Eq. (9.16) one nds that
R
V |i = Q
n
|i . (9.19)
Since P
n
= 1 Q
n
[see Eq. (9.8)] the last result implies that
P
n
|i = |i R
V |i =

1 R
|i , (9.20)
which leads to Eq. (9.11)
|i =

1 R
1
P
n
|i . (9.21)
Note that Eq. (9.11) can be expanded as power series in
|i =

1 +R
V +
2
R
V R
V +
P
n
|i . (9.22)
9.1.1 Nondegenerate Case
In this case g
n
= 1 and
P
n
= |ni hn| . (9.23)
In general the eigenvector |i is determined up to multiplication by a con-
stant. For simplicity we choose that constant to be such that
P
n
|i = |ni , (9.24)
namely
hn |i = 1 . (9.25)
Multiplying Eq. (9.9), which is given by
V |i = (E H
0
) |i , (9.26)
from the left by hn| yields
hn|
V |i = hn| (E H
0
) |i , (9.27)
or
hn| E|i = hn| H
0
|i +hn|
V |i , (9.28)
thus
E = E
n
+hn|
V |i . (9.29)
Equation (9.22) together with Eq. (9.24) yield
|i =

1 +R
V +
2
R
V R
V +
|ni
= |ni +
X
k6=n
i
|k, ii hk, i|

V |ni
E E
k
+
2
X
k6=n
i
X
k
0
6=n
i
|k, ii hk, i|

V |k
0
, ii hk
0
, i|

V |ni
(E E
k
) (E E
k
0 )
+ .
(9.30)
Substituting Eq. (9.30) into Eq. (9.29) yields
E = E
n
+hn|

V |ni
+
2
X
k6=n
i
hn|

V |k, ii hk, i|

V |ni
E E
k
+
3
X
k6=n
i
X
k
0
6=n
i
hn|

V |k, ii hk, i|

V |k
0
, ii hk
0
, i|

V |ni
(E E
k
) (E E
k
0 )
+ .
(9.31)
9.2. Example
Note that the right hand side of Eq. (9.31) contains terms that depend on
E. To second order in one nds
E = E
n
+hn| V |ni +
X
k6=n
i
|hk, i| V |ni|
2
E
n
E
k
+O
. (9.32)
Furthermore, to rst order in Eq. (9.30) yields
|i = |ni +
X
k6=n
i
|k, ii hk, i| V |ni
E
n
E
k
+O
. (9.33)
9.1.2 Degenerate Case
The set of vectors {|n, 1i , |n, 2i , , |n, g
n
i} forms an orthonormal basis for
the eigensubspace F
n
. Multiplying Eq. (9.9) from the left by P
n
yields
P
n
V |i = P
n
(E H
0
) |i , (9.34)
thus with the help of Eq. (9.15) one has
P
n
V |i = (E E
n
) P
n
|i . (9.35)
Substituting Eq. (9.22), which is given by
|i =

P
n
+R
V P
n
+
2
R
V R
V P
n
+
|i , (9.36)
into this and noting that P
n
R = 0 and P
2
n
= P
n
yield
P
n
V P
n
|i +
2
P
n
V R
V P
n
|i + = (E E
n
) P
n
|i . (9.37)
Thus, to rst order in the energy correction E E
n
is found by solving
P
n
V P
n
|i = (E E
n
) P
n
|i . (9.38)
The solutions are the eigenvalues of the g
n
g
n
matrix representation of the
operator V in the subspace F
n
.
9.2 Example
Consider a point particle having mass m whose Hamiltonian is given by
H = H
0
+V , (9.39)
where
H
0
=
p
2
2m
+
m
2
x
2
2
. (9.40)
and where
V = ~
r
m
~
x . (9.41)
The eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the Hamiltonian H
0
, which describes a
one dimensional harmonic oscillator, are given by
H
0
|ni = E
n
|ni , (9.42)
where n = 0, 1, , 2 , and where
E
n
( = 0) = ~
n +
1
2
. (9.43)
Note that, as was shown in chapter 5 [see Eq. (5.144)], the eigenvectors
and eigenvalues of H can be found analytically for this particular case. For
the sake of comparison we rst derive this exact solution. Writing H as
H =
p
2
2m
+
m
2
x
2
2
+~
r
m
~
x
=
p
2
2m
+
m
2
2
x +
r
~
m
!
2
1
2
~
2
,
(9.44)
one sees that H describes a one dimensional harmonic oscillator (as H
0
also
does). The exact eigenenergies are given by
E
n
() = E
n
( = 0)
1
2
~
2
, (9.45)
and the corresponding exact wavefunctions are
hx
0
|n()i =
*
x
0
+
r
~
m
|ni . (9.46)
Using identity (3.19), which is given by
J (x) |x
0
i = |x
0
+xi , (9.47)
where J (x) is the translation operator, the exact solution (9.46) can be
rewritten as
hx
0
|n()i = hx
0
| J
r
~
m
!
|ni , (9.48)
9.2. Example
or simply as
|n()i = J
r
~
m
!
|ni . (9.49)
Next we calculate an approximate eigenvalues and eigenvectors using per-
turbation theory. Using the identity
x =
r
~
2m
a +a
, (9.50)
one has
V =
~
a +a
. (9.51)
Furthermore, using the identities
a|ni =
n|n 1i , (9.52)
a
|ni =
n + 1 |n + 1i , (9.53)
one has
hm| V |ni =
~
hm| a |ni +hm| a
|ni
=
~
n
m,n1
+
n + 1
m,n+1
.
(9.54)
Thus E
n
() can be expanded using Eq. (9.32) as
E
n
() = E
n
+hn| V |ni
| {z }
=0
+
X
k6=n
i
|hk, i| V |ni|
2
E
n
E
k
+O
= E
n
+
|hn 1| V |ni|
2
E
n
E
n1
+
|hn + 1| V |ni|
2
E
n
E
n+1
+O
= ~
n +
1
2
+~
n
2
2
~
(n + 1)
2
2
+O
= ~
n +
1
2
2
2
+O
,
(9.55)
in agreement (to second order) with the exact result (9.45), and |n()i can
be expanded using Eq. (9.30) as
|n()i = |ni +
X
k6=n
i
|k, ii hk, i| V |ni
E
n
E
k
+O
= |ni +
|n 1i hn 1| V |ni
E
n
E
n1
+
|n + 1i hn + 1| V |ni
E
n
E
n+1
+O
= |ni +
|n 1i
~
n
~

|n + 1i
~
n + 1
~
+O
= |ni +

2
a|ni

2
a
|ni +O
.
(9.56)
Note that with the help of the following identify
p = i
r
m~
2
a +a
, (9.57)
the last result can be written as
|n()i =
1 +
r
~
m
ip
~
!
|ni +O
. (9.58)
Alternatively, in terms of the translation operator J (x), which is given by
J (x) = exp
ipx
~
, (9.59)
one has
|n()i = J
r
~
m
!
|ni +O
, (9.60)
in agreement (to second order) with the exact result (9.49).
9.3 Problems
1. The volume eect: The energy spectrum of the hydrogen atom was
calculated in chapter 8 by considering the proton to be a point particle.
Consider a model in which the proton is instead assumed to be a sphere
of radius
0
where
0
<< a
0
(a
0
is Bohrs radius), and the charge of
the proton +e is assumed to be uniformly distributed in that sphere.
Show that the energy shift due to such perturbation to lowest order in
perturbation theory is given by
E
n,l
=
e
2
10
2
0
|R
n,l
(0)|
2
, (9.61)
where R
n,l
(r) is the radial wave function.
9.3. Problems
2. Consider an Hydrogen atom. A perturbation given by
V = Ar , (9.62)
where r =
p
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
is the radial coordinate and A is a constant is
added.
a) Calculate to rst order in A the energy of the ground state.
b) Calculate to rst order in A the energy of the rst excited state.
3. A weak uniform electric eld E = Ez, where E is a constant, is applied
to a hydrogen atom. Calculate to 1st order in perturbation theory the
correction to the energy of the
a) level n = 1 (n is the principle quantum number).
b) level n = 2.
4. Consider two particles, both having the same mass m, moving in a one-
dimensional potential with coordinates x
1
and x
2
respectively. The po-
tential energy is given by
V (x
1
, x
2
) =
1
2
m
2
(x
1
a)
2
+
1
2
m
2
(x
2
+a)
2
+m
2
(x
1
x
2
)
2
,
(9.63)
where is real. Find the energy of the ground state to lowest non-
vanishing order in .
5. A particle having mass m is conned in a potential well of width l, which
is given by
V (x) =

0 for 0 x l
+ elsewhere
. (9.64)
Find to lowest order in perturbation theory the correction to the ground
state energy due to a perturbation given by
W (x) = w
0
x
l
2
, (9.65)
where w
0
is a real constant.
6. Consider a particle having mass m in a two dimensional potential well of
width a that is given by
V (x, y) =

0 if 0 x a and 0 y a
+ elsewhere
. (9.66)
A perturbation given by
W (x, y) =

w
0
if 0 x
a
2
and 0 y
a
2
0 elsewhere
, (9.67)
is added.
a) Calculate to lowest non-vanishing order in w
0
the energy of the
ground state.
b) The same for the rst excite state.
7. Consider a particle having mass m moving in a potential energy given by
V (x, y) =
m
2
2
x
2
+y
2
+m
2
xy , (9.68)
where the angular frequency is a constant and where the dimensionless
real constant is assumed to be small.
a) Calculate to rst order in the energy of the ground state.
b) Calculate to rst order in the energy of the the rst excited state.
8. Consider an harmonic oscillator having angular resonance frequency .
V =
+aa
(9.69)
is added, where a is the annihilation operator and is a real constant.
Calculate the energies of the system to second order in .
9. The Hamiltonian of a spin S = 1 is given by
H = S
2
z
+
S
2
x
S
2
y
, (9.70)
where and are both constants.
a) Write the matrix representation of Hin the basis {|S = 1, m = 1i , |S = 1, m = 0i |S = 1, m = 1i}.
b) Calculate (exactly) the eigenenergies and the corresponding eigen-
vectors.
c) For the case << use perturbation theory to calculate to lowest
order in and the eigen energies of the system.
10. Consider a system composed of an harmonic oscillator having angular
resonance frequency
r
> 0 and a two-level system. The Hamiltonian of
the system is given by
H = H
r
+H
a
+V . (9.71)
The term H
r
is the Hamiltonian for the harmonic oscillator
H
r
= ~
r
a +
1
2
, (9.72)
where a and a
are annihilation and creation operators respectively. The

term H
a
is the Hamiltonian for the two-level system
H
a
=
~
a
2
(|+i h+| |i h|) , (9.73)
where the ket vectors |i represent the two levels and where
a
> 0. The
coupling term between the oscillator and the two-level system is given by
9.3. Problems
V = ~g
a
+
|i h+| +a |+i h|
. (9.74)
Assume the case where |g| <<
r
and where |g| <<
a
. Calculate to
lowest non-vanishing order in g the eigen energies of the system for the
following cases: (a)
r
6=
a
; (b)
r
=
a
.
11. Consider a particle having mass m in a two-dimensional potential given
by
V
0
=
1
2
m
2
x
2
+y
2
. (9.75)
The following perturbation is added
V
1
=

~
L
2
z
, (9.76)
where L
z
is the z component of the angular momentum operator.
a) Find to second orders in the energy of the ground state.
b) Find to rst order in the energy of the rst excited level.
12. A particle having mass m moves in a one dimensional potential
V (x) =

V
0
sin
2x
l
0 x l
else
. (9.77)
Consider the constant V
0
to be small. Calculate the systems eigenenergies
E
n
to rst order in V
0
.
13. Consider a particle having mass m connes by the one-dimensional po-
tential well, which is given by
V (x) =
_
_
_
x < 0
x
L
0 x L
x > L
.
Find to rst order in the energy of the ground state.
14. A particle of mass m is trapped in an innite 2 dimensional well of width
l
V (x, y) =

0 0 x l and 0 y l
else
. (9.78)
W (x, y) =
~
2
2
m
(x l
x
) (y l
y
) . (9.79)
is added, where
0 l
x
l , (9.80)
and
0 l
y
l . (9.81)
Calculate to 1st order in perturbation theory the correction to the energy
of the:
a) ground state.
b) rst excited state.
15. Consider a rigid rotator whose Hamiltonian is given by
H =
L
2
x
+L
2
y
2I
xy
+
L
2
z
2I
z
+
L
2
x
L
2
y
2I
xy
, (9.82)
where L is the angular momentum vector operator. Use perturbation
theory to calculate the energy of the ground state to second order in .
16. Consider two particles having the same mass m moving along the x axis.
The Hamiltonian of the system is given by
H =
p
2
1
2m
+
p
2
2
2m
(x
1
) (x
2
) + (x
1
x
2
) , (9.83)
where x
1
and x
2
are the coordinates of the rst and second particle
respectively, p
1
and p
2
are the corresponding canonically conjugate mo-
mentums, and are both real positive constants and () denotes the
delta function. Calculate to rst order in the energy of the ground state
of the system.
17. In this problem the main results of time independent perturbation theory
are derived using an alternative approach. Consider a general square
matrix
W = D +V , (9.84)
where R, D is diagonal
D|n
0
i =
n0
|n
0
i , (9.85a)
hn
0
| D =
n0
hn
0
| , (9.85b)
and we assume that none of the eigenvalues of D is degenerate. The set
of eigenvectors of D is assumed to be orthonormal
hn
0
|m
0
i =
nm
, (9.86)
and complete (the dimensionality is assumed to be nite)
1 =
X
n
|n
0
i hn
0
| . (9.87)
Calculate the eigenvalues of W
W |ni = |ni (9.88)
to second order in .
9.4. Solutions
9.4 Solutions
1. The radial force acting on the electron is found using Gauss theorem
F
r
(r) =
_
_
_
e
2
r
2
r >
0
e
2
r
2
3
r
0
. (9.89)
The potential energy V (r) is found by integrating F
r
(r) and by requiring
that V (r) is continuous at r =
0
V (r) =
_
_
_
e
2
r
r >
0
e
2
2
0
2
3
r
0
. (9.90)
Thus, the perturbation term in the Hamiltonian is given by
V
p
(r) = V (r)
e
2
r
=
_
_
_
0 r >
0
e
2
2
0
2
+
2
0
r
3
r
0
. (9.91)
To rst order one has
E
n,l
= hnlm| V
p
|nlmi . (9.92)
The wavefunctions for the unperturbed case are given by
nlm
(r, , ) = R
nl
(r) Y
m
l
(, ) , (9.93)
Since V
p
depends on r only, one nds that
E
n,l
=
Z
0
drr
2
|R
nl
(r)|
2
V
p
(r)
=
0
Z
0
drr
2
|R
nl
(r)|
2
e
2
2
0
2
+
2
0
r
3
!
.
(9.94)
In the limit where
0
<< a
0
the term |R
nl
(r)|
2
can approximately be
replaced by |R
nl
(0)|
2
, thus
E
n,l
= |R
nl
(0)|
2
0
Z
0
drr
2
e
2
2
0
2
+
2
0
r
3
!
=
e
2
2
0
10
|R
nl
(0)|
2
.
(9.95)
2. The wavefunctions for the unperturbed case are given by
nlm
(r, , ) = R
nl
(r) Y
m
l
(, ) , (9.96)
where for the states relevant to this problem
R
10
(r) = 2
1
a
0
3/2
e
r/a0
, (9.97a)
R
20
(r) = (2 r/a
0
)
1
2a
0
3/2
e
r
2a
0
, (9.97b)
R
21
(r) =

1
2a
0
3/2
r
3a
0
e
r
2a
0
, (9.97c)
Y
0
0
(, ) =
r
1
4
, (9.97d)
Y
1
1
(, ) =
1
2
r
3
2
sine
i
, (9.97e)
Y
0
1
(, ) =
1
2
r
3
cos , (9.97f)
Y
1
1
(, ) =
1
2
r
3
2
sine
i
, (9.97g)
and the corresponding eigenenergies are given by
E
(0)
n
=
E
I
n
2
, (9.98)
where
E
I
=
m
e
e
4
2~
2
. (9.99)
The perturbation term V in the Hamiltonian is given by V = Ar. The
matrix elements of V are expressed as
hn
0
l
0
m
0
| V |nlmi = A
Z
0
dr r
3
R
n
0
l
0 R
nl
1
Z
1
d(cos )
2
Z
0
d

Y
m
0
l
0
Y
m
l
= A
l,l
0
m,m
0
Z
0
dr r
3
R
n
0
l
0 R
nl
.
(9.100)
a) Thus, to rst order
E
1
= E
(0)
1
+h100| V |100i +O(A
2
) , (9.101)
9.4. Solutions
where
h100| V |100i = A
Z
0
dr r
3
R
2
10
(r) =
3Aa
0
2
. (9.102)
b) The rst excited state is degenerate, however, as can be seen from
Eq. (9.100) all o-diagonal elements are zero. The diagonal elements
are given by
h200| V |200i = A
Z
0
dr r
3
R
2
20
= 6Aa
0
, (9.103a)
h21m| V |21mi = A
Z
0
dr r
3
R
21
= 5Aa
0
. (9.103b)
Thus, the degeneracy is lifted
E
2,l=0
= E
(0)
2
+ 6Aa
0
+O(A
2
) , (9.104)
E
2,l=1
= E
(0)
2
+ 5Aa
0
+O(A
2
) . (9.105)
3. The wavefunctions for the unperturbed case are given by
nlm
(r, , ) = R
nl
(r) Y
m
l
(, ) , (9.106)
where for the states relevant to this problem
R
10
(r) = 2
1
a
0
3/2
e
r/a
0
, (9.107)
R
20
(r) = (2 r/a
0
)
1
2a
0
3/2
e
r
2a
0
, (9.108)
R
21
(r) =

1
2a
0
3/2
r
3a
0
e
r
2a
0
, (9.109)
Y
0
0
(, ) =
r
1
4
, (9.110)
Y
1
1
(, ) =
1
2
r
3
2
sine
i
, (9.111)
Y
0
1
(, ) =
1
2
r
3
cos , (9.112)
Y
1
1
(, ) =
1
2
r
3
2
sine
i
, (9.113)
and the corresponding eigenenergies are given by
E
(0)
n
=
E
I
n
2
, (9.114)
where
E
I
=
m
e
e
4
2~
2
. (9.115)
The perturbation term V in the Hamiltonian is given by
V = eEz = eEr cos . (9.116)
The matrix elements of V are expressed as
hn
0
l
0
m
0
| V |nlmi = eE
Z
0
dr r
3
R
n
0
l
0 R
nl
1
Z
1
d(cos )
2
Z
0
d cos
Y
m
0
l
0
Y
m
l
.
(9.117)
a) Disregarding spin this level is non degenerate. To 1st order
E
1
= E
(0)
1
+h1, 0, 0| V |1, 0, 0i = E
(0)
1
,
since
1
Z
1
d(cos ) cos = 0 ,
thus the energy of the ground state is unchanged to 1st order.
b) The level n = 2 has degeneracy 4. The matrix of the perturbationV
in the degenerate subspace is given by
M =
_
_
_
_
h2, 0, 0| V |2, 0, 0i h2, 0, 0| V |2, 1, 1i h2, 0, 0| V |2, 1, 0i h2, 0, 0| V |2, 1, 1i
h2, 1, 1| V |2, 0, 0i h2, 1, 1| V |2, 1, 1i h2, 1, 1| V |2, 1, 0i h2, 1, 1| V |2, 1, 1i
h2, 1, 0| V |2, 0, 0i h2, 1, 0| V |2, 1, 1i h2, 1, 0| V |2, 1, 0i h2, 1, 0| V |2, 1, 1i
h2, 1, 1| V |2, 0, 0i h2, 1, 1| V |2, 1, 1i h2, 1, 1| V |2, 1, 0i h2, 1, 1| V |2, 1, 1i
_
_
_
_
.
(9.118)
Using
9.4. Solutions
1
Z
1
d(cos ) cos = 0 , (9.119)
1
Z
1
d(cos ) cos sin = 0 , (9.120)
1
Z
1
d(cos ) cos sin
2
= 0 , (9.121)
1
Z
1
d(cos ) cos
3
= 0 , (9.122)
2
Z
0
d e
i
= 0 , (9.123)
one nds
M =
_
_
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
, (9.124)
where
= h2, 0, 0| V |2, 1, 0i
= eE
Z
0
dr r
3
R
2,0
R
2,1
1
Z
1
d(cos )
2
Z
0
d cos
Y
0
0
Y
0
1
=
eE
8
Z
0
dr

2
r
a
0
r
a
0
4
e
r
a
0
1
4
1
Z
1
d(cos ) cos
2
2
Z
0
d .
(9.125)
Using
1
Z
1
d(cos ) cos
2
=
2
3
, (9.126)
and
Z

0
x
4
e
x
dx = 24 (9.127)
Z

0
x
5
e
x
dx = 120 (9.128)
one nds
= h2, 0, 0| V |2, 1, 0i
=
eE
24
Z
0
dr

2
r
a
0
r
a
0
4
e
r
a
0
=
a
0
eE
24
Z
0
dx (2 x) x
4
e
x
= 3a
0
eE .
(9.129)
The eigenvalues of the matrix M are 0, 0, 3a
0
eE and 3a
0
eE. Thus
to 1st order the degeneracy is partially lifted with subspace of dimen-
sion 2 having energy E
(0)
2
, and another 2 nondegenerate subspaces
having energies E
(0)
2
3a
0
eE.
4. To lowest order in perturbation theory the ground state energy is given
by
E
gs
= ~+m
2
dx
1
dx
2
2
0
(x
1
a)
2
0
(x
2
+a) (x
1
x
2
)
2
+O
,
(9.130)
where
0
(x) is the ground state wavefunction of a particle having mass
m conned by a potential (1/2) m
2
x
2
centered at x = 0. Employing the
transformation
x
0
1
= x
1
a , (9.131)
x
0
2
= x
2
+a , (9.132)
and Eq. (5.116) one nds that
9.4. Solutions
E
gs
= ~
+m
2
dx
0
1
2
0
(x
0
1
) (x
0
1
+a)
2
+m
2
dx
0
2
2
0
(x
0
2
) (x
0
2
+a)
2
2m
2
dx
0
1
2
0
(x
0
1
) (x
0
1
+a)
dx
0
2
2
0
(x
0
2
) (x
0
2
a)
+O
= ~ + 2m
2
~
2m
+a
2
+ 2m
2
a
2
+O
= ~ +
~ + 4m
2
a
2
+O
.
(9.133)
Note that this problem can be also solved exactly by employing the co-
ordinate transformation
x
+
=
x
1
+x
2
2
, (9.134)
x
=
x
1
x
2
2
. (9.135)
x
1
=
x
+
+x
2
, (9.136)
x
2
=
x
+
x
2
. (9.137)
The following holds
x
2
1
+x
2
2
= x
2
+
+x
2
, (9.138)
and
x
2
1
+ x
2
2
= x
2
+
+ x
2
. (9.139)
Thus, the Lagrangian of the system can be written as
L =
m
x
2
1
+ x
2
2
2
V (x
1
, x
2
)
=
m
x
2
+
+ x
2
2

1
2
m
2
x
2
+
+x
2
2a
2x
+ 2a
2
+ 4x
2
= L
+
+L
,
(9.140)
where
L
+
=
m x
2
+
2

1
2
m
2
x
2
+
, (9.141)
and
L
=
m x
2
2

1
2
m
2
_
_
(1 + 4)
2
1 + 4
!
2
+
8a
2
1 + 4
_
_
. (9.142)
Thus, the system is composed of two decoupled harmonic oscillators, and
therefore, the exact eigenenergies are given by
E
n+,n
= ~
n
+
+
1
2
+~
1 + 4
+
1
2
+
4m
2
a
2
1 + 4
, (9.143)
where n
+
, n
= 0, 1, 2, . To rst order in one thus has

E
n+,n
= ~
n
+
+
1
2
+~
+
1
2
~ (2n
+ 1) + 4m
2
a
2
+O
.
(9.144)
5. For w
0
= 0 the normalized wavefunctions
(0)
n
(x) are given by
(0)
n
(x) = hx
0
|ni =
r
2
l
sin
nx
0
l
, (9.145)
E
(0)
n
=
~
2
2
n
2
2ml
2
. (9.146)
The matrix elements of the perturbation are given by
hn|W|mi =
2w
0
l
l
Z
0
sin
nx
l
sin
mx
l

x
l
2
dx
=
2w
0
l
sin
n
2
sin
m
2
.
(9.147)
For the ground state
h1|V |1i =
2w
0
l
, (9.148)
thus
E
1
=
~
2
2
2ml
2
+
2w
0
l
+O
w
2
0
. (9.149)
9.4. Solutions
6. For w
0
= 0 the normalized wavefunctions
(0)
nx,ny
(x, y) are given by
(0)
nx,ny
(x
0
, y
0
) = hx
0
, y
0
|n
x
, n
y
i =
2
a
sin
n
x
x
0
a
sin
n
y
y
0
a
, (9.150)
E
(0)
nx,ny
=
~
2
n
2
x
+n
2
y
2ma
2
, (9.151)
where n
x
= 1, 2, and n
y
= 1, 2, .
a) The ground state (n
x
, n
y
) = (1, 1) is nondegenerate, thus to rst
order in w
0
E
0
=
~
2
2
ma
2
+h1, 1|W|1, 1i
=
~
2
2
ma
2
+
4w
0
a
2
a/2
Z
0
sin
2
x
a
dx
a/2
Z
0
sin
2
y
a
dy
~
2
2
ma
2
+
w
0
4
,
(9.152)
b) The rst excite state is doubly degenerate. The matrix of the per-
turbation in the corresponding subspace is given by
h1, 2|W|1, 2i h1, 2|W|2, 1i

h2, 1|W|1, 2i h2, 1|W|2, 1i
=
4w
0
a
2
_
_
_
_
_
a/2
R
0
sin
2 x
a
dx
a/2
R
0
sin
2 2y
a
dy
a/2
R
0
sin
x
a
sin
2x
a
dx
a/2
R
0
sin
2y
a
sin
y
a
dy
a/2
R
0
sin
2x
a
sin
1x
a
dx
a/2
R
0
sin
y
a
sin
2y
a
dy
a/2
R
0
sin
2 2x
a
dx
a/2
R
0
sin
2 y
a
dy
_
_
_
_
_
= w
0
1
4
16
9
2
16
9
2
1
4
,
(9.153)
To rst order in perturbation theory the eigenenergies are found
by adding the eigenvalues of the above matrix to the unperturbed
eigenenergy E
(0)
1,2
= E
(0)
2,1
. Thus, to rst order in w
0
E
1,
=
5~
2
2
2ma
2
+
w
0
4

16w
0
9
2
+O
w
2
0
. (9.154)
7. For the unperturbed case = 0 one has
H
0
|n
x
, n
y
i = ~ (n
x
+n
y
+ 1) |n
x
, n
y
i , (9.155)
where n
x
, n
y
= 0, 1, 2, . Using the identities
x =
r
~
2m
a
x
+a
, (9.156)
y =
r
~
2m
a
y
+a
, (9.157)
the perturbation term V
1
= m
2
xy can be expressed as
V
1
=
~
2
a
x
+a
x

a
y
+a
.
a) For the ground state |0, 0i, which is nondegenerate, one has
E
0,0
() = ~ +h0, 0| V
1
|0, 0i
| {z }
=0
+
X
n
x
,n
y
6=0,0
|hn
x
, n
y
| V
1
|0, 0i|
2
E
0,0
(0) E
nx,ny
= ~ +
|h1, 1| V
1
|0, 0i|
2
2~
= ~
~
2
2
2~
= ~
1

2
8
.
(9.158)
b) The rst excited state is doubly degenerate, thus the eigenenergies
are found by diagonalizing the matrix of V
1
in the corresponding
subspace
h1, 0| V
1
|1, 0i h1, 0| V
1
|0, 1i
h0, 1| V
1
|1, 0i h0, 1| V
1
|0, 1i
=
~
2
0 1
1 0
. (9.159)
Thus the degeneracy is lifted and the energies are given by 2~ (1 /4).
Note that this problem can be also solved exactly by employing the
coordinate transformation
x
0
=
x +y
2
, (9.160)
y
0
=
x y
2
. (9.161)
x =
x
0
+y
0
2
, (9.162)
y =
x
0
y
0
2
. (9.163)
The following hold
x
2
+y
2
= x
02
+y
02
, (9.164)
x
2
+ y
2
= x
02
+ y
02
, (9.165)
xy =
1
2
x
02
y
02
. (9.166)
9.4. Solutions
Thus, the Lagrangian of the system can be written as
L =
m
x
2
+ y
2
2
V (x
1
, x
2
)
=
m
x
02
+ y
02
2

m
2
2
x
02
+y
02
m
2
2
x
02
y
02
= L
+
+L
,
(9.167)
where
L
+
=
m x
02
2

m
2
2
(1 +) x
02
, (9.168)
and
L
=
m y
02
2

m
2
2
(1 ) y
02
. (9.169)
Thus, the system is composed of two decoupled harmonic oscillators,
and therefore, the exact eigenenergies are given by
E
n+,n
= ~
p
1 +
n
x
+
1
2
+
p
1
n
y
+
1
2
, (9.170)
where n
x
, n
y
= 0, 1, 2, . To second order in one thus has
E
n+,n
= ~
n
x
+n
y
+ 1 +
n
x
n
y
2

n
x
+n
y
+ 1
8

2
+O
.
(9.171)
8. Using Eqs. (5.28) and (5.29) one nds that
hm| V |ni =
p
n(n 1)
m,n2
+
p
(n + 1) (n + 2)
m,n+2
, (9.172)
thus
E
n
() = ~
n +
1
2
+hn| V |ni
| {z }
=0
+
X
m6=n
|hm| V |ni|
2
E
n
(0) E
m
(0)
+O
= ~
n +
1
2
+

2
2~
[n(n 1) (n + 1) (n + 2)] +O
= ~
n +
1
2
"
1 2
2
#
+O
.
(9.173)
9. In general the subspace of angular momentum states with J = 1 is
spanned by the basis
{|j = 1, m = 1i , |j = 1, m = 0i , |j = 1, m = 1i} , (9.174)
hj
0
, m
0
| J
z
|j, mi = m~
j
0
,j
m
0
,m
, (9.175)
hj
0
, m
0
| J
2
|j, mi = j (j + 1) ~
2
j
0
,j
m
0
,m
, (9.176)
hj
0
, m
0
| J
|j, mi = ~
p
(j m) (j m+ 1)
j
0
,j
m
0
,m1
, (9.177)
J
= J
x
iJ
y
. (9.178)
In matrix form
J
z
= ~
_
_
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
, (9.179)
J
2
= 2~
2
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
, (9.180)
J
+
= ~
2
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
, (9.181)
J
= ~
2
_
_
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
_
_
. (9.182)
a) The Hamiltonian is given by
H = S
2
z
+
S
2
x
S
2
y
= S
2
z
+

4
h
(S
+
+S
)
2
+ (S
+
S
)
2
i
= S
2
z
+

2
S
2
+
+S
2
.
(9.183)
Thus, in matrix form
H = ~
2
_
_
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
+~
2
_
_
_
_
0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
_
_
+
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0
_
_
_
_
= ~
2
_
_
0
0 0 0
0
_
_
.
(9.184)
b) The eigenvalues and eigenvectors are given by
9.4. Solutions
~
2
_
_
0
0 0 0
0
_
_
_
_
1
0
1
_
_
= ~
2
( +)
_
_
1
0
1
_
_
, (9.185)
~
2
_
_
0
0 0 0
0
_
_
_
_
1
0
1
_
_
= ~
2
( )
_
_
1
0
1
_
_
, (9.186)
~
2
_
_
0
0 0 0
0
_
_
_
_
0
1
0
_
_
= ~
2
0
_
_
0
1
0
_
_
. (9.187)
c) The Hamiltonian is written as H = H
0
+V where in matrix form
H
0
= ~
2
_
_
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
, (9.188)
V = ~
2
_
_
0 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 0
_
_
. (9.189)
For the nondegenerate eigenenergy E
0
m=0
= 0 on has to second order
in perturbation expansion
E
m=0
= E
0
m=0
+h1, 0| V |1, 0i+
X
m
0
=1
|h1, m
0
| V |1, 0i|
2
E
0
m=0
E
0
m
0
= 0 . (9.190)
For the degenerate eigenenergy E
0
m=1
= ~
2
the perturbation in
the subspace spanned by {|1, 1i , |1, 1i} is given in matrix form by
V
m=1
=~
2
0 1
1 0
, (9.191)
thus to rst order in perturbation expansion
E
m=1
= ~
2
( ) . (9.192)
10. For the unperturbed case V = 0, the eigenvectors and eigenenergies are
related by
(H
r
+H
a
) |n, i = E
0
n,
|n, i , (9.193)
where n = 0, 1, 2, is the quantum number of the harmonic oscillator,
and {1, +1} is the quantum number associated with the two-level
particle, and
E
0
n,
= ~
r
n +
1
2
+
~
a
2
. (9.194)
Consider rst the nondegenerate case where
r
6=
a
. To second order
in perturbation theorem
E
n,
= E
0
n,
+hn, | V |n, i +
X
n
0
,
0
6=n,
|hn
0
,
0
| V |n, i|
2
E
0
n,
E
0
n
0
,
0
. (9.195)
Using
V |n, +i = ~ga
|n, i = ~g
n + 1 |n + 1, i , (9.196)
V |n, i = ~ga|n, +i = ~g
n|n 1, +i , (9.197)
one nds for = +1
E
n,+1
= ~
r
n +
1
2
+
~
a
2
+
~g
2
(n + 1)
r
, (9.198)
and for = 1
E
n,1
= ~
r
n +
1
2
~
a
2

~g
2
n
r
. (9.199)
For the general case this can be written as
E
n,
= ~
r
+
g
2
n +
1
2
+
~
a
2
+
1
2
~g
2
r
. (9.200)
In the degenerate case
r
=
a
the eigenenergies for the case V = 0
are given by
E
0
n,
= ~
n +
1
2
+

2
, (9.201)
thus the pairs of states |n, +i and |n + 1, i are degenerate. In the subset
of such a pair the perturbation is given by
hn, +| V |n, +i hn, +| V |n + 1, i

hn + 1, | V |n, +i hn + 1, | V |n + 1, i
=

0 ~g
n + 1
~g
n + 1 0
,
(9.202)
thus to rst order in g the eigenenergies are given by
E = ~
(n + 1) g
n + 1
. (9.203)
11. Using creation and annihilation operators one has
H
0
=
p
2
x
+p
2
y
2m
+
1
2
m
2
x
2
+y
2
= ~ (N
x
+N
y
+ 1) , (9.204)
where N
x
= a
x
a
x
, N
y
= a
y
a
y
, and
9.4. Solutions
V =

~
L
2
z
=

~
(xp
y
yp
x
)
2
=

~
i~
a
x
a
y
a
x
a
y
2
= ~
h
a
2
x
2
+
2
a
2
y
a
x
a
x
a
y
a
y
a
x
a
x
a
y
a
y
i
= ~
h
a
2
x
2
+
2
a
2
y
(1 +N
x
) N
y
N
x
(1 +N
y
)
i
.
(9.205)
a) For the case = 0 the ground state |0, 0i is nondegenerate and has
energy E
0,0
= ~. Since V |0, 0i = 0 one nds to second order in
E
0,0
= ~+h0, 0| V |0, 0i
1
~
X
nx,ny6=0,0
|hn
x
, n
y
| V |0, 0i|
2
n
x
+n
y
= ~+O
.
(9.206)
b) For the case = 0 the rst excited state is doubly degenerate
H
0
|1, 0i = 2~ |1, 0i , (9.207)
H
0
|0, 1i = 2~ |0, 1i . (9.208)
The matrix of V in the basis {|1, 0i , |0, 1i} is given by
h1, 0| V |1, 0i h1, 0| V |0, 1i

h0, 1| V |1, 0i h0, 1| V |0, 1i
= ~
h1, 0| [(1 +N
x
) N
y
+N
x
(1 +N
y
)] |1, 0i 0
0 h0, 1| [(1 +N
x
) N
y
+N
x
(1 +N
y
)] |0, 1i
= ~
1 0
0 1
.
(9.209)
Thus to rst order in the rst excited state remains doubly de-
generate with energy 2~ (1 +). Note - The exact solution can be
found using the transformation
a
d
=
1
2
(a
x
ia
y
) , (9.210)
a
g
=
1
2
(a
x
+ia
y
) . (9.211)
The following holds
h
a
d
, a
d
i
=

a
g
, a
= 1 ,
a
d
a
d
+a
g
a
g
=
1
2
x
+ia
(a
x
ia
y
) +
1
2
x
ia
(a
x
+ia
y
)
= a
x
a
x
+a
y
a
y
,
(9.212)
and
a
d
a
d
a
g
a
g
=
1
2
x
+ia
(a
x
ia
y
)
1
2
x
ia
(a
x
+ia
y
)
= i
a
x
a
y
a
x
a
y
,
(9.213)
thus
H
0
= ~ (N
d
+N
g
+ 1) , (9.214)
V = ~ (N
d
N
g
)
2
, (9.215)
and the exact eigen vectors and eigen energies are given by
(H
0
+V ) |n
d
, n
g
i = ~
h
n
d
+n
g
+ 1 + (n
d
n
g
)
2
i
|n
d
, n
g
i .
(9.216)
12. For V
0
= 0 the wavefunctions
(0)
n
(x) are given by
(0)
n
(x) = hx
0
|ni =
r
2
l
sin
nx
0
l
, (9.217)
E
(0)
n
=
~
2
2
n
2
2ml
2
. (9.218)
The matrix elements of the perturbation are given by
hn|V |mi =
2V
0
l
l
Z
0
sin
nx
l
sin
mx
l
sin
2x
l
dx . (9.219)
For the diagonal case n = m
hn|V |ni =
2V
0
l
l
Z
0
sin
2
nx
l
sin
2x
l
dx (9.220)
=
2V
0
l
l/2
Z
l/2
sin
2
ny
l
+
n
2
sin
2y
l
+
dy (9.221)
=
2V
0
l
l/2
Z
l/2
1 cos
2ny
l
+n
2
sin
2y
l
dy (9.222)
= 0 , (9.223)
(9.224)
since the integrand is clearly an odd function of y. Thus to rst order in
V
0
the energies are unchanged
9.4. Solutions
E
n
=
~
2
2
n
2
2ml
2
+O
V
2
0
. (9.225)
13. For the case = 0 the exact wave functions are given by
(0)
n
(x) =
r
2
L
sin
nx
L
, (9.226)
and the corresponding eigen energies are
E
(0)
n
=
~
2
2
n
2
2mL
2
, (9.227)
where n is integer. To rst order in the energy of the ground state n = 1
is given by
E
1
= E
(0)
1
+

L
Z
L
0
dx

(0)
1
(x)
2
x +O
= E
(0)
1
+
2
L
2
Z
L
0
dx sin
2
x
L
x +O
= E
(0)
1
+

2
+O
(9.228)
14. For the case = 0 the exact wave functions of the eigenstates are given
by
(0)
nx,ny
(x, y) =
2
l
sin
n
x
x
l
sin
n
y
y
l
, (9.229)
and the corresponding eigen energies are
E
(0)
nx,ny
=
~
2
n
2
x
+n
2
y
2ml
2
, (9.230)
where n
x
and n
y
are non-zero integers.
a) The ground state is non degenerate thus to 1st order the energy is
given by
E
0
= E
(0)
1,1
+
Z
l
0
Z
l
0
(0)
1,1
2
W dxdy
=
~
2
2
ml
2
+
~
2
2
ml
2
4
Z
l
0
Z
l
0
sin
2
x
l
sin
2
y
l
(x l
x
) (y l
y
) dxdy
=
~
2
2
ml
2
1 + 4sin
2
l
x
l
sin
2
l
y
l
.
(9.231)
b) The rst excited state is doubly degenerate. The matrix of the per-
turbation W in the eigen subspace is given by
W =

h2, 1| W |2, 1i h2, 1| W |1, 2i
h1, 2| W |2, 1i h1, 2| W |1, 2i
= 4
~
2
2
ml
2
sin
2 2l
x
l
sin
2 l
y
l
sin
2l
x
l
sin
l
x
l
sin
l
y
l
sin
2l
y
l
sin
lx
l
sin
2lx
l
sin
2ly
l
sin
ly
l
sin
2 lx
l
sin
2 2ly
l
!
= 4
~
2
2
ml
2
4 sin
2 lx
l
cos
2 lx
l
sin
2 ly
l
4 cos
lx
l
sin
2 lx
l
cos
ly
l
sin
2 ly
l
4 cos
lx
l
sin
2 lx
l
cos
ly
l
sin
2 ly
l
4 sin
2 lx
l
sin
2 ly
l
cos
2
ly
l
!
=
16~
2
2
sin
2 lx
l
sin
2 ly
l
ml
2
cos
2 lx
l
cos
lx
l
cos
ly
l
cos
l
x
l
cos
l
y
l
cos
2
l
y
l
!
.
(9.232)
The eigenvalues of W are
w
1
= 0 , (9.233)
and
w
2
=
16~
2
2
sin
2 l
x
l
sin
2 l
y
l
cos
2 l
x
l
+ cos
2
l
y
l
ml
2
. (9.234)
15. The unperturbed Hamiltonian ( = 0) can be written as
H =
L
2
L
2
z
2I
xy
+
L
2
z
2I
z
=
L
2
2I
xy
+
1
2I
z

1
2I
xy
L
2
z
,
(9.235)
thus the states |l, mi (the standard eigenstates of L
2
and L
z
) are eigen-
states of H and the following holds
H|l, mi = E
l,m
|l, mi , (9.236)
where
E
l,m
= ~
2
l (l + 1)
2I
xy
+
1
2I
z

1
2I
xy
m
2
. (9.237)
Since the unperturbed Hamiltonian is positive-denite, it is clear that
the state |l = 0, m = 0i is the (nondegenerate) ground state of the system
since its energy vanishes E
0,0
= 0. Using
L
x
=
L
+
+L
2
, (9.238)
L
y
=
L
+
L
2i
, (9.239)
9.4. Solutions
one nds that the perturbation term V can be written as
V =
L
2
+
+L
2
4I
xy
. (9.240)
To second order in the energy of the ground state is found using Eq.
(9.32)
E
0
= E
0,0
+h0, 0| V |0, 0i+
X
l
0
,m
0
6=0,0
|hl
0
, m
0
| V |0, 0i|
2
E
0,0
E
l
0
,m
0
+O
. (9.241)
Using the relations
L
+
|l, mi =
p
l (l + 1) m(m+ 1)~|l, m+ 1i , (9.242)
L
|l, mi =
p
l (l + 1) m(m1)~|l, m1i , (9.243)
it is easy to see that all terms to second order in vanish, thus
E
0
= 0 +O
. (9.244)
16. The Hamiltonian can be written as
H = H
1
+H
2
+V , (9.245)
where
H
1
=
p
2
1
2m
(x
1
) , (9.246)
H
2
=
p
2
2
2m
(x
2
) , (9.247)
and
V = (x
1
x
2
) . (9.248)
First consider H
1
only. A wavefunction
(1)
(x
1
) of an eigenstate of H
1
must satisfy the following Schrodinger equation
d
2
dx
2
1
+
2m
~
2
(E + (x
1
))
(1)
(x
1
) = 0 . (9.249)
Integrating around x
1
= 0 yields the condition
d
(1)
(0
+
)
dx
1

d
(1)
(0
)
dx
1
+
2m
~
2

(1)
(0) = 0 . (9.250)
Requiring also that the wavefunction is normalizable leads to
(1)
(x
1
) =
r
m
~
2
exp
m
~
2
|x
1
|
.
The corresponding eigenenergy is
E
(1)
0
=
m
2
2~
2
.
The ground state of H
2
can be found in a similar way. Thus, the normal-
ized wavefunction of the only bound state of H
1
+H
2
, which is obviously
the ground state, is given by
0
(x
1
, x
2
) =
m
~
2
exp
m
~
2
|x
1
|
exp
m
~
2
|x
2
|
, (9.251)
and the corresponding energy is given by
E
0
=
m
2
~
2
. (9.252)
Therefore, to rst order in the energy of the ground state of H is given
by Eq. (9.32)
E
gs
=
m
2
~
2
+
dx
1
dx
2

0
(x
1
, x
2
) (x
1
x
2
)
0
(x
1
, x
2
) +O
=
m
2
~
2
+
m
~
2
2

Z
dx
1
exp
4m
~
2
|x
1
|
+O
=
m
2
~
2
+
m
2~
2
+O
.
(9.253)
17. Substituting the expansions
|ni = |n
0
i +|n
1
i +
2
|n
2
i +O
, (9.254)
and
=
n0
+
n1
+
2
n2
+O
, (9.255)
into Eq. (9.88) and collecting terms having the same order in (up to
second order) yield
(D
n0
) |n
0
i = 0 , (9.256)
(D
n0
) |n
1
i + (V
n1
) |n
0
i = 0 , (9.257)
(D
n0
) |n
2
i + (V
n1
) |n
1
i
n2
|n
0
i = 0 . (9.258)
We further require normalization
9.4. Solutions
hn|ni = 1 , (9.259)
and choose the phase of hn
0
|ni such that
hn
0
|ni R . (9.260)
Expressing the normalization condition using Eq. (9.254) and collecting
terms having the same order in yield
hn
0
|n
0
i = 1 , (9.261)
hn
0
|n
1
i +hn
1
|n
0
i = 0 , (9.262)
hn
0
|n
2
i +hn
2
|n
0
i +hn
1
|n
1
i = 0 . (9.263)
These results together with Eq. (9.260) yield
hn
0
|n
1
i = hn
1
|n
0
i = 0 , (9.264)
hn
0
|n
2
i = hn
2
|n
0
i =
1
2
hn
1
|n
1
i . (9.265)
Multiplying Eq. (9.257) by hm
0
| yields
n1
hm
0
|n
0
i = (
m0
n0
) hm
0
|n
1
i +hm
0
| V |n
0
i , (9.266)
thus for m = n
n1
= hn
0
| V |n
0
i . (9.267)
Using this result for m 6= n yields
hm
0
|n
1
i =
hm
0
| V |n
0
i
n0
m0
, (9.268)
thus with the help of Eq. (9.87) one has
|n
1
i =
X
m
hm
0
| V |n
0
i
n0
m0
|m
0
i . (9.269)
Multiplying Eq. (9.258) by hn
0
| yields
n2
= hn
0
| V |n
1
i
n1
hn
0
|n
1
i , (9.270)
or using Eq. (9.269)
n2
=
X
m
hn
0
| V |m
0
i hm
0
| V |n
0
i
n0
m0
. (9.271)
Thus, using this result together with Eq. (9.267) one nds
=
n0
+hn
0
| V |n
0
i
+
2
X
m
hn
0
| V |m
0
i hm
0
| V |n
0
i
n0
m0
+O
.
(9.272)
10. Exam 046241 2011 A
Exam 046241 2011 A
10.1 Problems
1. Consider a harmonic oscillator having angular resonance frequency
and mass m. The oscillator is in thermal equilibrium at temperature
T. Calculate the correlation function G(t) =

x
(H)
(t) x
(H)
(0)
, where
x
(H)
(t) is the Heisenberg representation of the position operator.
2. The operator D is dened by
D =
dx
0
|x
0
i hx
0
| , (10.1)
where |x
0
i is an eigenvector of the position operator x having eigenvalue
x
0
, i.e. x|x
0
i = x
0
|x
0
i. Express the operator D as a function of the number
operator N = a
a.
3. In general, the Wigner function of a point particle moving in one dimen-
sion is given by
W (x
0
, p
0
) =
1
2
Z

exp
i
p
0
x
00
~
x
0
x
00
2
x
0
+
x
00
2
dx
00
, (10.2)
where is the density operator of the system, and where |x
0
i repre-
sents an eigenvector of the position operator x having eigenvalue x
0
, i.e.
x|x
0
i = x
0
|x
0
i. Consider the case of a point particle having mass m in
a potential of a harmonic oscillator having angular frequency . Calcu-
late the Wigner function W (x
0
, p
0
) for the case where the system is in a
coherent sate |i.
4. Consider the 2 2 matrix , which is given by
=
1
2
(1 +k ) , (10.3)
where k = (k
x
, k
y
, k
z
) is a three dimensional vector of complex numbers
and where = (
x
,
y
,
z
) is the Pauli matrix vector.
Chapter 10. Exam 046241 2011 A
a) Under what conditions on k the matrix can represent a valid density
operator of a spin 1/2 particle?
b) Under what conditions on k the matrix can represent a valid density
operator of a spin 1/2 particle in a pure state?
c) Calculate the term Tr ( u ), where u is a unit vector, i.e. u u = 1.
10.2 Solutions
1. Using Eq. (5.126), which is given by
x
(H)
(t) = x
(H)
(0) cos (t) +
p
(H)
(0)
m
sin(t) , (10.4)
one nds that
G(t) = cos (t)
D
x
2
(H)
(0)
E
+
sin(t)
m
p
(H)
(0) x
(H)
(0)
. (10.5)
Using the relations
x =
r
~
2m
a +a
, (10.6)
p = i
r
m~
2
a +a
, (10.7)
a, a
= 1 , (10.8)
one nds that
x
2
=
~
2m
a
2
+
2
+ 2a
a + 1
, (10.9)
px
m
= i
~
2m
a
2
+
2
1
. (10.10)
The density operator is given by Eq. (8.121)
=
1
hNi + 1
X
n=0
hNi
hNi + 1
n
|ni hn| , (10.11)
where
hNi = Tr (N) =
e
~
1 e
~
, (10.12)
N = a
a, and where = 1/k

B
T. Using the fact that is diagonal in the
basis of number states one nds that
a
2
=
D
2
E
= 0. Combining all
these results leads to
10.2. Solutions
G(t) =
~
2m
[(2 hNi + 1) cos (t) i sin(t)]
=
~
2m
coth
~
2
cos (t) i sin(t)
.
(10.13)
2. As can be seen from the denition of D, the following holds
hx
0
| D|i =
dx
00
hx
0
|x
00
i hx
00
|i
= hx
0
|i ,
(10.14)
thus the wave function of D|i is (x
0
) given that the wave function
of |i is (x
0
). For the wavefunctions
n
(x
0
) = hx
0
|ni of the number
states |ni, which satisfy N |ni = n|ni, the following holds
n
(x
0
) =

n
(x
0
) n odd
n
(x
0
) n even
, (10.15)
thus
D|ni =

|ni n odd
|ni n even
, (10.16)
or D|ni = (1)
n
|ni ,thus, the operator D can be expressed as a function
of N
D = e
iN
. (10.17)
3. The wave function of the coherent state |i is given by Eq. (5.51)
(x
0
) = hx
0
|i
= exp
2
4
m
~
1/4
exp
"
x
0
hxi
2x
2
+i hpi
x
0
~
#
.
(10.18)
where
hxi
= h| x|i =
r
2~
m
0
, (10.19)
hpi
= h| p |i =
2~m
00
, (10.20)
0
= Re () , (10.21)
00
= Im() , (10.22)
x
=
q
h| (x)
2
|i =
r
~
2m
, (10.23)
Chapter 10. Exam 046241 2011 A
Using the denition (10.2) and the identity
exp
ax
2
+bx +c
dx =
r
a
e
1
4
4ca+b
2
a
, (10.24)
one has
W (x
0
, p
0
) =
1
2
Z

exp
i
p
0
x
00
~
x
0
x
00
2
|i h
x
0
+
x
00
2
dx
00
=
m
~
1/2
2
Z

dx
00
e
x
0
x
00
2
hxi
2x
!
2
x
0
+
x
00
2
hxi
2x
!
2
+i
p
0
hpi
x
00
=
m
~
1/2
2
Z

dx
00
e
(x
0
hxi
)
2
+
(
x
00
2
)
2
2(x)
2
+i
p
0
hpi
x
00
,
(10.25)
thus
W (x
0
, p
0
) =
1
1
2
x
0
hxi
1
2
p
0
hpi
2
, (10.26)
where [see Eq. (5.49)]
p
=
q
h| (p)
2
|i =
r
~m
2
=
~
2x
. (10.27)
4. Using the denition of the Pauli matrices (6.135) one nds that
=
1
2
1 +k
z
k
x
ik
y
k
x
+ik
y
1 k
z
, (10.28)
and
2
=
1
4
1 + 2k
z
+k
2
2 (k
x
ik
y
)
2 (k
x
+ik
y
) 1 2k
z
+k
2
,
where k
2
= k
2
x
+k
2
y
+k
2
z
.
a) Note that for any k the following holds Tr () = 1. The requirement
that is Hermitian, i.e. the requirement that
= , implies that
k
z
= k
z
and k
x
k
x
+ i
k
y
k
= 0, thus k
x
, k
y
and k
z
are all
real. Moreover, the the requirement that Tr
=

1 +k
2
/2 1
implies that k
2
1.
10.2. Solutions
b) For this case Tr
= 1, thus k
2
= 1.
c) With the help of Eq. (6.136), which is given by
( a) ( b) = a b +i (a b) , (10.29)
and the fact that all three Pauli matrices have a vanishing trace, one
nds that
Tr ( u ) =
1
2
Tr ( u ) +
1
2
Tr (( u ) (k ))
=
1
2
Tr (( u ) (k ))
=
1
2
Tr ( u k) +
i
2
Tr ( ( u k))
=
1
2
Tr ( u k)
= u k .
(10.30)
References
1. Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, Bernard Diu, Franck Laloe, Quantum Mechanics, Wi-
ley, New York (1977).
2. J.J.Sakurai, Modern Quantum Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, New York (1994).
Index
action, 1
angular momentum, 123
Bohrs magneton, 30, 66
Bohrs radius, 176
bra-vector, 17
canonically conjugate, 5
central potential, 169
closure relation, 18
collapse postulate, 29
commutation relation, 34
commuting operators, 35
conservative system, 4
degeneracy, 24
density operator, 187
Diracs notation, 17
dual correspondence, 19
Ehrenfests theorem, 70
eigenvalue, 23
eigenvector, 23
Euler-Lagrange equations, 2
expectation value, 29
generalized force, 4
gyromagnetic ratio, 30
Hamiltons formalism, 1
Hamilton-Jacobi equations, 5
Heisenberg representation, 67
Hermitian adjoint, 22
Hydrogen atom, 174
inner product, 15
ket-vector, 17
kinetic energy, 4
Lagrangian, 1
Larmor frequency, 66
linear vector space, 15
magnetic moment, 29
matrix representation, 20
momentum representation, 54
momentum wavefunction, 54
norm, 16
normal ordering, 98
number operator, 88
observable, 22
operator, 17
orbital angular momentum, 123, 131
orthogonal, 16
orthonormal basis, 16
outer product, 18
Plancks constant, 3
Poissons brackets, 7
position representation, 50
position wavefunction, 51
positive-denite, 38
potential energy, 4
principle of least action, 2
projector, 25
pure ensemble, 190
quantum measurement, 28
quantum statistical mechanics, 191
radial equation, 172
reduced mass, 174
rotation, 124
Schr dinger equation, 3, 63
Schwartz inequality, 37, 38
shell, 179
sperical harmonics, 135
spin, 29
spin 1/2, 65, 131
state vector, 15
Index
stationary state, 65
Stern-Gerlach, 30
symmetric ordering, 68
Thomas-Reiche-Kuhn sum rule, 72
time evolution operator, 63
trace, 33
transformation function, 55
translation operator, 50
uncertainty principle, 36
unitary, 32
Weyl transformation, 69

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Eyal Buks

Quantum Mechanics (046241) -

(t). The trajectory Q

(t). As the following theorem shows, the principle of

(t), for which the action obtains

0 (t) from point Q

Fig. 1.2. The classical trajectory Q (t) and the trajectory Q

be a Lagrangian of a system, where Q = (q

= 0 for arbitrary smooth function f

is clearly an operator since for any |i F the object

is linear since for every |

. What is the dual of the ket-vector |i =

is a linear functional that

is given by Eq. (2.29).

and is dened by the following duality relation

then h| X|i = h| X|i

Proof. Applying XY on an arbitrary ket-vector |i F and employing the

. Thus, there exists a unitary transformation

= 0 is true if and only if A = 0.

= |i h|, thus clearly the operator A is Hermitian.

A|ui 0. Moreover, using a complete orthonormal basis {|ni}

|mi hm| A|ni

= [L, [L, f (s)]] , (2.204)

= A, thus the two eigenvalues

= Tr (|i h |i h|) + Tr (|i h |i h|) Tr (|i h |i h|) Tr (|i h |i h|)

(x) x (x) , (3.77)

is the Hamiltonian of the system.

, the dual of the Schrodinger equation (4.1) is given by

u = 1 for any time, namely u is unitary.

(t) = |h; x| u(t, 0) |(0)i|

according to the rule

of the classical variable x

, however, this is incorrect since x

was found. The energy is measured

cos (t) , (4.75)

(x)) /2). We have

, and subtracting the complex conjugate

, therefore its eigenvalues are

|ni, which is proportional to |n + 1i, is an eigenvector of

having a power series expansion the following

2~m Im() , (5.47)

are all time independent. On the other hand, as

have oscillatory time depen-

of all energy eigenstates of the

having a power series expansion the

are the annihilation and creation

(r) |0i , (5.78)

. Clue: show rst that b

be a function of the annihilation a

operators. The normal ordering of X

: places the a operators on the right and the a

operators on the left. Some examples are given below

around the point t = 0, implies that

2~m Im() , (5.203)

h0| T |0i +h0| T

h0| T |0i +h0| T

(r) S (r) = 1, since the operator

|0i is indeed an eigenvector of N with eigenvalue 1

|0i = h0| (1 N) |0i = h0|0i = 1 . (5.291)

|0i h0| exp(a)

|ni are eigenvectors of the number operator

|a, bi) . (6.38)

|a, bi) = ([J