Synchronous Generator Characteristics

Electrical Machines-III
Synchronous Generator Characteristics
UNIT II 2. SYNCHRONOUS Generator characteristics

2.1. Harmonics: The distortion in an output or input Voltage or Current wave form is called known as harmonics. The ripples due to slotting of armature are always opposite to slots and a tooths which are causing them. Thus the harmonics which is generated in the emf is due tom slotting called slot harmonics.
The air-gap offers maximum reluctance to the flux path, if made to vary sinusoidal around the machine the field form and would be sinusoidal Thus in general it can be seen that ideal sinusoidal field form is very difficult to obtain whether the machine is salient pole type or cylindrical type rotor construction.
2.2. Harmonics in generated emf wave form: The major sources of harmonics in an alternator in the output voltage wave form are as follows: i. The non-sinusoidal wave form of the field flux. ii. Variation in reluctance of the air-gap due to the slotting of the stator core.
These are explained by the methodology of wave shaping as follows. The flux distribution curve in the air-gap of an alternator shown in figure is not usually as rectangular as in a dc machine, but it is not a perfectly sinusoidal unless the machine has a salient pole rotor with specially shaped pole shoes, or a cylindrical rotor with sinusoidal distributed field winding.
T. Y. Saravanan M. Tech., NECGUDUR
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The induced emf wave per conductor is similar to flux wave since induced emf per conductor is directly proportional to flux density at constant speed. i.e., e=Blv volts
Where, l = length of conductor is constant and v = velocity or speed is constant If the winding is full-pitched one, the emfs, induced in two coil sides of each coil will be in phase and of the same magnitude because at any instant both the sides of the coil lie under corresponding positions of opposite poles. Hence for full-pitched winding, the induced emf wave in early coil will have same shape as the emf induced in each coil side. If concentrated winding is employed, the resulting emf wave will be of the same shape as the flux density curve (B) as above which is flat-topped. Let us consider, a phase belt consisting of 3-coils of a 3- alternator having 3 slots per pole per phase is shown in figure. The shape of emf wave for each of the 3-full-pitch coils giving one phase of the winding will be of the shape, as shown in figure by curves I, II and III respectively below. The slot displacement angle between the adjacent slots is 20 electrical apart. 1800 1800 = = 200 n 9
i.e., =
The resultant emf per phase would be the phasor sum of the induced emfs in the three coils which may be obtained by adding the ordinates of three emfs waves. The resultant emf per phase (Ep) wave is not flat topped but is almost sine wave. Hence the distributed winding is employed to give emf wave nearly sinusoidal. By using distributed winding, breadth factor for harmonics is very much less than for fundamental. So that harmonics are reduced in the resultant emf wave.
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For a fractional pitch winding, the emf in each coil may be obtained first by adding the emfs of each coil side graphically and then resultant emf per phase may be obtained by adding the coil emfs. The resultant emf per phase for a fractional or short-pitch winding will be more nearly sinusoidal than for full-pitch winding.
2.3. Suppression of harmonics in generated emf: In general for synchronous generators, non-sinusoidal field flux wave form is the major cause of harmonics in the emf waveform. If field flux waveform is a sinusoidal then there should be no harmonics in the synchronous generator emf waveform. In case of salient pole machines, if the air-gap is made to vary sinusoidal around the machine, the field produced is sinusoidal. An approximate of sinusoidal field form is obtained by skewing the pole faces. Skew Pole Face
Pole (Normal)
Skewed Face Pole
In cylindrical rotor machines, the length of air-gap is uniform throughout, therefore the sinusoidal field wave form is obtained, and the mmf of the field winding is made to vary as nearly sinusoidal as possible. Now if we consider that an amount of saturation in iron parts, the sinusoidal field form cannot be obtained in salient pole machines even if the air-gap length is varied sinusoidal. In cylindrical rotor machines even if the mmf distribution in air-gap is made sinusoidal because air-gap around the outer periphery should be uniform. An ideal sinusoidal wave form is very difficult to achieve, and therefore harmonics developed in induced emf. The harmonics can be easily eliminated from the alternator generated induced emf wave form by properly designing the windings. The various methods for elimination of harmonics from the output voltage are,
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1) Distributing the armature winding properly. 2) Short-chording or fractionally pitched the armature winding by making the coil-span or coil-pitch less than a full pole-pitch. (i.e., short-pitch winding) 3) Skewing the pole faces usually through one slot-pitch. 4) In case of salient pole, if we maintain small air-gap at the pole centre and large air-gap towards the pole ends tends to make the field flux sinusoidal as shown in above figure. 5) Skewing the armature slots, only tooth or slot harmonics can be eliminated. 6) Fractional slot winding: Higher order harmonics can be drastically reduced by using fractional slot winding. The flux pulsations can be reduced by having number of slots per pole arc as an integer plus 1/2. 7) Larger air-gap length causes the increases in reluctance which will reduce the harmonics. 8) By making the alternator connections i.e., star or delta connections of alternators suppress triplen harmonics (multiples of three) from appearing across lines.
2.4. Rating of Alternators: All power equipments or apparatus whether it is steam engine or gas engine or electric machine have power ratings defined as the power which can be safely and efficiently delivered by a machine under some specific conditions or the rating of AC machinery such as alternators, transformers and cables are determined by their heating and hence by losses them. Electrical apparatus or machine is usually rated at the load, which it can carry without overheating and damage to insulation i.e., rating of electric machine is governed by the temperature rise caused by the internal losses of the machine. The copper loss in the armature (I2R) depends upon the strength of the armature current and core loss on voltage and these losses are independent of power factor. The output in KW is proportional to power factor for the alternator of a given KVA. For example output of 1000 KVA alternator will be of full load is 200, 500, 800 and 1000 KW at power factor of 0.2, 0.5,0.8 and unity respectively, but copper losses in armature will remain same regardless of power factor. The prime mover which drives the alternator, have a rating independent of power factor and it depends on kW output. Finally we can say that the alternators are rated in kVA or kW at specified power factor. Other name plate details include: 1. Voltage 3. Frequency 5. Number of Poles 7. Maximum Temperature rise 2. Current 4. Speed 6. Field current & Voltage 8. Number of Phases
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2.5. Leakage Reactance or armature leakage reactance (XL): Leakage reactance is an inductive reactance formed due to air-gap in between armature conductors and field poles In an a.c. machine, any flux set up by the load current which does not contribute to the useful flux or main flux of the machine is a leakage flux. This leakage fluxes may be classified as 1. Slot leakage 2. Tooth head leakage 3. Coil-end or overhang leakage When a current flow through the armature conductors or stator conductors, the flux is set up a portion of this flux does not cross the air-gap, but completes its path in stator as shown in figure. Such a flux is known as leakage flux. This effect gives the armature a reactance which is numerically equal to 2 f L. L, in henries, is the leakage inductance of winding This leakage flux is proportional to stator or armature current, since the magnetic path it covers is not normally saturated. It also depends on the phase angle between the stator current and voltage applied across the stator. The leakage flux sets up an emf of self inductance leading the load current I by
2
and
proportional to load current I in magnitude. Hence armature winding is assumed to possess leakage reactance (XL) such that the voltage drop due to it, I XL is equal to an emf set by leakage flux. A part of the generated emf is used up to overcome this leakage reactance drop in addition to armature drop. i.e., Generated emf = phasor sum of terminal voltage, armature resistance drop.
2.6. Armature Reaction: The action of armature flux on main flux is called known as Armature Reaction. In dc machine, the armature mmf (ampere-turns) acts on the magnetic circuit of the machine in such a way as to distort the air-gap flux and to charge its magnitude. For a given armature current, the direction and magnitude of armature reaction depends on the position of brushes. In an alternator, somewhat similar conditions exist. For a given armature current, the magnitude and direction of the armature reaction cannot depends on the brush position as in case of dc
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machine, but depends on phase displacement of stator current I with respect to emf E induced in the stator winding by the field winding flux. i.e., for, DC Machine Alternator Armature Reaction depends on position of brushes. Armature Reaction depends on phase angle displacement of load current I and induced emf E. In an alternator the phase displacement or phase angle - between current I and emf E can be within the limits of, 2 2 We will consider three cases, i.e., i. ii. iii. When = 0 i.e., when the power factor of load is unity. When = +2 i.e., when the power factor is zero and lagging. When = -2 i.e., when the power factor of load is zero and leading.

2.6.1. At unity power factor:
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The distribution of the stator currents and fluxes of an alternator with zero phase displacement between current I and emf E (i.e., when pf is unity) Assuming the rotation of the poles to be clockwise is shown in above figure. The crosses (+) and dots (.) appeasing in the conductor cross sections indicate the instantaneous direction of the emfs induced and currents flowing. Cross indicating the inward direction and dot indicating the outward direction. The maximum of the fundamental wave of the field will be opposite to the pole centers and at the same points the conductors have their maximum induced emf. With =0 the conductors carrying the maximum current will also be at the same points, as shown in the figure. The armature reaction mmf is perpendicular to the main field mmf, as in case of a dc machine with brushes on the neutral axis. This causes the distortion of the flux due to main field and asymmetrical distribution of the flux density under the pole shoe. The flux density under the trailing pole tips increases somewhat, while under the leading pole lips it decreases. The axis of the resultant field is displaced under the action of armature reaction mmf in a direction opposite to that of rotation of the rotor. Hence armature reaction at unity power factor has got distorting effect. 2.6.2. At lagging zero power factor:
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The distribution of currents and fluxes with phase angle = +2 radians i.e., for a purely inductive load is shown above. The current maximum will be shifted in space by an angle 900 from the emf maximum, which coincides with the centre of the poles. This shift will be opposite to direction of rotation, because the fundamental armature reaction wave rotates in step with the field poles. While when = +2, current wave lags behind the emf wave by an angle 900. The field created by the armature reaction mmf will be in opposite to main field flux and will, Therefore, have a wholly de-magnetizing effect.
2.6.3. At leading zero power factor: The distribution of currents and fluxes with phase angle -2 i.e., for a purely capacitive load is shown below. The maximum current will be shifted to the right from the maximum emf, which remains as before under the pole centres and the armature reaction will, Therefore have a wholly magnetizing effect on the main field.
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For any power factor cos of load, the armature reaction has cross-magnetizing component proportional I cos and demagnetizing component proportional to I sin, and is taken +ve for lagging power and ve for leading power factor.
The phasor sum of the fundamental armature winding and field winding mmf waves constitutes, in a synchronous machine, the mmf creating the resultant magnetic flux.
2.7. Nature of Armature Reaction: The nature of the armature reaction is dependent on the power factor at which the machine is operating and upon the operating mode of synchronous machine. For simplicity of explanation, it will be assumed that the armature resistance (Ra) and leakage reactance (XL) are negligible so that, Vt = Eg The below phasor diagrams, with component fluxes indicated therein for an alternator for zero power factor lagging, zero power factor leading, unity power factor. The following observations are immediately made from the phasor diagrams.
Where,
ar = armature flux component f = field flux component r = resultant flux component
Armature reaction is demagnetizing (ar opposes f) when a alternator supplies zero power factor lagging current. Armature reaction is magnetizing (ar aids f) when a alternator supplies zero power factor leading current. Armature reaction is mostly cross-magnetizing (i.e., at 900 to f) though it has a small demagnetizing component shown when an alternator supplies a unity power factor current. From the above discussion, we conclude that for an alternator,
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It supplies a lagging power factor current; the armature reaction has both demagnetizing and cross-magnetizing components. It supplies leading power factor current, the armature reaction has both magnetizing and crossmagnetizing components.
2.8. SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE: 2.8.1. Synchronous Reactance: (XS) [XS = XL + Xa] The armature reactance is the reactance which is due to armature reaction. The emf set up due to armature reaction mmf is always quadrature with load current IL and is proportional to it. Thus it is equivalent to an emf induced in an inductive coil and the effect of armature reaction can, therefore, be considered equivalent to reactance drop IXa. Where Xa which takes care of the armature reaction effect. The armature winding possess a certain leakage reactance (XL) already discussed. The sum of XL and Xa is called the synchronous reactance. XS = XL + Xa
2.8.2. Effective Resistance: (Re) The effective resistance of the armature winding is somewhat greater than the conductor resistance called the dc resistance. This is due to additional loss, over the purely I2R loss, inside and sometimes outside the conductor due to alternating current (AC). The main sources of this additional loss are, i. ii. iii. Eddy current in the outer periphery. Magnetic hysteresis in the surrounding material. Eddy currents or unequal current distribution in the conductor itself.
In many cases it is sufficiently accurate to measure armature resistance by dc called the effective resistance (Re) which is large enough to take care of these additional losses. Re can vary widely from 1.25 to 1.75 or more times to dc resistance depending upon design.
2.8.3. Synchronous impedance: (ZS) When the synchronous reactance (XS) is combined with the armature resistance (Re), then the quantity obtained is called the Synchronous impedance (ZS).
i.e.,
ZS = Re + jXS
Armature winding effective resistance (Re) in alternators usually very small in comparison to synchronous reactances (XS) and therefore ZS may be assumed to XS.
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2.9. Alternator ON-LOAD: If the excitation of an alternator adjusted to give normal voltage at no-load and then a load is applied, the terminal voltage of an alternator changes, even though the speed is kept constant. The voltage usually falls, but in certain circumstances it may rise even. The change in terminal voltage of an alternator with the change in load supplied by it is due to the following reasons. i. Voltage drop account of armature effective resistance (Re). ii. Voltage drop on account of leakage reactance (XL). iii. Voltage drop on account of armature reaction. D
Ia Xa
E0
From the Phasor diagram of lagging power factor,

Ia XS
Ia is taken as reference vector OD2 = OB2 + BD2 E02 = OD2 = (OA + AB)2 + (BC + CD)2
Ia Re C
V sin
Ia Xl
E0 = (V cos + Ia Re)2 +(V sin + Ia Xs )2
O V cos Ia A Ia Re B
Lagging Power Factor
From the Phasor diagram of leading power factor, V is taken as reference vector OC = OD + DC
2 2 2
Ia D C
E0
E02 = OC2 = (OE + ED)2 + (BD - BC)2 B E0 = (V cos + Ia Re)2 + V sin - Ia Xs

2
V O Leading Power Factor A
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E0
D
Ia Xa
From the Phasor diagram of unity power factor,

Ia XS
OD2 = OC2 + CD2 E02 = OD2 = (OB + BC)2 + (CD)2
Ia A
V B
Ia Re C
Ia Xl
E0 = ( V +Ia Re)2 +(Ia Xs )2
Unity Power Factor 2.10. Equivalent Circuit: When the alternator is operating at no-load (i.e., rotor is rotating and energized and stator is open-circuited) its circuit diagram is shown below.
Each phase generates an emf E0 per phase as shown. The equivalent circuit of an alternator for one phase is shown.
At no-load, the terminal voltage V per phase is equal to excitation (or) generated emf E0 per phase i.e., V = E0
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2.11. Load characteristics: Already we know that if the exciting current and speed remain constant, the terminal voltage of an alternator changes with the change in the load (or) armature current. The relation-ship between the terminal voltage (V) and load current (I) of an alternator is known as its Load characteristics. The curves showing the variation of terminal voltage V with load current I for constant excitation for different power factor loads are given. The curves are plotted in terms of percentage values general operating conditions can be marked this way. 100
(Percent Terminal Voltage)
better 0.8 Leading PF
in
Unity PF 0.8 Lagging PF
Vt (Volts)
0 Isc (Amps) (Percent Load Current)
220
Normally the terminal voltage falls with increase in load current, but when the power factor is leading one, the load characteristic may rise at first. Each curve is nearly straight line at the beginning but trends to droop because, with the increase in load current, the angle of lag between current and emf, owing to the original field increases. The highest current is obtained when the alternator terminals are short-circuited, the value being given as Isc = E0 (A) Zs
where, E0 is non-load terminal voltage and Zs is the synchronous impedance.
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2.12. Experimental determination of Zs: 2.12.1. Open circuit test:
The connection for open circuit test is shown in the above circuit diagram. The armature winding i.e., load terminals are opened and machine should be run at rated or synchronous speed. The field winding is connected to dc source in series with a field rheostat and an ammeter.
By adjusting the field rheostat to maximum to minimum the field current If is taken from ammeter in steps minimum to maximum respectively. Then Eg0 is also minimum to maximum taken from voltmeter in steps up to rated value.
Draw the open circuit characteristic curve (OCC curve) from the above readings. i.e., If on xaxis and Eg on y-axis. The Ego which we obtained from voltmeter is line value that should be represent in a graph as phase value. i.e., [For a star Ego/ph =
Ego /line 3
].
2.12.2. Short circuit test: The connection for the short circuit test is shown in the below circuit diagram. In this test also the machine should be maintained at constant speed by the prime mover. All the 3- load terminals of 3- alternator as shorted. Rheostat of sufficiently high ohmic value is inserted in the dc field circuit to keep the current in the circuit very low. Now the field current If is adjusted to Isc or Irated of 3- alternator by varying the field rheostat. From the If and Isc the SCC curve (Short Circuit Characteristic) is obtained.
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2.12.3. OC & SC Characteristic curves:
The synchronous impedance Zs can be obtained by above graphical representation of occ and scc curve. i.e., ZS = Open circuit induced emf Short circuit current Eoc Isc
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Zs =
2.13. Determination of effective armature resistance: (Re) The effective armature resistance (Re) per phase can be measured directly by AmmeterVoltmeter (A-V method) or by using Wheatstone bridge
The above circuit is used to measure the effective armature resistance per phase. The DC supply is connected to the any one phase of armature winding through rheostat, ammeter in series and voltmeters to parallel. Then the rheostat can be varied from maximum to minimum in steps the Va and Ia values are noted by voltmeter and ammeter respectively and taken average with gives Re. i.e. Ra =
Va Ia
The Re value which we obtained is dc by converting it to AC value is multiplied 1.5 due to skin effect. i.e., RAC = 1.5 RDC Finally, we obtained the synchronous impedance Zs from OC and SC test, Re obtained by A-V method then Xs as, Synchronous Reactance =XS =
2 Z2 S - Re
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2.14. Winding factor: (Harmonics Consideration) The product of distribution factor (Kd) and the pitch factor (Kp) is referred as the winding factor (Kw). Kw = Kd *Kp 3- alternators are invariably star-connected to eliminate 3rd and 9th harmonics (i.e. multiples of 3, called triplen) from line emfs through 5th and 7th harmonic emfs of reduced magnitude are present in the lines. Already we know the emf equation of 3- alternator, i.e.
E ph
= 4.44 Kp Kd f T volts.
From the above equation, the fundamental emf per phase is, Ep1 = 4.44 * Kw1 * 1 * (1f) * T .. (1) For 3rd harmonic, emf per phase is Ep3 = 4.44 * Kw3 * 3 * (3f) * T .. (2) In general, for hth harmonic, emf per phase is Eph = 4.44 * Kwh * h * (hf) * T .. (3) Here subscripts 1, 3 and h denotes fundamental, third and hth harmonics respectively. From Eph and Ep1 expressions, the hth harmonic and fundamental rms phase emfs are related (3) Eph Kwh h h = = * ..(3a) (1) Ep1 Kw1 1 Also, 1= total value of fundamental flux per pole = (Avg. Flux density) . (Area under pole) 2 DL = B1 * P 2DL = .B1 ..(4) P Where, B1 = peak value of fundamental component of flux density. D = Air-gap diameter of armature. L = Core Length of armature.
Similarly, 3 from equ, (4) as 3 =

2DL B 3P 3
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In general, h = 2DL B hP h
From the above, h 1 Bh = . 1 h B1 From equation 3a Eph Kwh hh = . Ep1 Kw1 1 Eph Kwh 1 Bh = .h. . Ep1 Kw1 h B1 Eph Kwh Bh = . Ep1 Kw1 B1 Bh hh = B1 1
The rms phase emf is, Eph =[Ep1 2 +Ep3 2 + ---+Eph 2 ]1/2
2.15. Fictitious Poles: In case of a magnets dipole it is not possible to identify any two particular points as poles of the magnet. So, every magnetic dipole is supposed to be made up of two imaginary poles called fictitious poles of equal strength but opposite polarity. The fictitious poles can be obtained by extending the magnetic lines of forces inside the magnet. Thus, the actual distance between the fictitious poles is less than the distance between the ends of the magnet. The distance between the fictitious poles of a magnet is called the magnetic length of the magnet. It is represented by 21, where / is the distance of each pole of the magnet from its centre. So, the actual magnetic length of a magnet is slightly less than its geometrical length. The relation between these lengths is as follows. Magnetic length = 5/6 geometrical length.
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C:\Users\sravana\AppData\Roaming\Microsoft\Templates\Normal. dotm Title: Subject: Author: sravana Keywords: Comments: Creation Date: 05-Aug-13 9:05:00 AM Change Number: 607 Last Saved On: 16-Aug-13 7:52:00 AM Last Saved By: JNTU Total Editing Time: 243 Minutes Last Printed On: 16-Aug-13 7:53:00 AM As of Last Complete Printing Number of Pages: 48 Number of Words: 3,737 (approx.) Number of Characters: 21,304 (approx.)

Synchronous Generator Characteristics - Saravanan T Y

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Electrical Machines-III

UNIT II 2. SYNCHRONOUS Generator characteristics

T. Y. Saravanan M. Tech., NECGUDUR