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Fext dr = -
Fe dr
The work done gets stored as potential energy. The work done can also be defined as the difference in the potential energies at R and P. Wrp = Up - Ur The electrostatic potential energy of q at a point (in the presence of a field due to an charge configuration) is the amount of work done by the external force (equal and opposite to electric force) to bring a charge from to that point WA = UA - U = UA ( potential energy at infinity is 0 ) (i) (ii) Potential energy depends only on the initial and final positions and not on the path taken. Hence it is called as a conservative quantity. The actual potential energy at different positions do not have any physical significance. Only the difference between them is important.
Electrostatic Potential (V) The work done is proportional to the force at that point due to a charge configuration q. WF W qE W/qE The work done per unit test charge is characteristic of the electric field associated with charge configuration. This quantity is called as electrostatic potential.
V=
(i) (ii) (iii) The electrostatic potential is inversely proportional to the distance between them The electric field intensity is inversely proportional to the square of distance between them. The electric field intensity around a dipole is inversely proportional to the cube of distance between them.
V=
The above equation is true only for distances larger than the size of the dipole. If the angle between the dipole and the position vector is 0, V=0
Consider a uniformly charged sphere with radius R, the potential energy at an arbitrary point outside the shell is as if the entire charge of the sphere is concentrated at the center. Hence, the potential is:
V=
,rR
V=
The potential inside the shell is 0 i.e the no external force is needed to move a test charge inside the sphere
Equipotential Surfaces Equipotential surfaces is a surface with a constant value of potential at all points on the surface. Since there is no potential difference between two points, no work is done to move charges from one point to another.
V=
Hence, if r is constant the potential difference will remain the same. The equipotential surface around a point charge is concentric spherical surfaces centered at the charge. For any charge configuration, equipotential surface through a point is normal to the electric field at that point. If the field were not normal to the surface, it would have a non-zero component along the
For parallel conducting plates like those in acapacitor, the electric field lines are perpendicular to the plates and the equipotential lines are parallel to the plates.
so that the radius r determines the potential. The equipotential lines are therefore circles and a sphere centered on the charge is an equipotential surface. The dashed lines illustrate the scaling of voltage at equal increments - the equipotential lines get further apart with increasing r.
(Refer NB) The conclusions drawn from the formula: (i) (ii) The electric field is in the direction in which the potential difference decrease is steepest. The magnitude of electric field is given by the change in potential per unit displacement normal to the equipotential surface.
W=
This equation is applicable even when: (i) q1q2 > 0 , the charges are like charges, hence work has to be done to bring them together from infinity to a finite distance between them by overcoming the repulsive force. (ii) q1q2 < 0, the charges are unlike charges, hence work has to be done against the attractive force to move them apart to infinity. 2. For a system of three charges
W=
The unit of energy is defined as electron volt (1 eV) 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J The units based on eV are most commonly used in atomic, nuclear and particle physics. 1 keV = 103 eV = 1.6 x 10-16 J 1 MeV = 106 eV = 1.6 x 10-13 J 1 GeV = 109 eV = 1.6 x 10-10 J 1 TeV = 1012 eV = 1.6 x 10-7 J 2. Of a system of two charges Consider a charges q1 and q2 which are in an external electric field E at r1 and r2, respectively produced by a charge configuration. The work done to bring charge q1 from infinity to the point r1 is: The work done to bring charge q2 from infinity to that point r2 has to be against not only the electric field but also the force exerted by the charge q1.
The total work done or the net potential energy of the system is:
When
, ( )
The work done against the external field to bring a the pair of charges is equal and opposite. Electrostatics of conductors In metallic conductors, (i) The outermost electrons are free to move but cannot escape the metal. (ii) The move and collide with one another and the positive ions present in their fixed positions. (iii) The nuclei of the atom and some electrons are held in fixed positions. (iv) When an external electric field is applied, the free electrons move in opposite direction of the electric field. (v) The charge carriers are the electrons in the case of metallic conductors. In electrolytic conductors, Both positive and negative ions can act as charge carriers. However the movement of these carriers is affected by two factors: - The applied electric field - The chemical forces involved 1. Inside a conductor electrostatic field is zero The electric field inside a conductor is 0 because the electrons align themselves in such a way that their electric field cancel out each other when no current is flowing thought the conductor. 2. At the surface of charged conductor, electrostatic field must be normal to the surface at every point. (i) (ii)
The electric field inside the conductors cavity remains zero. This is known as electrostatic shielding. It is used to protect sensitive instruments from outside electrical influence Dielectric and Polarization Dielectric substances are non- conducting and have little or no charge carriers in them. When electric field is applied, free movement of charges cannot happen. The external electric field induces dipole in the material by stretching or re-orienting. The collective effect of all the molecular dipole moment is the net charge present on the surface of the substance. The opposing internal field exerted by the dielectric medium only reduces the effect of the external electric field. Non-polar and polar molecules: (i) Non-polar molecules-
(ii)
If an electric field is applied to a dielectric substance with non-polar molecules, dipole moment is induced by the external field. The positive center moves towards the direction of the electric field while the electron cloud moves to the opposite end. This process is known as stretching and the displacement stops when the net dipole moment balances the external electric field. The medium is said to be polarized by the external electric field. A dielectric whose polarization always has a direction that is parallel to the applied electric field, and a magnitude which does not depend on the direction of the electric field is called as linear isotropic dielectrics.
In a dielectric medium with polar molecules, dipole moment is already present. However there is no polarity because the dipoles are oriented randomly due to thermal agitation (net dipole moment is 0). When an external electric field is applied, the dipoles are arranged such that the negative part is in one direction while the positive in the opposite direction. Hence the net dipole moment is in the direction of the electric field
Thus application of an electric field creates polarization either by inducing dipoles (in non polar) or reorienting and aligning them in external electric field (in polar) in both types of molecules.
The factors that determine the polarization is: (i) (ii) The strength of the external field to align the dipoles or induce dipole moment in the molecules The thermal agitation opposing the alignment of the dipoles
The dipole moment per unit volume is called as polarization. Its denoted by P. For linear isotropic dielectrics,
is a constant for a given dielectric constant. It is called as electric susceptibility of the dielectric material. The net charge in a dielectric medium is 0 because the positive and negative centers lie close to each other. Hence they cancel out.
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The electric field between the conductors is proportional to the charge of the capacitor. Potential difference is directly proportional to the charge of the capacitor.
The constant C is called as capacitance of the capacitor. C is independent of the charge or the potential difference but depends on: (i) (ii) Geometrical configuration (shape, size, separation) Nature of the insulator
The SI unit of the capacitance is farad. (1 F = 1 CV-1) A capacitor is symbolically represented as and variable capacitor as .
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If the conductor used in the capacitor is not infinitely long, the field lines bends outward at the edges. This effect is called as fringing of the field. cannot be uniform throughout the conductor. However, these effects can be ignored if d2 << A From the above equations we can conclude that the capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the A and to 1/d. Ways to increase the capacitance 1. Increase the area 2. Decrease the distance between the conductors 3. Increase the dielectric constant Combination of capacitors 1. Series (i) The capacitors are connected one after the other. In such a connection, the charges in the capacitors remain the same but the potential gets divided.
2. Parallel (i) The capacitors in parallel connection have same potential difference but divided charge.
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Consider a large spherical shell with radius R and charge Q. This charge spreads uniformly over the surface of the sphere. Consider another smaller sphere of radius r with charge q kept inside the larger sphere using an insulating stand. The potential due to the charged smaller sphere on the bigger one:
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From the above formula we can conclude that: (i) (ii) Irrespective of the charge configuration of the bigger sphere, the smaller sphere has a higher potential than the larger sphere because the the potential difference is positive. Charges will flow from the small sphere to the bigger sphere until the insulating layer between the sphere breaks down when they are connected by a wire.
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Materials used
1. hollow metallic sphere (with positive charges) 2. electrode connected to the sphere, a brush ensures contact between the electrode and the belt 3. upper roller (Plexiglass) 4. side of the belt with positive charges 5. opposite side of the belt with negative charges 6. lower roller (metal) 7. lower electrode (ground), a brush to spray charges on the rolling belt Mechanism: A hollow metallic sphere (of few meters radius) with positive charges is supported at a height using a insulating stand. A long narrow endless belt insulating material (rubber or silk) is wound about two pulleys one at ground level, one at the center of the shell. This belt is kept continuously moving by a motor driving the lower pulley. It continuously carries positive charges which is sprayed on it by a brush at the ground level. At the top it transfers the positive charges to another conducting brush connected to the larger shell. Thus positive charges are continuously transferred to the shell which spreads out uniformly on the outer surface of the larger shell. In this way the voltage differences as much as 6 or 8 million builds up. Principle : Charge flows from higher potential to lower potential.
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