CMP800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Abstract
This section reviews reciprocating compressor/engine predictive maintenance, reciprocating piston rod reconditioning, and contains troubleshooting checklists for centrifugal and reciprocating compressors. Maintenance checklists referred to in this section are included in the Appendix. For information on predictive maintenance of centrifugal compressors and vibration troubleshooting, see the CUSA, IMI Candidate Manual. Contents 810 811 812 813 814 815 816 817 818 820 830 831 832 833 834 835 836 Page
Performance Analysis of Reciprocating Compressors and Engines 800-3 Introduction Principles of Compression Analysis Principles of Combustion Analysis Characteristics of Ignition Problems Vibration vs Crankangle Hardware Example of a Typical Predictive Maintenance Program Examples of Program Benefits Maintenance Checklists Reciprocating Compressor Piston-Rod Reconditioning Introduction Rod Leakage/Surface Finish Rod Deviations Rod Reconditioning Rod Coating Processes Experience 800-28 800-30
Chevron Corporation
800-1
December 1998
Compressor Manual
837 838 840 841 842 843
Recommendations Inspection and Specifications Troubleshooting Introduction Troubleshooting Guidelines Problem Solving Guides 800-52
December 1998
800-2
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
810 Performance Analysis of Reciprocating Compressors and Engines

811 Introduction
Performance analysis is employed in several Company locations as one of several available methods of predictive maintenance. Performance analysis is a program involving several elements, which can include: Analysis of power-cylinder pressure versus time, Analysis of compressor-cylinder pressure versus time, or volume, Analysis of vibration caused by mechanical events, Analysis of computed values, such as horsepower, and/or Analysis of power-cylinder ignition.
The concept of predictive maintenance is being successfully used throughout the industry to reduce maintenance expense. The essential philosophy behind a predictive maintenance program is a concentrated effort to gather pertinent data on a periodic basis. Data acquisition is covered later on in this section. The advantages of a predictive maintenance program include: Elimination of catastrophic damage, thereby avoiding very high expense. Avoiding equipment (and plant) downtime. Performing only necessary maintenance. Avoiding disassembly of healthy machinery (periodic overhauls, for example) and exposing it to risks of maintenance errors. Allowing reliable machinery to continue operation. Optimizing fuel consumption.
The following is information summarized from two programs: one at a producing facility, the other at a large refinery.
812 Principles of Compression Analysis

Pressure-Volume Analysis
The purpose of this analysis is to: Detect mechanical problems before they become serious enough to cause significant damage to the machine, Evaluate compressor/engine performance in conjunction with P-T (PressureTime) and vibration analysis, and Automatically compute indicated horsepower, volumetric efficiency, compressor horsepower loading, and power loss.
Chevron Corporation
800-3
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Compressor Cylinders
Figure 800-1 is a simplified summary of a typical Pressure-Volume display and how it correlates to piston/valve actions. It gives the basic pattern and events relative to piston travel. Figure 800-2 represents one format to display the compression cycle. Note that it is similar to Figure 800-1, except for being reversed. Figure 800-2 also shows typical problems that can be detected (with interpretation). Figures 800-3 and 800-4 further illustrate methods for detecting impending compressor valve problems.
813 Principles of Combustion Analysis

Much of the material in Sections 813, 814, 815 and 816 has been extracted from materials provided by Rotating and Reciprocating Specialists. The purpose of this analysis is to: Optimize fuel consumption, and Detect mechanical problems before they become serious enough to cause significant damage to the machine.
Typical combustion patterns are depicted on Figure 800-5 and may be defined as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. Normal CombustionIgnition timed correctly, proper air/fuel mixture, no malfunctions. No Combustion (Dead miss)Cause: ignition or mixture, also water in cylinder. Early CombustionCause: ignition timing, mixture, or temperature. Late CombustionCause: late ignition, mixture (rich or lean) or water in cylinder. 5. 6. Terminal pressure highrich mixture Terminal pressure lowlean mixture
Detonation (too rapid combustion rateuncontrolled)Cause: mixture, excess load. Rich mixture tends to detonate. Pre-ignition (auto-ignition)Cause: hot spot, carbon or foreign matter in the combustion chamber, excess cylinder temperature, presence of heavy hydrocarbons.
December 1998
800-4
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-1
Typical Pressure Volume Display (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
Chevron Corporation
800-5
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-2
Typical Compressor Cylinder Problems Identified with P-V Displays (1 of 5) (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
December 1998
800-6
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-2
Chevron Corporation
800-7
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-2
December 1998
800-8
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-2
Chevron Corporation
800-9
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-2
December 1998
800-10
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-3
Detection Patterns for Valve Problems
Fig. 800-4
Detection Patterns for Valve Problems
Chevron Corporation
800-11
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-5
Typical Combustion Patterns (Courtesy of the American Gas Association) NOTE: Frames 1-6 are all cylinder pressure vs. crankangle displays.
December 1998
800-12
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
2-Stroke Cycle versus 4-Stroke Cycle

Both types of engines have advantages and disadvantages. The individual application governs the selection of a 2-stroke cycle or 4-stroke cycle unit. The primary difference between the engines is cylinder design, and: The 2-stroke cycle requires the piston to make only two strokes through the cylinder (one revolution of the crankshaft) for each complete combustion cycle. The 4-stroke cycle requires the piston to make four strokes through the cylinder (two revolutions of the crankshaft) for each complete combustion cycle. The 2-stroke cycle engine is the less complicated of the two, since it has no CAM-actuated intake valves and most have no CAM-actuated exhaust valves. Some 2-stroke cycle units do, however, have CAM-actuated exhaust valves. The 2-stroke cycle engine requires a positive scavenging air pressure (reciprocating scavenging air cylinder, mechanically-driven blower or turbocharger). The 4-stroke cycle engine can be naturally aspirated. More horsepower can be derived from the 4-stroke cycle engine by utilizing a mechanically-driven blower (supercharger or turbocharger). The 4-stroke cycle engine has a longer functional stroke than the 2-stroke cycle engine, since the 4-stroke cycle maintains a positive pressure (due to combustion) on the piston for more degrees of crankshaft rotation and opens the exhaust valve near the bottom dead center. Therefore, if a 2-stroke cycle and a 4-stroke cycle cylinder had the same displaced volume and were operating at the same crankshaft speed with the same average cylinder pressures, the 2-stroke cycle would be developing 65 to 75% more horsepower. The 2-stroke cycle engine develops more power per cubic inch of displaced volume. The 2-stroke cycle performs efficiently 100 to 110% of its rated load. The efficiency drops rapidly as the load is reduced. Modern 2-stroke cycle engines do operate more efficiently at lighter loads than the earlier generations did. The 4-stroke cycle engine is more efficient over a wider load range and responds faster to drastic load changes, since the flow of gases is better controlled by the intake and exhaust valves.
814 Characteristics of Ignition Problems

Ignition can be analyzed similar to compression and vibration. The following describes such an analysis: (Also, refer to Figures 800-6 and 800-7.) Point ABreaker points close/transistor turns on. If there is any abnormal voltage change at this point, or if this point varies horizontally, a problem is expected with the points or the switching mechanism.
Chevron Corporation
800-13
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-6
Details of Combustion Pattern (Primary) (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
Fig. 800-7
Details of a Combustion Pattern (Inductive Secondary) (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
December 1998
800-14
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Point BBreaker points open/transistor turns off. This occurs at the same degree each cycle if normal, and varies if the drive is worn or if the points stick or arc. Point C(line I) Peak ionization voltage. Voltage required to ionize the plug gap. As this increases, the duration (line III) will decrease.
High voltage indicates:

Wide plug gap of bad plug. Arc voltage (II) will be high also High resistance in the secondary lead (arcing broken strands or corroded connectors) Heavy cylinder load (rich, dense mixture) MisfiresExcessive ionization voltage with no arc (III)plug or secondary lead bad
Low voltage indicates:

Narrow plug gap Shorted plugNo or very little voltage rise Shorted secondaryLow voltage with no arc (III) TransformerNo arc (III) Light cylinder loadArc voltage (II) also low and duration (III) long
No voltage riseShorted primary or primary distributer problem Point DArc voltage (II) and arc duration (III)
High arc voltage indicates:

Bad plug or wide gap High resistance in the secondary lead Heavy cylinder load
Low voltage indicates:

Narrow plug gap Light cylinder load
Things to Remember:
Be sure to analyze the whole pattern. Watch for multiple fires. Voltage rises at wrong crankangles. Approach the ignition analysis systematically. Be sure all cylinders are firing at the correct crankangle. Variation is often found between the cylinders. Know the characteristics of your ignition system.
Chevron Corporation
800-15
December 1998
Compressor Manual
815 Vibration vs Crankangle

The purpose of vibration analysis is to display the vibration amplitude vs crankangle and to analyze the pattern. The vibration is composed of many different components as they vibrate at various frequencies, amplitudes, and degrees of crankshaft rotation. If you know the exact degree at which each event occurs, its amplitude of vibration, and its shape, you can determine if this event is normal for this type cylinder, the condition of the various components, and even predict failures or schedule the exact repairs as needed before the unit fails. Refer to Figure 800-8 for typical vibration patterns and problems associated with power cylinders. Although not discussed, similar patterns are evident on compression cylinders. Figure 800-9 shows typical compression-analysis signals.
Fig. 800-8 Typical Vibration Patterns with a 2 Stroke Power Cylinder. (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
Point A
Peak Pressure Vibration. The flame front is moving at maximum velocity at this point and usually causes this normal vibration. If detonation occurs, this vibration becomes a high-amplitude sharp spike. Piston slap also occurs at or near this point, since the piston will rock in a worn cylinder under the maximum pressure. Excessive wear in the wristpin or bushing is often seen at this point.
December 1998
800-16
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-9
Typical Vibration Patterns with Compression Cylinders (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
A badly worn rod bearing will knock at this point or slightly later, normally detected at BDC long before it appears at this point. The same is true of a worn wristpin. We normally look for the rod bearing, wristpin, or a piston loose on the hanger at 10 degrees before and after BDC when it is in the early stages of wear.
Point B
Top Ring Enters the Exhaust Port. If the top ring is doing its job, the pressure will be released when this event occurs. If this ring becomes worn, stuck, broken, or the piston or cylinder port area wear, this vibration becomes a high-amplitude, sharp spike. If something happens to the top ring, the second ring will hold most of the pressure, resulting in a vibration spike when it enters the port. (This spike will occur earlier, since the second ring enters the port at an earlier degree of crank rotation.) Evaluate the ring condition by watching this area. Also watch for carbon buildup in the ports, which will cause the rings to clip. This can occur in the intake port as well as the exhaust. Normally, a ring is not picked up as it enters the intake port unless there is a problem. The same is true of the rings going back up through the ports on the compression stroke. Since there is no pressure to hold the rings against the cylinder walls, they do not clip in the ports on the compression stroke unless there is a problem with the rings or the cylinder port. If one of the lower rings is broken, it will cause a sharp spike in the exhaust port on the power stroke, indicated by the degree at which it occurs.
Chevron Corporation
800-17
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Watch these ring vibrations, and they will increase in amplitude as the condition gets worse. A new set of rings will clip in the ports until they wear in. Then the vibration will drop down to a normal level until they begin to deteriorate.
Point C
Exhaust BlowdownThis is vibration of the gas as it leaves the cylinder. This vibration will be present when the cylinder fires on a normal cycle and will disappear when the cylinder has no combustion within the cycle. Use the exhaust blowdown as a standard to compare all other vibrations within the pattern. If the mounting or transducer changes, it will affect the whole pattern amplitude, which the operator will note if he compares to a standard within the pattern. The exhaust will elongate if the ports are restricted by carbon. The operator may also note that on V-type units with a common exhaust manifold between the V, the exhaust blowdown from the cylinder on the other bank may carry over in the vibration trace. This blowdown (or ghost vibration) will always be there and in the same place or crankangle. The operator can disregard it once he identifies it.
Point D
Injection Valve OpensThis vibration is caused by the slack taken out when the valve train activates the injection valve. The operator can get a fix on the CAM timing and lobe condition from this vibration and the closure vibration. Some units with hydraulic lifters will not have this vibration unless there is a problem with the CAM or lifter. To pick up this vibration on such a unit, put the pick-up directly on the rocker arm pin. This vibration will be excessive if there is any wear in the valve actuation assembly. Pressure applied to the rocker arm sometimes will eliminate much of the vibration and allow the operator to make a true analysis of the rest to the pattern, possibly distorted by this vibration.
Point E
Injection Valve ClosesThe front (flat) side of this vibration is the degree at which the valve hits the seat. The higher the amplitude, the harder the valve hits the seat. The wider the vibration spike, the wider the mating surfaces. This is a good indication of valve lash, CAM timing, injection valve, and seat condition. If the vibration fades into the baseline, it is a good indication that the valve has sealed. If it balloons out or continues to vibrate for too long, the valve is leaking. Note the pattern in Figure 800-10.:
816 Hardware
A variety of electronic equipment is used to make the program analysis. This equipment is continually being improved and perfected to obtain additional or more precise information. The system components are as follows:
December 1998
800-18
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-10 Vibration Patterns (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
AnalyzerThis unit is the control center for the analyst. Various signals are selected, calibrated, and controlled for accuracy of display, and if applicable computing the horsepower. There are two available types Type IMaintenance AnalyzersThese devices display ignition, vibration/ultrasonic and pressure waveforms on an oscilloscope versus crankangle or time for condition analysis. Type IIPerformance AnalyzersThese devices have all the capabilities of the maintenance analyzers plus RPM, and accurate pressure versus volume display, and digital readouts of horsepower developed or consumed by a cylinder. These are the most expensive.
OscilloscopeThe oscilloscope displays electrical signals. It only understands voltage. The signals it receives can be amplified and changed, but it primarily displays the signals it receives as voltage wave forms. Scopes have one or more vertical inputs and at least one horizontal input. The scope then provides a dynamic X-Y plot of the wave form. These wave forms are observed or photographed for analysis or evaluation. TransducersA transducer is a device that takes a mechanical or nonelectrical signal and converts it into an electrical signal that can be displayed on the oscilloscope. The program analyzer uses various types of transducers. These transducers are: IgnitionSince ignition is an electrical signal, it requires no transducer, only an ignition pickup. The ignition pickup carries the voltage from any point on the ignition system (excluding direct secondary ignition voltage) to the oscilloscope form display. A 10:1 ignition attenuator is provided for voltage reduction.
Chevron Corporation
800-19
December 1998
Compressor Manual
VibrationThe accelerometer uses a piezoelectric crystal device to convert the physical or mechanical movement (1 Hz to 6 Hz) of the transducer into an electrical signal proportional in amplitude to the actual movement or vibration. PressurePressure transducers convert the instantaneous pressure into electronic signals that can be displayed or processed by the programming unit. The pressure transducers can be used to sample the pressure inside any cylinder or at any accessible point on the engine/compressor system. The transducers are current state-of-the-art strain gage pressure transducers that can be automatically calibrated by the program analyzer. Crankshaft PositionThe encoder converts the physical crankshaft position into electronic pulses. The crankangle may be determined by key-phasors measuring each revolution, or by an encoder which produces one pulse for each degree of crankshaft rotation. UltrasonicThe ultrasonic probe converts the high-frequency vibrations (36 Hz to 44 Hz) to lower frequency electronic signals that can be displayed on the oscilloscope or evaluated audibly through headphones.
X-Y PlotterThis is a multi-pen X-Y plotter for large-scale, hard-copy records of pressure traces and alphanumeric data.
Commercial Hardware Available

Listed in Appendix M are the established analyzer systems on the market today (December 1988). These analyzers will be upgraded as electronic and digital technologies are expanded. Long-term digital storage of the various parameters is currently being incorporated into these analyzers.
817 Example of a Typical Predictive Maintenance Program

The philosophy of predictive maintenance is to predict when, and what maintenance will be necessary. It is best implemented as an element of an integrated reliability program, as outlined below: Record Keeping. Records of maintenance history, cost, performance and vibration data are essential. Machinery Surveillance and Diagnostics. Routine surveillance to monitor online conditions: vibration diagnostics, performance testing, oil analysis are utilized. Design Review. Excessive maintenance and down time usually indicates a design fault or misapplication. Quality Control. Provide detailed maintenance checklists, inspection by qualified personnel, and on-the-job technical advisors. Machinery Protection. Shut the unit down before catastrophic failure, utilizing appropriate shutdown protection, such as vibration, low-lube-oil pressure, highdischarge temperatures, etc.
December 1998
800-20
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
The above are the standard elements developed by the CUSA Manufacturing IMI (Integrated Machinery Inspection) Program. The essential philosophy behind a predictive maintenance program is a concentrated effort to gather pertinent data on a periodic basis. Data acquisition includes the recording of visual inspections, temperature and pressure readings, along with photographs of pressure, vibrations, and ultrasonic patterns. The conditions listed in Figure 800-11 should be checked on a periodic basis: typically every 30 days on critical machinery and 60 to 90 days on basic units.
Fig. 800-11 Summary of Typical Records Maintained: Reciprocating Compressor/Engine Predictive Maintenance Program Power Cylinders Compressor Cylinders General Operating Conditions Scavenger Cylinders
Original specifications, or baseline data, plus recent trends as appropriate: Horsepower per cylinder Horsepower per head-end and crank-end Power loss per cylinder, suction and discharge Compression per cylinder RPM during test RPM surge Ignition timing Exterior examination of fuel valves, rocker arms, push rods, coils, plug wiring, starting air valves, etc. RPM during test Suction and discharge pressure and temperature Effective horsepower Brake horsepower Percent of rated load Operation of unloaders and clearance pockets Valve cover and cylinder temperatures Visual inspection of cylinder parameters, jack stands, piping, etc. Photographic/X-Y Plot Records: Pressure versus crank angle degree Vibration versus crank angle degree Pressure versus crank angle degree Vibration versus crank angle degree Pressure versus volume Ultrasonic versus crank angle degree Vibration verses crank angle degree Ultrasonic versus crank angle degree Pressure versus crank angle degree Oil temperature
Jacket water temperature Oil pressure Oil filter differential Crankcase pressure Scavenging air pressure Exhaust pressure Motor amperage, power factor, field current, etc. System parameters, knock-outs, pot liquid level, spill-back operation, flow rates, specific gravity, etc.
Chevron Corporation
800-21
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Followup Surveillance
During the time between periodic compression analysis, plant personnel may perform followup surveillance of equipment highlighted by the analysis team. This followup surveillance consists of the following: Visually inspect the compressor/engine; Record gage pressures and temperatures per individual equipment road maps; Monitor and record valve cover temperatures; Note oil levels; i.e., crankcase, McCord, Trabon, etc.; Use ultrasonic translator to help locate leaking and broken valves, valve covers, rod packing, and auxiliary equipment leaks; and Monitor temperatures on fuel injection valves and starting air check valves.
Plant personnel should also review the surveillance schedule to determine which compressors are due for analysis the next period. Notification should be given responsible parties to make sure the equipment is online and available. A periodic surveillance report should be prepared for each piece of equipment in order to inform operations of any problems in their plant. Care should be taken to ensure that all interested parties understand this information.
Machinery Surveillance and Diagnostics

An engine/compressor surveillance program's main objective is to keep machinery running reliably as long as possible, thereby reducing maintenance expense and supporting production. Scheduled maintenance is recommended only when it is felt that the machine will not last until the next surveillance period. The term last can mean: (1) if equipment continues to operate, a failure could cause machinery to become unsafe, or (2) a catastrophic failure could occur resulting in extended downtime and more expensive repairs. The following parameters may be established to classify machinery conditions: Phase I. Potential problem. Symptom of a potential problem is present, but of low magnitude. If, however, the unit is shutdown for another reason, before the next analysis, it would be advantageous to make the repair. Phase II. Predictable failure stage. Schedule maintenance within a few days. Conditions call for scheduled maintenance. Experience indicates that machinery in this condition can deteriorate rapidly. Phase III. Failure imminent. Recommended immediate shutdown. Analysis indicates probable catastrophic failure. The shutdown surveillance team will gather needed data and then immediately contact the operator to shut down the unit. The surveillance team will then notify proper personnel and present them with supporting data.
December 1998
800-22
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Through coordinated efforts between the surveillance team, operations, and maintenance, the recommended repairs are scheduled, and when complete, are recorded for review by interested personnel.
Design Review
Repetitive failures are almost always caused by design deficiencies. A design review consists of first identifying repetitive problems, then reviewing and redesigning the system to eliminate them. The following case history is one example of a persistent problem solved by an analysis program, combined with a design review. The problem was excessive failures of inboard suction valves on a high-stage hydrogen-booster compressor in a large refinery. Compression analysis showed several instances of cylinder-pressure variations. Normal compressor valves required an average differential pressure of 20 psig to open suction valves. Prior to valve failure, however, the differential pressure increased to as high as 220 psig. With this information, the surveillance crew began to gather data on a twice-per-month basis to study valve life in relation to the pressure differential. They concluded that after the differential exceeded 75 psig, less than two weeks valve life could be expected. A criterion was established for these valves to be considered in a Phase II condition when the pressure differential exceeded 50 psig. After this criterion for repair was established, the breakage of inboard suction valves ceased. Investigation also showed that the only time failures occurred were during, or after the outboard end of the cylinder had been operated in the unloaded position. Subsequent investigation of the valve repairs found that the plates and seats were being honed to a mirror-like surface. With oil between the seat and plate, it was impossible to lift the plate off the seat. This phenomenon was labeled stiction. Valves were subsequently rebuilt with machined surfaces which alleviated a large percentage of this stiction. Inboard valves were breaking because all the oil supplied to the cylinder was dissipated during each stroke, except when the outboard end was unloaded. This allowed oil to travel back through the outboard suction valve and coat the inboard valve with excess oil. The following steps were taken to eliminate the excessive failures of inboard suction valves: Valve surfaces were closely monitored to ensure proper finish. Lubrication rate to the cylinder was modified to the minimum required. Operations alternated outboard loads when notified of Phase I conditions by the surveillance team.
Chevron Corporation
800-23
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Machinery Protection
Instrumentation for shutdowns and alarms are monitored, repaired, and upgraded as necessary to prevent catastrophic failures of reciprocating equipment. The following parameters are commonly considered critical for constant monitoring: Oil pressure, Discharge temperature, Jacket water temperature, Liquid knockout level, Vibration, Lubrication rate, and Amperage.
An important element of machinery protection is periodic testing of alarms and shutdowns. In locations where there are regular, documented testing programs, tests are conducted as often as weekly, but more commonly monthly. Longer intervals are also used. One thing is clear: You cannot rely on shutdown protective devices if they are not being tested and documented regularly. Analysis worksheets used in the Warren Petroleum program are included in Appendix M. They may be ordered from Warren or used as models to develop local checklists.
818 Examples of Program Benefits

The justification of an analyzer program depends on many factors which must be analyzed for each individual location. Several locations have adopted programs, and several others use less-sophisticated, less-costly methods such as periodic monitoring of valve temperatures. Some factors worth considering include the cost of the program itself, the level of attention the equipment gets from operators and/or other predictive maintenance, the remoteness, number and sizes of machines, criticality of service (production value), and past maintenance costs. Warren Petroleum and the El Segundo Refinery currently (1988) have active programs in place. The following text illustrates some typical savings noted by Warren, who have primarily integral-engine compressors. The cost-justification worksheet (Figure 800-12) at the end of this sub-section was developed at El Segundo, where most machines are slow-speed, motor driven. In summary, the following discusses: Background, Fuel savings, Problems and cost, Power cylinders, Compressor cylinders, and Cost justification worksheet.
December 1998
800-24
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-12 Cost Justification Worksheet (1 of 2) Engine/Compressor Analyzer
Part I.
Operating and Maintenance Data:
1. Horsepower 2. Cost per installed horsepower: 3. Fuel cost, per year: 4. Value of production per year: 5. Repair material cost, per year: 6. Load factor: II. Cost JustificationCalculations 1. Reduced fuel consumption (per BHP Hr.) resulting from the following: a. Correct Engine Balancing, using horsepower measurements of the Engine/Compressor Analyzer: 5.0% of I (3) b. Elimination of Defects in Ignition System using ignition analysis: 1.0% of I (3) SUBTOTAL, Reduced Fuel Consumption 2. Added Production, or throughput: a. Elimination of restriction on horsepower utilization, through the following: 1. Measurement of indicated horsepower to help accomplish: a. Correct loading, to utilize 100% of installed H.P.: 3% of I (4) b. Proper balancing of power cylinders using H.P. measurements: 1.0% of I (4) 2. Elimination of defects in ignition system using ignition analysis: 0.25% of I (4) 3. Elimination of improper firing conditions through pressure-time analysis: 0.25% of I (4) b. Elimination of excessive compressor power or valve loss through measurement of HP. 2% of I (4) c. Improved volumetric efficiency through measurement of V.E. on P-V card display: 1.0% of I (4)
Chevron Corporation
800-25
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-12 Cost Justification Worksheet (2 of 2) d. Elimination of excessive downtime which may result from: 1. Catastrophic failure. 2. Shutdown for visual inspection. 0.5% of I (4) SUBTOTAL, ADDED PRODUCTION 3. Reduction in cost of repair parts through reduction of: a. Catastrophic failure. b. Periodic inspection. 5% of I (5) 4. Reduction in manpower costs resulting from reduced maintenance requirements: TOTAL ESTIMATED VALUE, operation and maintenance savings, and added production: Per Year
Multiplied by: Additional conservative factor: Estimated Value of operation and maintenance savings and added protection
.05
Per Year
Background
Typical maintenance programs consist of repairs only after failures, or doing periodic overhauls. Needlessly, all power pistons and cylinders would be pulled and inspected for damage, when only one or two pistons or cylinders on each engine might need repair or replacement. A complete power cylinder overhaul of a Clark RA-8 can cost a conservative $40,000 in parts, not including labor. With a routine analyzer program, power piston rings that are worn, broken, or stuck can usually be spotted and pulled for repair before the cylinder is damaged. A costly overhaul, or worse, catastrophic damage, is thereby avoided.
Fuel Savings
When an engine is not balanced, some of the power cylinders carry more than their share of the load. Consequently, the unbalanced engine will use more fuel to carry the same load. This extra fuel varies depending on the severity of unbalance and the type of engine. Besides the extra fuel, maintenance problems will arise from the overloaded cylinders.
December 1998
800-26
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Balancing the horsepower between the power cylinders evenly distributes the load, and wear is not excessive on any one cylinder. This is a basic preventive maintenance procedure. Ignition problems and poor ignition timing will cause the engine to use more fuel than required. If there is no combustion in a power cylinder due to ignition difficulties, then the fuel will be swept out the exhaust. If the spark is early or late by as little as four degrees, it will cause the engine to consume more fuel than necessary. Other problems that will cause excessive fuel consumption are improper fuel and air quality, improper air/fuel ratios, engine load, and engine RPM. The result of these problems can cause the engine to consume as much as 15 to 25% more fuel than necessary. Example: A Cooper Bessemer GMVA-8, rated at 1350 HP, consumes 250 MCFD at an estimated price of $1.50/MCF. If it consumes 20% extra fuel, or 50 MCFD, the annual cost of the extra fuel would exceed $27,000.
Problems and Costs Summary

An analyzer program can discover many compressor engines running at less than a full load. It can determine if the cylinder is moving the assumed amount of gas. It checks the indicated horsepower consumed for each compressor cylinder. Typical problems are listed below that are frequently found from an analysis program. In all cases, simple, inexpensive problems are caught and corrected before they lead to serious, very costly repairs. The approximated costs are typical for the West Texas region. The costs do not reflect any labor cost to install or replace the various components. Labor typically runs 100 to 150% of parts costs. A Clark RA is a medium-sized, slow-speed integral engine. A Clark BA is a slightly larger, slow-speed integral engine.
Problems and Costs: Power Cylinders

Piston SlapThis creates a major wear pattern in the cylinder and piston which will have to be completely changed out. If the cylinder and piston have to be replaced, the costs are approximately $2500 to $4500 for a Clark RA and Clark BA, respectively. Ring Blow-byThis leads to oil contamination and also leads to piston slap if left undetected and allowed to progress. If the repair is limited to piston ring changeout, the cost is approximately $250 to $450 for a Clark RA and a Clark BA, respectively. If the cylinder and piston require repair, the cost is about 10 times higher. DetonationThis can be a very serious problem if allowed to continue for very long. It breaks rings, cracks pistons, cracks heads, and wears piston bearings out very quickly. The costs for replacing broken rings are noted under Ring Blow-by. The reworking of the piston dome and cylinder costs approximately $700 each, and the piston bearings cost $400 for a Clark RA. If the crankshaft is cracked or ruined, a used RA-8 crankshaft costs $25,000, and a new one costs $65,000, with an extended delivery time.
Chevron Corporation
800-27
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Cracked HeadThis leads to detonation and visa versa. The costs for this are detailed under Detonation. Carbon in PortsThis only takes labor and gaskets to fix, but leads to a loss in horsepower, which causes the other cylinders to overload, and high cylinder temperatures. This eventually leads to a major wear pattern detailed in Piston Slap. If the carbon begins to get hot and cause premature ignition or detonation problems, then more maintenance costs are incurred as a result of this relatively simple problem. Note that excess carbon can also be caused by improper lubricating oils. Knock in Wristpin/BushingThis can be replaced for approximately $400. If the condition is allowed to deteriorate, it creates excessive wear in the piston, cylinder, and rings. These costs are noted in Piston Slap. Bad ValvesIf the intake and exhaust valves on a 4-stroke engine are leaking, worn, or need adjustment, the cylinder loses horsepower, causing the other cylinders to overload and have high cylinder temperatures. This can also lead to head repair, which costs $600 to $1000, depending on the type of head. Worn Rocker Arms BushingThis is relatively simple to repair for $10 to $20. If it is not repaired, it can cause a fuel valve, pushrod, and rocker arm to fail, costing $200. Problems and Cost: Compressor Cylinders Leaking ValvesRepair this valve before it completely fails. Minor repair can cost about $20; a new 7-inch valve costs $400. Replacing a cylinder destroyed by a broken valve can easily exceed $10,000. Ring WearOne cause may be hot valves not changed before the rings were damaged. If the rings fail, the compressor cylinder might be damaged. Relining a compressor cylinder costs approximately $100 per diameter inch. Compressor rings cost approximately $25 per diameter inch.
820 Maintenance Checklists

Experience has invariably shown that complex machinery cannot be reliably repaired without using detailed checklists and without documenting the details of disassembly and reassembly. Maintenance checklists which are employed in the Manufacturing Organization of CUSA are included in Appendix N. They may be helpful in other locations. They are as follows:
Centrifugal Compressors
IMI Guidelines for Completing the Overhaul Checklist for Centrifugal Compressors Centrifugal Compressor Overhaul Checklist IMI Guideline for Inspection and Repair of Centrifugal Compressor Rotors
December 1998
800-28
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Reciprocating Compressors
Compressor Lubricating Systems Compressor Piston and Piston Rod Compressor Packing Box and Packing Compressor Cylinder and Crosshead Compressor Valves and Unloaders Compressor Valve Gaskets and Cages Compressor Crankshaft and Bearings Repair Sheet for Clark Engines Compressor Cylinder Repair Report Compressor Crankcase Repair Report Engine Repair Sheet for Ingersoll-Rand XVG Ingersoll-Rand HHE Packer Rebuilding Procedure Ingersoll-Rand HHE Packer Rebuilding Check Sheet Ingersoll-Rand Packing Box and Packing Worklist Engine Driven Reciprocating Compressor Regrout Four and Eight Month Maintenance Checklist Prior Shutdown Information Ingersoll-Rand HHE Connecting Rod Rebuilding Aluminum Bronze Pin Bushing HHE Cylinder Connecting Rod Splitting HRA Engine CAM Lobes Clark HRAEngine Power Cylinder Reconditioning Clark HRAPower Cylinder Repair Flow Chart Clark HRA Main Crosshead Rebuilding Clark HRA Power Cylinder Head Rebuilding Clark HRA Gas Injection Valve Rebuilding Clark HRA Wesco Valve Lifters Clark HRA Power Piston and Connecting Rod Rebuilding Clark HRA Packer Rebuilding HRA Packer Rebuilding Check Sheet Clark Compressor Air Starting Check Valves Crankshaft Inspection and Reconditioning Crosshead Rebuilding Connecting Rod Reconditioning Connecting Rod Check Sheet Piston Reconditioning Piston/Rider Ring Clearance Tables
Chevron Corporation
800-29
December 1998
Compressor Manual
830 Reciprocating Compressor Piston-Rod Reconditioning

831 Introduction
This section summarizes field experience and provides guidance on reconditioning reciprocating compressor piston rods. Sections 832 through 836 contain background information; Section 837 contains recommendations. (It may save you time to refer directly to the Recommendations Section, 837.) When equipment is not spared, any improvement in component service life can have a significant effect on plant availability. Properly selected and applied hard facings can improve reciprocating compressor reliability. In many cases, worn or scored piston rods may be reconditioned at a fraction of the cost of new rods. This section is also applicable to reconditioning positive displacement pump plungers. (In addition, certain processes used for rod and plunger reconditioning are also applicable to reconditioning centrifugal compressor and turbine journals and seal areas.)
832 Rod Leakage/Surface Finish

Factors Affecting Rod Packer Leakage
Any packing will weep or bleed a certain amount of gas. Minor amounts of weeping will occur due to gas forced into rod pores or into the lubrication film. This gas is released when the rod comes out of the high pressure portion of its stroke. In some cases, dissolved gases reduce the effectiveness of the lubricant, possibly resulting in increased friction. More commonly, leakage occurs due to incorrect fit of packing rings to rod and disturbances along the sealing surfaces. Excessive leakage, if permitted over long periods of time, will cause deterioration to the point that it will become difficult to correct. Even new packing cannot be expected to seal adequately if the surface condition of the piston rod is poor or rod runout is excessive. For any given service, factors such as rod undersize or oversize, surface finish, taper and runout significantly influence the degree of leakage.
Surface Hardness and Finish

Rod wear rates are greatly influenced by whether a packer is lubricated or not, and the operating pressure and corrosivity of the gas. API 618 provides design standards for hardness and surface finish for various services. Without proper hardness, rod wear rates can be excessive. Surface hardness and finish become increasingly important as the amount of lubrication is reduced. In general, most rod and packing materials will perform well against each other if the surface finish and fitup are correct. Manufacturers standard piston rods are normally made of case hardened, highly polished steels. Two common rod surface hardening techniques are induction and
December 1998
800-30
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
flame hardening. Both processes involve heating the surface of rods above the upper critical temperature followed by rapid quenching using water or other suitable coolants. Typical case thicknesses range from 1/16 to 1/8 inch, with surface hardnesses in the range of Rockwell C50 to 60. In certain cases, the hardness must be limited due to potential embrittlement problems. Sour hydrocracking services are one such service. For these applications, rods are often fabricated from softer steels, then hardfaced for wear resistance in the packing and oil wiper ring areas. Figure 800-13 provides general guidance on appropriate hardness and surface finishes for various applications. These hardnesses and finishes have normally resulted in acceptable packer sealing and life.
Fig. 800-13 Hardness and Surface Finish Recommendations Operating Pressure (psi) Through 6000 Lube or Non-Lube L,NL Minimum Rod Hardness(1) (Rockwell C) 50 Surf. Finish(1) (Micro-inches RMS) 10-20
Service Noncorrosive
Rod Material Low-Alloy Steel, Through Hardened or Surface Hardened
Above 6000 Above 6000 Corrosive Through 1000 Above 1000 Above 1000
L NL L, NL L NL Plated or Coated Hardened or Coated 17-4 PH(2)
55 60 50(3) 55
(3)
10-20 6-8 10-20 10-20 6-8
60(3)
(1) Hardness and surface finish recommendations apply to the packing area of the rod. (2) Commonly used material for corrosive applications. Review each material selection specifically for service intended. (3) These are general guidelines. Determine appropriate hardness and hardening procedures for each specific service.
As metal is removed from the surface of case hardened rods, hardness decreases. Wear rates accelerate and susceptibility to galling and abrasion increases. The acceptable degree of packer leakage depends to a large extent on the nature and severity of the process application. In less severe applications such as lubricated, low-pressure service, it is possible to accept much greater wear before replacing or reconditioning a rod. In high-pressure hydrogen applications, however, leakage of hydrogen results in further heating of packing, lubricant and the rod (due to JouleThompson effect). An unacceptable operating condition quickly results.
Chevron Corporation
800-31
December 1998
Compressor Manual
833 Rod Deviations

Undersized Rods
Using standard size packing rings with an undersized rod can still result in an effective seal as long as the rod is truly circular and is without taper. However, this generally results in an extended break-in period, with leakage greater during breakin. In lubricated applications, there is an additional possibility that lubricant may be blown away at gas pressures in the packing. Contact surfaces become dry and subsequently overheat. Some packing materials, such as Teflon, will degrade rapidly if they become dry after once having been lubricated. Under this condition, an abrasive paste or small, hard beads are formed in the packing area. Beads and abrasive paste can quickly cause deterioration in rod and packing contact surfaces. For normal applications, standard size packing rings can be used successfully on rods which are not undersized by more than approximately 0.002 inch per inch of rod diameter. For high-pressure applications (1000 psi), experience indicates that standard size packing should be used only if rods are no more than 0.003 inch undersize. When rod undersize exceeds the above guidelines, specially bored packing can be purchased. The major problem with the use of special bore packing is the chance that the wrong size may be installed. Additionally, the use of various bore packings creates stocking problems.
Oversized Rods
When packing rings have a slightly smaller bore than the piston rod diameter, the segments contact only at one end. The center portion of each ring segment provides a direct gas passage along the rod surface. This condition is permissible if it is not too severe. During the break-in process, packing will gradually wear to the point of conformation with the general rod surface curvature. The potential for overheating due to lack of proper lubrication exists for oversized rods for the same reasons stated for undersized rods.
Tapered Rods
In lubricated services, a certain degree of rod taper can be tolerated. Lubricating films tend to block small passages through which gas can escape. A tapered rod combines both the effects of oversized and undersized rods in that packing rings constantly try to adjust to the variations in surface profile. Excessive amounts of taper, however, will rapidly destroy the packers ability to seal. Generally, the worst taper condition occurs at one end of the stroke. Reasonable leakage rates and packer life can be expected if the degree of taper does not exceed approximately 0.0005 inch per inch of stroke. For non-lubricated and highpressure, low molecular weight gas services, acceptable taper will be less than this value.
Misalignment
Misalignment of piston rod and packer rings cause another leak path. Rod-to-ring surface contact area is reduced. In addition, edges of rings at the bore become worn.
December 1998
800-32
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
This permits gas flow from one radial cut in the ring to another. In API 618, the maximum allowable rod runout at operating temperature is 0.00015 inch per inch of stroke. Alignment of cylinder, distance piece and crosshead guides should be adjusted in order to meet this guideline. Runout should always be checked following installation of piston rods, crossheads, wrist pins, etc. Noncontacting probes can be used very effectively to measure and monitor rod runout.
Wear
Wear mechanisms include abrasion, adhesion, corrosion, fretting, erosion, surface fatigue, etc. Adhesive and abrasive wear are the principal kinds encountered in the sliding sites of a gas compressor or positive displacement pump packer. Adhesive-type wear occurs when two parts make metal-to-metal contact and adhere. Fragments are detached from one surface and welded to the other surface. To minimize this type of wear, one surface must have films and coatings to minimize the initial adhesion. Abrasive wear is a cutting-type action where hard fragments embedded in the softer component (packing) or trapped between relatively hard packing and rod material act as a cutting tool.
834 Rod Reconditioning

When Is Reconditioning Advisable
Leaking rod packing is not a problem unless it is excessive. Depending upon the particular service, excessive leakage can result in reduction of cylinder discharge pressure, release of toxic or noxious gases, and in some cases, contamination of crankcase lubricants. Excessive leakage eventually results in the need for a maintenance shutdown. In many cases, it also results in some loss in plant throughput since compressors may not be fully spared. In many instances, rod condition is partially or totally responsible for this excessive leakage. A rod should be reconditioned before wear is so excessive that required coating thicknesses (to build it back to original dimension) exceed 20-30 mils. In many cases, coating processes are less successful when more than a 30-mil buildup is required. Peeling, spalling and fragmentation problems are commonly encountered. Rods are most successfully reconditioned if required coating thickness can be held to less than 10 mils. Other factors which affect the sealing ability of a packer include: Gas pressure, Gas properties (molecular weight, corrosivity, wetness), Supply of proper quantity and type of lubricant, Break-in procedure (refer to Section 700), and Type of packing material and packer design.
Chevron Corporation
800-33
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Reconditioning Processes
In selecting a wear-resistant coating for rods, the following factors are important: Coating roughness and surface texture (smoothness, porosity), Coating hardness, Combination of sliding materials (rod coating and packer material), Corrosion resistance, Adhesion of coating to base metal (bond strength), and Previous coating/heat-treating history.
Numerous reconditioning processes are available today for restoring worn rods to their original size and surface conditions. These processes may also be used to provide extended life of rods in new equipment, especially in difficult services. In general, only rods in sound condition should be considered as candidates for reconditioning. Base metal surface condition must be carefully inspected prior to use of any type of coating (discussed later). Major hardfacing processes include the general categories of flame spraying (metal spray and plasma spray), electroplating (chrome plating) and flame plating (detonation gun). Figure 800-14 summarizes the relative characteristics of these processes and the resultant coatings they produce. The acceptability of each process depends on the service conditions, i.e., lubricated or non-lubricated, sour, corrosive or dirty gas, etc. Only certain coatings applied by each major process are suitable for reconditioning rods to resist adhesive and abrasive sliding-type wear. For the relatively low-service temperatures of interest here (up to 400F), changes in physical properties and strength of various coatings are of minimal concern.
835 Rod Coating Processes

In selecting appropriate coating processes and compositions consider the following: Bonding Bond strength between the coating and base metal is of paramount importance. Residual Stresses Residual stresses are a primary concern for spray coatings. Residual stresses have a significant effect on coating bond strength. Generally, the outer portion of the spray coating is in tension. This reduces the stress required to cause fracture. Thick electroplated chrome coatings, on the other hand, may develop compressive residual stresses, increasing their resistance to cracking. Density The density of spray coatings depends on individual particle size and density, degree of oxidation during deposition, and kinetic energy of the impinging particles. Density of electroplating processes depends primarily on plating bath temperature and current density.
December 1998
800-34
Chevron Corporation
Fig. 800-14 Comparative Characteristics of Major Coating Processes

Maximum Coating Thickness (Approx.) 0.040 inch Effect of Application Procedure on Rod Base Metal None Lubrication Holding Characteristics Good Surface Finishing Characteristics Fair
Chevron Corporation 800-35 December 1998
Compressor Manual
Process 1. Metal Spray
Porosity High
Hardness Low-Moderate
Corrosion Resistance Poor-Sealer Required Excellent
Bond Strength Poor-Fair
Comments
2. Metal Spray with fusion (Wall Colmonoy Spraywelding)
Low
Mod-High
Excellent
0.065 inch
Significant
Good
Good
Not permitted on hard-enabled (SAE 4041, etc.) rods. Must consider effect of fusion process on base metal physical properties.
3. Plasma Spray
Moderate
Moderate
Fair-Sealer Required Fair-Good Sealers occasionally used
Fair
0.006 inch
None-Slight
Good
Good
4. Flame Plate (Linde D-Gun)
Low
Very High
Good-Excellent
0.010 inch
None
Good
Good
5. Electroplate (Hard Chromium)
Post-plating heat treatment at approximately 350-375F required to liberate hydrogen. Mod-High High Good-Excellent Good-Excellent 0.015 inch Causes H2 occlusion Good Depends largely on base metal surface finish Ditto
a. Porous
b. Non-Porous
Low
High
Excellent
Good
0.015 inch
Causes H2 occlusion
Poor-Fair
Compressor Manual
Corrosion Resistance and Porosity The corrosion resistance of all coatings is determined by chemical composition. In addition, coating porosity and cracking may allow corrosion of the base metal. For lower temperature applications, various epoxy, silicone wax, and vinyl materials may be used to seal coatings. For high-temperature applications, sintering (a heat-treating process) may be needed to seal spray coatings.
Thermal Properties Thermal conductivity and coefficient of thermal expansion must be considered when selecting coatings for a particular application. High-pressure, hightemperature applications require coatings which effectively remove heat from the contacting surfaces and are resistant to thermal shock.
Lubricant Retention Surface porosity and cracks provide storage voids for lubricant.
Friction Friction depends on the materials, surface roughness, and the lubricant.
Flame SprayThe Metal Spray Process

Metal spray is the process of applying molten metal to the surface of the rod to form a hard, wear-resistant coating. The coating material is melted in a flame and its minute particles are sprayed at relative low velocities onto a prepared surface by a stream of air. The molten particles impinging on the rod are flattened and interlocked to provide a mechanical bond. Alloying with the base metal does not occur. A subsequent diffusion or sintering heat treatment may be required to obtain acceptable bonding conditions. The metal spray process requires roughing of the base metal (sandblasting, rough turning, etc.) prior to coating. Both pure metal and alloy materials in powder and wire form can be applied. The term metallizing is often used to describe the type of metal spray process which uses metal in wire form. The term thermospray is used to describe the process of using metals in powder form. Oxyacetylene torches or electrodes are common methods of melting coating materials. To seal the resulting porous coating, several types of sealers are employed. Phenolic sealers and silicone-alloyed resins are two common examples. Powders and application equipment are available from suppliers such as Metco, Wall Colmonoy, Stellite Division (Cabot), and others. Advantages include: Low base material temperatures are maintained during application. Minimal distortion or warping (if diffusion heat treatment is not required). Applicable to a wide variety of rod base materials. Good lubricant retention characteristics. Relatively low cost. Can be applied to thicknesses up to approximately 40 mils.
December 1998
800-36
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Disadvantages include: Bond strength is low. Coatings are mechanically bonded to the base metal. Fracture/peeling will occur unless the coating is continuously bonded to itself. Coatings are very porous. Must be impregnated with suitable sealers to minimize porosity (and avoid base metal corrosion). Coatings have relatively low hardness (Rc 30-40). Surface preparation prior to coating is critical to adequacy of bond. Coating quality is likely to vary widely from shop to shop. Relatively slow powder/wire heating results in greater oxidation and some change in coating chemical composition. Fair surface finishing characteristics. Finish machining is required.
An extension of the basic metal spray process is the post-application fusing of coatings. Coatings are applied in the manner described above. Then one additional step is taken. The deposited metal spray coating is fused with the base metal by use of an oxyacetylene torch or controlled furnace atmosphere. The resulting bond is molecular in nature and is claimed to be much stronger. Coatings up to 0.065 inch can be applied. Hardness ranges from approximately Rc 55 to 63. Corrosion resistance is excellent. In order to utilize the metal spray and fusion process, the base metal must have a melting point higher than 1950F. High temperatures required to achieve fusing of the coating may result in rod distortion. In addition, when the carbon content of steel rods exceeds 0.25%, special precautions must be taken to avoid an annealed metal. Any previous heat treatment applied to the rod to achieve improvement in physical properties is lost. Annealed rods must be derated to maintain safe operating stress levels. Fusing followed by air cooling could result in the formation of brittle martensite, depending on the hardenability of the base metal alloy.
Flame SprayThe Plasma Spray Process

Plasma spray coatings are produced by passing powdered material through a specially designed gun which ionizes an inert gas to form a plasma. Flame temperatures of 10,000 to 30,000F are reached. Powder is then injected into the plasma flame. This rapidly heated powder is propelled at speeds of 400 to 1000 feet per second onto the part being reconditioned. The resultant coating microstructure consists of thin lenticular particles, or splats. The principal value of the high temperatures of the plasma process is that the melting point of the material being sprayed is reached very quickly. Unlike the oxyacetylene flame (6000F), powder remains in the hot zone a much shorter time. There is little oxidation and little change in powder chemical composition. Also, the powder can be propelled through the plasma at higher speeds and reach the part being coated with greater impact. In addition, spraying may be done entirely within
Chevron Corporation
800-37
December 1998
Compressor Manual
a protective atmosphere chamber in order to further protect the sprayed material. Minimizing oxides produces a more cohesive coating capable of being finished to a better surface condition. Numerous powder formulations are available to suit the particular application. Powders are available from suppliers such as Metco, Wall Colmonoy, Stellite Division (Cabot) and others. Advantages include: Low base material temperatures of 400 to 500F (205 to 261C) are maintained during application. No head affected zone is created. Minimal distortion or warping. No subsequent stress relief or heat treatment required. As applied, coatings are relatively smooth and require little grinding to achieve finished dimensions. Applicable to a wide variety of base materials. Good lubricant retention characteristics. Reasonably dense coating structure. Low oxide content. Low-moderate cost.
Disadvantages include: Fair bond strength. Coatings are susceptible to spalling. Coatings are porous. Base metal corrosion protection is poor unless sealers are used. Thickness of coating is very limited (.006 inch). Excessive coating thickness increases susceptibility to chipping and spalling. Coatings may reduce base material fatigue life. High dependence on proper base material cleaning and surface preparation. Powder quality and application process parameters must be carefully adhered to. Coating quality can vary from shop to shop. Finish machining is required.
Piston rods usually require a grit blasting, grooving, or knurling operation to achieve an adequate bond between base metal and plasma coatings. It is mandatory that all parts in the process be clean and dry. Frequent in-process and product quality control checks are also necessary. Because a plasma spray coating is relatively porous, it allows gas to penetrate. Upon release of the gas pressure, the coating may separate from the base metal if a secure
December 1998
800-38
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
bond has not been achieved. Peeling can result in considerable damage to packing and perhaps cylinder components. To obtain a reasonable degree of corrosion protection, plasma coatings must be impregnated with suitable sealers to minimize porosity.
Flame PlatingLinde Detonation Gun Process (D-Gun)

Flame plating procedures such as Lindes Detonation Gun provide a bond which is both mechanical and metallurgical in nature. The Detonation Gun procedure is a process patented by Union Carbide (Linde Division). Coatings are produced by passing measured quantities of powder, oxygen and acetylene into a firing chamber. A timed spark then detonates the mixture, creating a hot (6000F) high-speed gas stream which in turn instantly heats the powder particles. Powders are composed principally of tungsten carbine particles. Nearly molten particles leave the firing chamber at approximately 2500 fps, impinging on the surface of the piston rod and produce a microscopic welding-type bond. Because of the intense noise generated, the operation is carried out in a soundproof room, remotely controlled by an operator. Rapid-fire detonations, as the firing chamber moves along the rod, build up the coating to the specified thickness. Linde provides several D-Gun powder compositions to suit a variety of process conditions. Advantages include: Low base material temperature [less than 300F (149C)] are maintained during application. No metallurgical changes to the base material occur. No distortions or warping. No subsequent stress relief or heat treatment required. Bond strength is very good (10-25 ksi). Bond is both mechanical and metallurgical in nature. (For some coatings, bond strength can be further improved by post-application heat treatment.) Can be applied to a wide variety of base materials. Low porosity (sealers can be used to further reduce porosity). Good oil retention characteristics. Good corrosion protection. Very hard coating (Rc 67-76). Proprietary process closely controlled by Union Carbide. Good quality control.
Disadvantages include: Relatively high cost. Limited coating thickness (generally <0.010 inch). Finish grinding required.
Chevron Corporation
800-39
December 1998
Compressor Manual
ElectroplatingPorous and Non-porous Hard Chrome Plating

Electroplating procedures, such as chromium plating, have been widely used for many years. The combination of high hardness, corrosion resistance, and low coefficient of friction have made chrome plating a commonly used reconditioning procedure. Basically, the chrome plating process involves depositing chromium on the rod surface by setting up the part (rod) as the cathode in an electrolytic bath. The bath consists of a solution of chromic acid, water, and one more acid radicals (usually sulfate and fluoride). The gap between anode and cathode is controlled to ensure that chrome is deposited evenly along and around the circumference of the rod. Time, current density, bath temperature, and proprietary chemical additives are critical parameters which must be carefully regulated. To achieve more rapid plating rates, bath temperature is normally increased. Cleanliness and integrity of the base material is critical in assuring good bonding. Extremely good adhesion to the base metal is required for hard chrome deposits to perform acceptably in service. In general, two types of chrome plating are available, non-porous and porous. Nonporous platings are used not only in restoring piston rods but also to restore such components as crankshaft journals, crosshead pins, bearing journals, etc. In lubricated service, non-porous chrome platings provide minimal lubricant retention capability. This in turn causes additional friction and the need for increased lubrication. For non-lubricated services, non-porous chrome is a poor choice, because packing material does not adequately deposit on the rod surface. Again, this causes increased friction, heating, and packing wear. The difficulty of assuring adequate wettability led to the development of porous chrome having a high degree of porosity. Porous chrome platings are etched after the plating has attained a predetermined thickness. For a short time, chromium is removed selectively from the plated rod surface through an electroetching process. Small pores or channels are thus produced. These act as lubricant reservoirs. Pores do not extend entirely through the chrome plating. This process is a patented development of the Van der Horst Corporation under the trade name of Vanderkrome. Although the patent has since expired, few chroming shops have demonstrated a capability to duplicate the electroetching process. A detrimental effect of chrome plating is hydrogen occlusion. During plating, hydrogen penetrates the base metal, causing a reduction in mechanical properties, most importantly, poor resistance to crack propagation. Many chrome plating control procedures incorporate a final baking to remove this hydrogen. Common baking temperatures employed are in the range of 350 to 370F (177 to 191C). Approximately 50 to 60% of the total hydrogen present is removed at these temperatures with minimal effect on plating hardness. Higher temperatures result in removal of a greater amount of hydrogen at the expense of decreasing plating hardness and corrosion resistance. Advantages include: Low base metal temperatures are maintained during plating. Original heat treatment of the rod is unaffected.
December 1998
800-40
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Good lubricant retention and wettability (porous chrome plating only). Good bonding strength. Molecular type bond. Minimal distortion or warping. Corrosion resistant (reduces pitting susceptibility of rods in standby service). High thermal conductivity. Aids in maintaining low surface temperatures. Moderately thick coatings can be applied (up to 0.015 inch). Moderately hard coating. Can be applied to a wide variety of base materials (ferrous and nonferrous). Moderate cost. Ease of application and control. Low coefficient of friction.
Disadvantages include: Quality of workmanship varies widely from shop to shop. Bond is highly dependent on proper cleaning and surface preparation. Surface finish of chrome plating is highly dependent on smoothness of the base metal before plating (should be 20 micro-inches RMS or better). Fair to poor lubricant retention and wettability (non-porous platings). Hydrogen penetrates base metal during coating process causing base metal hydrogen embrittlement and reduction of fatigue strength. Final baking is required. In services badly corrosive to base metal, chromium plating tends to flake off.
Undercoating
In some instances, a metallic undercoat such as nickel or nickel alumide is applied between the base metal and the hardface coating. Metallic undercoats are applied to increase the coating system's resistance to thermal shock and to improve bond strength. Bonding of the metallic undercoat to the base metal is stronger than the bond between coating and base metal. In addition, the as-sprayed undercoat provides a good surface for the coating to mechanically bond. Undercoating is most frequently used with the weaker bond strength metal and plasma spray processes.
Coating Composition and Compatible Packing

Figure 800-15 summarizes composition of the various types of commonly used coatings plus compatible packing materials.
Chevron Corporation
800-41
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-15 Common Coating Compositions and Compatible Packing Materials Coating Designation LW-1 (AMS 2435A) LW-15 Coating Composition 91% W 9% Co 86% W 10% Co 4% Cr 87% W 13% Co 85 % W 15% Co 100% Cr Vendor Recommended Packing Materials Reinforced Teflon, Carbon, Bronze, Cast Iron Reinforced Teflon, Leaded Bronze Reinforced Teflon, Carbon, Bronze, Cast Iron Reinforced Teflon, Carbon, Bronze, Cast Iron Cast Iron, Reinforced Teflon (limited applications only), Bronze Bronze, Reinforced Teflon Bronze, Reinforced Teflon Bronze, Reinforced Teflon Reinforced Teflon
Process 1. Flame Plating (DetonationGun)
Vendor UCAR - Linde Division
LW-1N30
LW-1N40 (PWA-46) 2. Electroplating (Hard Chrome) Van der Horst Vanderkrome
3. Plasma Spray
Metco
#2 #439 #451
High Cr. Stainless Steel 50% W 50% Co Hi Ni w/Ni-Al 45% Co 19% Cr 18% Ni 10% W Balance Fe, B, C, Si 420 Stainless Steel 74% Ni 14% Cr 5% Fe Balance Si, B, C
4. Metal Spray
Wall Colmonoy
Wallex 55
Walcoloy #2 Colmonoy #6
Bronze Reinforced Teflon, Cast Iron
Notes:
1. Recommended packing materials depend on the nature of the gas handled (corrosiveness, wetness, type of gas, pressure, etc.). For specific applications, consult compressor vendor, packing suppliers and Company experience.
December 1998
800-42
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
836 Experience
Company Experience
Figures 800-16 and 800-17 summarize the results of a May, 1978 Company-wide survey of experience with various hardface reconditioning processes. These summaries reflect both refinery and producing field experience. Refinery experience covers gas compressor applications in plants such as Catalytic Reformers, Isomax, Isomerization, Ammonia, FCC, Naphtha Hydrotreater and Crude Units. Producing experience generally covers the handling of sweet (wet and dry) natural gas in low- and high-pressure separation and gas lift services.
Fig. 800-16 Rod Reconditioning Survey Summary (Sweet, Non-Corrosive Gas Services) (1 of 2) Maximum Operating Pressure Below 500 psig Lubricated or Non-lubricated Lubricated
Process Unit Ammonia
Experience 4+ yrs service life w/chromed rods. Tinized C.I. packing. Low-pressure (165 psi), medium piston speed (700 ft/min) compressor. Total of 12 D-Gun coated rods in service w/carbon-filled Teflon packing. 1-2 yr service without signs of wear. 10 yrs average life w/metal spray (Metco SS # 2) 4140 rods. Bronze packing. Low-pressure (vacuum to 150 psi) services. Wide range (low to high) piston speed compressors. 2-3 yrs service life w/chromed rods. Carbon-filled Teflon w/bronze backup packing. Low-pressure, high-temperature (320F) air compressor. 2-1/2 yrs life w/plasma-coated (Metco # 450/451) on X20CR13 rods. Carbon-filled Teflon packing higher wear rate and cracking of coating noted. Bare X20CR13 rods lasted 4-1/2 yrs. New 4140 rods coated w/D-Gun (LW-1) installed 10/77. Teflon w/C.I. backup packing. Good service experience. No problems reported to date. 1-2 yrs life w/D-Gun coatings. One month life w/chrome plating. Varied experience w/chromed (non-porous) rods. Teflon and tinized C.I. packing. Chromed rod lasted 4-7 months. Good (5-6 yrs) service on chromed 4140 rods. Glassfilled Teflon packing. Low pressure ratio per stage, 760 ft/min piston speed. Good service experience metal spray (420SS) on 4140 rods. Bronze packing. 3-5 years life for gas lift service (500-1000 psig).
Below 500 psig
Lubricated
Producing
Below 500 psig
Non-lubricated
Air
500-1000 psig
Lubricated
HGO
500-1000 psig
Lubricated
Cat Ref
500-1000 psig 500-1000 psig
Lubricated Lubricated
Cat Ref Cat Ref
500-1000 psig
Lubricated
Naphtha HDTR
500-1000 psig
Lubricated
Producing
Chevron Corporation
800-43
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-16 Rod Reconditioning Survey Summary (Sweet, Non-Corrosive Gas Services) (2 of 2) Maximum Operating Pressure 500-1000 psig Lubricated or Non-lubricated Non-lubricated
Process Unit Isomerization
Experience Chrome plating wears and peels within 6 months. 1+ year service w/spray-welded (Wall-Colmonoy Wallex 55) 4140 rods. Carbon packing. Low (490 ft/min) piston speed. 3-4 yrs service life w/chromed 4140 rods. Carbonfilled Teflon w/C.I. backup ring packing. 1200 psi maximum discharge pressure, 700 ft/min piston speed. 3+ yrs service life w/plasma spray (Metco #439) on 4140 rods. Teflon packing. 760 ft/min piston speed. 2 yrs life w/D-Gun (LW-1 w/nickel undercoat) over 4140 rods. Teflon with C.I. backup ring packing. High (2870 psi) discharge pressure, moderately high (810 ft/min) piston speed. 1+ year life w/D-Gun (LW-15) 4140 rods. Bronze packing. 4780 psi discharge pressure. High (850 fit/min) piston speed. No wear after 1 yr. Acceptable service life reported w/sprayed and fused (Tuftin 500 Twin Arc Process) coating on 4140 rods. Bronze packing. Bond reportedly good up to 6000 psig. Metal or plasma sprayed steel rods failed after 1 month at Swanson River.
1000-1500 psig
Lubricated
FCC Feed Hydrofiner
1000-1500 psig Above 1500 psig
Lubricated Lubricated
Isomax Isomax
Above 1500 psig
Lubricated
Ammonia
Above 1500 psig
Lubricated
Producing
Results show that for lubricated, low-pressure (less than approximately 1000 psi) services, good service lift has been afforded by chroming, plasma spray, metal spray and D-Gun coating processes. Average service life of reconditioned rods when used with various grades of Teflon packing has been approximately four years in sweet, noncorrosive gas services and approximately two years in sour, corrosive gas environments. For difficult, high-pressure (above 1000 psi) services, Linde D-Gun coatings have proven superior. D-Gun coatings have performed consistently well (two to three years and longer) in high-pressure (up to 5000 psi) lubricated, low- and high-molecular weight gas services. Producing reports acceptable service from metal sprayed and fused coatings at elevated pressures. No Company experience was reported for coated rods in high-pressure, non-lubricated service. Other petrochemical company users report mixed success with metal spray and plasma spray restoration of compressor rods. One user stated that Linde D-Gun flame-plated rods were found to perform much better than new (bare) rods.
December 1998
800-44
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-17 Rod Reconditioning Survey Summary (Sour, Corrosive Gas Services) Maximum Operating Pressure Below 500 psig Below 500 psig Lubricated or non-lubricated Lubricated Lubricated Process Unit HDS Isomax
Experience Less than 1 yr service w/plasma spray (Comp. Products #3) on steel rods. Steel/babbitt packing. 800 ft/min piston speed. Good (6 yrs) service life w/chromed rods. Teflon w/tinized C.I. backup ring packing. Low-pressure (195 psi) service. Moderate (750 ft/min) piston speed. Total of 18 D-Gun coated rods in service, carbon-filled Teflon packing life exceeds 23 yrs. 23 yrs service w/plasma spray (Metco #2) on 18-8 SS rods. Teflon packing. 150 psi max. discharge pressure, low (520 ft/min) piston speed. 2+ yrs. service with D-Gun (LW-1N30) rods. Teflon packing. 11/2 yr service w/chromed steel rods. Micarta packing. Low (165 psi) discharge pressure, 660 ft/min piston speed. 1018 months service w/plasma spray (Comp. Products #3) on steel rods. Steel/babbitt packing. 800 ft/min piston speed. 12 yrs. service for plasma spray (Metco #2) on 4140 rods. Carbon-filled Teflon packing. 750 ft/min piston speed. 3+ yrs. service w/D-Gun (LW-1N30) 4140 rods. Carbon-filled Teflon packing. High (1650 psi) discharge pressure, high (890 ft/min) piston speed.
Below 500 psig
Lubricated
Crude
Below 500 psig Below 500 psig 500-1000 psig 500-1000 psig Above 1000 psig
Lubricated Lubricated Lubricated Lubricated Lubricated
Flare Gas Recovery FCC HDS Rhen. HDN
Compressor Vendor Experience

General experience and recommendations from reciprocating compressor vendors on various reconditioning processes are summarized in Figure 800-18. Flame Plating (Linde D-Gun) and porous hard chroming (Vanderkrome) processes are reported to be the most reliable reconditioning techniques. Specific comments offered by compressor equipment vendors are summarized below.
Electroplating (Chroming)
Two major compressor vendors indicate generally poor experience restoring piston rods with various chroming processes. Vendor A recommends against reconditioning by any electroplating procedure because of the high number of oilers reported. In addition, there is also a concern that the electroplating process introduces the risk of fatigue failure from hydrogen penetration into the rod. Vendor B recommends against chrome plating due to the wide variation in the quality of the plating operation from shop to shop. If rods are reconditioned by the electroplating process, Vendor B strongly recommends that: (1) plating be of the porous type; (2) plating thickness not exceed 0.005 to 0.006 inch; (3) rod surface finish prior to plating be 20 micro-inches RMS or better; (4) rods be ground undersize along their full length, plate only on top of
Chevron Corporation
800-45
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-18 Reciprocating Compressor Vendor Experience Summary (Reconditioning Process) Vendor A Chroming Not recommended. Not considered a reliable procedure. Flame Plating Linde D-Gun highly recommended. Excellent field experience. Plasma Spray No comment. Metal Spray Not considered good technique. Possible rod distortion problems with metal spray and fusing process Not considered acceptable
Not generally recommended due to enormous quality variations between platers. Only porous-type chroming considered acceptable Recommends only porous chrome coating. Good experience in H2 and H2S (up to 2%) services Not recommended. Peeling problems. Teflon packing (lube and non-lube) not recommended
No experience
Not considered acceptable
No experience
No comment
Mixed experience. Problem with changing base metal strength/hardness Not recommended. Metal spray plus fusing is recommended in corrosive gas services. Consider effect of fusing on base metal Many peeling failures reported.
Linde D-Gun Coating LW-1 highly recommended on 4140 rods, noncorrosive gas service. Outlasts noncoated rods by at least a factor of 2 No experience
Not recommended. Peeling problems
Fairly good experience. Chroming quality varies widely from shop to shop
Experience varies: some good, some bad
the undersize area, allowing the plate to fade to the undersize diameter outside the packing travel area; and (5) inspect the rod surface carefully prior to and after plating. Vendor C recommends only porous type chrome platings. These platings are normally provided as original manufacture on such service as high-pressure hydrogen and sour gas (up to 2% H2S). These environments require moderate hardness base materials with high hardness wear-resistant coatings.
Flame Plating (Linde D-Gun)

Vendor A highly recommends the Linde D-Gun process due to its wide adaptability to a variety of operating conditions. Field reports indicate long wear life in services where cylinder discharge pressures are both above and below 1000 psig. Vendor A recommends that: (1) final coating thickness be in the range of 0.002 to 0.003 inch, and (2) rods be in their final heat-treated condition before coating. Vendor D recommends reconditioning of 4140 rods in noncorrosive gas service by use of Linde D-Gun type LW-1 coatings. Good field experience is cited.
December 1998
800-46
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Metal Spray
In general, metal spray coatings were not recommended by compressor vendors. Vendor A does not consider the metal spray and fusing process to be a good reconditioning procedure. Main problems reported are (1) distortion of rod's finished surface, and (2) overlay of steel rod whose carbon content exceeds 0.25% without special proper precaution. Vendor B similarly recommends against this restoration method. Vendor C cites mixed experience with this technique. In one case a 5-inch diameter rod in hydrogen service was hardfaced to a 50-mil thickness by Spraywelding. Shortly after startup, the rod cracked in half, causing significant damage to the compressor. Later investigation showed base metal hardness in the range of 500 BHN (originally 240 BHN). Hydrogen embrittlement was thought to be the cause of this failure.
Plasma Spray
Vendor B indicated that their experience shows no acceptable or successful process exists to restore rods reliably by plasma spray. Vendor D cited peeling problems with this reconditioning technique.
Experience Summary
Overall, consistently best service experience in low-pressure and even highpressure, difficult services has been afforded by the use of the Linde D-Gun coatings. In addition to favorable Company and compressor vendor experience, Union Carbide cites numerous applications throughout the domestic petrochemical industry where D-Gun coatings have performed well. These coatings have been used in both lubricated and non-lubricated services up to 6000 psi. Experience with chrome plating and flame spray (metal and plasma) coatings varies throughout the industry. Most diversity is noted in the chroming process. Quality control varies enormously from shop to shop. Many chroming problems are likely the result of changes in chrome shop personnel and the use of new shops seemingly offering comparable quality at lower cost. Because commonly used non-porous chrome has poor lubricant retention quality, special precaution must be taken to insure adequate lubrication. Many times, these steps are not taken, resulting in short packer and rod life. Metal and plasma spray coating processes are generally less successful (especially at higher pressures) due to low bonding strength and the need for strict quality control during the preparation and coating processes. Where reliable shops have been established, metal spray has proven an economical, reliable reconditioning technique in lubricated low-pressure services. Metal spray and fused coatings are good choices in very corrosive services as long as proper attention is given to the metallurgical effects of the fusing operation. Little experience is available supporting the general use of plasma spray.
Chevron Corporation
800-47
December 1998
Compressor Manual
837 Recommendations
Based on service experience available to date, the following procedure is recommended when considering reconditioning used rods or coating new ones. 1. Confirm the technical adequacy and quality control procedures for every coating shop to be used. Do this periodically for shops used repeatedly for years. Avoid reconditioning rods which are scored, galled or worn to a depth of more than 20 to 30 mils; 5 to 10 mils is preferred. Consider hardfacing new rods before putting in service. Complete Figure 800-19 for each individual rod sent to a coating shop. Require the vendor to complete and return Part II of this figure after all coating and machining operations are complete. Retain this as a permanent record in the file for that compressor. For difficult and critical services, consider in-shop inspection prior to, during, and following coating application. Unless otherwise dictated by local service experience, the following restoration processes are recommended in order of preference: a. b. c. d. e. f. 7. Union Carbide Linde D-Gun flame plating (most lubricated and non-lubricated, high- and low-pressure services), and Metal spray and fuse (extremely corrosive services only). Porous chrome, Van der Horst Corp. Vanderkrome (lubricated services up to moderate pressures) Plasma spray (limited to low-moderate pressure, lubricated services) Metal spray without fusing (limited to low-pressure, lubricated services) Non-porous chrome (limited to low-pressure noncritical, lubricated services)
2. 3. 4.
5. 6.
Maintain a record of the service life of the coated rod (Part III of Figure 800-18).
838 Inspection and Specifications

Inspection and Quality Control
Reconditioned rods must be closely inspected for proper bonding, surface finish, taper at ends of coating, hardness, thickness and finish dimensions. Of these items, verification of proper bonding between coating and base material is of primary importance. Careful inspection is mandatory when machining or working the finished coating. Any spalling during machining indicates an inadequate coating job. Coatings should be completely removed and reapplied. Lack of adequate bond
December 1998
800-48
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-19 Specification Worksheet for Reconditioned Reciprocating Compressor Rods (1 of 2) Compressor No. K-_______________________ Stage No.______________________________ Cylinder No.____________________________ Rod Designation No. (if any) ______________
Part I.
Information to be completed by Purchaser

Yes No Composition(Mol. Pct.)
A. Service Conditions
1. Gas Composition H2 HC CO2 O2 N2 H2S NH3 Air Chlorine Other 2. Nature of Gas Wet Clean If wet, liquid is If dirty, foreign matter is 3. Operating Conditions Cylinder Discharge Pressure: ______ (psia) ( ) Cylinder Discharge Temperature: ______ (F) (C) Piston Speed: _______ (ft/min) ( ) Dry Dirty Describe _________
B. Packing and Lubrication

1. Packing Material Used:____________________________________________ 2. Lubrication: Non-Lube _____ Mini-Lube _____ Lubricated _______________ 3. Type Lube-Oil Used:_______________________________ 4. Is Packer Cooling Provided: Yes _____ No _____
C. Piston Rod Metallurgy

1. Base Material Specification: 2. Rod Prev. Plated/Coated? Yes _____ No _____ Not Known ___________________________ If yes, describe type coating and approximate thickness:___________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________
D. Piston Rod Dimensions/Finish

1. Surface Finish in Packing Area ____ (Micro-inches RMS) ( )
Chevron Corporation
800-49
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Fig. 800-19 Specification Worksheet for Reconditioned Reciprocating Compressor Rods (2 of 2) 2. Description of Area of Rod to be Plated/Coated: (Attach Sketch) _____________________________________________________________ 3. Finish Tolerances (Attach Sketch): Diameter: _____ (in)(mm) Length: _____ (in)(mm)
Part II.
Information to be completed by Vendor after finishing
A. Date:________________________________________________________________ B. Location of Coating Shop:________________________________________________ C. Vendor Coating Designation:______________________________________________ D. How Applied:__________________________________________________________ E. Finish Thickness (in)(mm): Min____, Max____ F. Undercoat used? Yes _____ No _____ G. Surface Hardness: _____ (Rc)( ) H. Sealer Used? Yes ____ No ____ If yes, describe_________________________________________________________ I. Max. Base Metal Temp. During Coating: ____ (F)(C) J. Heat Treatment After Coating? Yes _____ No _____ If yes, describe:______________________________________________________________ K. Was Previous Coating, if Any, Removed Prior to Recoating? Yes _____ No _____ L. Rod Diameter After Grinding/Blasting, but Prior to Coating (in)(mm): Min_____, Max____ M. Description of Pre- and Post-Coating Inspection Techniques Used:
Part III.
Maintenance Service Record
A. Service Life of Original Bare Rod:_____ (yrs)(mos)(wks) B. New Coated Rod Placed in Service, Date: __________________________________________ C. Measured Rod Runout (in)(mm): Horiz____, Vert_____ D. Rod Removed from Service for Regrinding, Date:____________________________________ Remaining Coating Thickness (in)(mm):______________________________________________
can result in peeling and spalling with consequential rapid deterioration of packing. Disbonding can also result in cylinder bore and piston ring damage. Following initial grinding of a used rod, but prior to plating or coating, the rod must be carefully inspected for cracks and grinding heat checks by magnaflux or equal inspection techniques. In addition, base metal surfaces must be properly cleaned. Certain coating processes demand much closer attention to surface cleanliness than others. The importance of clean base metal is underscored by a recent two-year survey by a major chrome plating company. Results showed 80% of the premature plating failures were attributable to lack of cleanliness. Contamination can arise
December 1998
800-50
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
from (1) nonmetallic, abrasive particles embedded in the surface or adhering electrostatically from grinding, sandblasting, polishing, and honing operations, (2) residual traces of metal working fluids, coolants, lubricants used during machining operations, (3) dusty, moisture-laden coating environment, (4) insufficient interim protection during various stages of coating, and (5) lack of caution by people handling parts (dirty or perspiring bare hands). Close review of a coating shops quality control standards is essential. Microscopic examination of rods before and after coating, intermittent inspection between coating phases and strict adherence to proper handling procedures are mandatory requirements for every coating process. When a particular coating has not been previously applied by a coating shop, it is recommended that the vendor be required to demonstrate the adequacy of his proposal. One method is to require coating of a short rod of identical material and similar heat treatment to the proposed rod. After coating, this specimen should be bent repeatedly on a diameter equal to the diameter equal to the diameter of the rod, until it fractures. Acceptable coating adhesion will show no separation from the base metal. In general, it should be noted that the quality of work by coating shops varies widely, except for such proprietary processes as Linde D-Gun, which is closely controlled by Union Carbide.
Specification for Reconditioning Rods

Obtaining proper coatings to achieve acceptable rod life depends largely on (1) good communications between user and coating vendor, (2) selection of qualified coating facilities, and (3) adherence to appropriate quality control standards. Potential areas which may lead to unacceptable rod repair include: Rod base metal metallurgy not known. Previous coating history unknown. Improperly selected coating for actual operating conditions. Inadequate quality control prior to and/or during coating application. Poor compatibility of coating with packing material. Incorrect or incomplete specification of rod area to be coated. Finished rod dimensions and tolerances not specified. Improper taper at ends of coating. Desired surface finish not stated. Excessive coating thickness required to build up badly worn or gouged rod. Poor bond strength between undercoat, if any, and base metal.
Figure 800-18 (Part I) includes basic operating, design, dimensional, and metallurgical information essential to the coating vendor. This section should be carefully completed by the Purchaser and included with each piston rod sent to a reconditioning shop. Purchase orders for coating work should require that Part II of Figure 800-18 be completed by the coating vendor after coating work is complete. The completed figure, specifying the as-finished coating condition, should then be returned with the reconditioned rod and become part of the compressor
Chevron Corporation
800-51
December 1998
Compressor Manual
maintenance records. Any refinishing performed after the rod has been in service should be noted in Part III of Figure 800-18. This information will assist in evaluating the extension of service life afforded by the coating process.
840 Troubleshooting
841 Introduction
Machinery problems can be exceptionally complex; however, practical solutions can, in many cases, be simple. No machine operates perfectly, nor in a perfect environment. Numerous deviations exist in every machine, yet do not normally surface as operational or maintenance problems. For example, every machine operates with some imbalance, some misalignment, some imperfections in installation, etc. Therefore, when called upon to solve a problem that has surfaced, expect to find several deviations during the investigation. The job is not to find a deviation (or even several), but to find the deviation, or combination of deviations which are causing the problem that needs to be corrected. As in any problem-solving effort, one of the most important steps is to define the problem. A problem given as lube-oil pump will not put outrepair as necessary can result in considerable time and expense spent on overhauling the pump when replacing a faulty pressure gage or adjusting a turbine governor may have been all that was required. Look for the simple cause/solution first! Many problems with compressors fall into one of the following categories: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Improper component assembly. Component wear or failure. Deposit-buildup imbalance or flow restriction. Controls/instrumentation out of calibration or faulty. Auxiliary system/driver malfunction. Support system (seals, lubrication, alignment, piping strain, foundation settling, baseplate warped or poorly grouted). Off-design operating conditions.
By considering the above categories when attempting to define a problem, it will often be discovered that there is no real problem with the compressor at all. Recalibrating instrumentation, adjusting piping supports, etc., are all solutions which are far less expensive than compressor overhaul. Be sure simple solutions are considered and eliminated before going to more costly solutions.
December 1998
800-52
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
842 Troubleshooting Guidelines

Step 1
Define the desired performance. Define the deviation from that performance. This is the real problem.
Step 2
Analyze the cause of the deviation, based on a combination of practical and technical knowledge. Use all available resources. Do not attempt to solve the problem single-handedly. Input from both technical and non-technical personnel operators, maintenance mechanics, process engineers, etc., can be invaluable. Obtain the manufacturers input as appropriate. Accurate and current performance and maintenance records should be maintained on all equipment. Use these records as a valuable source of data to identify changes since the unit was last operating properly. Keep an open mind. Avoid jumping to conclusions. Make every attempt to obtain and analyze all relevant facts. Do not resist changing conclusions if warranted by discovery of new information.
Step 3
Take corrective action to eliminate the cause.
Step 4
Monitor performance following corrective action.
Step 5
Document the important points and communicate to those who will benefit from the knowledge gained.
843 Problem Solving Guides

Although the troubleshooting checklists that follow are generally aimed at helping in Step 2, it is important to remember Steps 1 through 5. Repetitive problems are usually caused by failing to complete one of the steps listed previously. The checklists which follow are: Reciprocating Compressor Troubleshooting Checklist Centrifugal Compressor and Lube System Troubleshooting Checklist
Both checklists reproduced from Reciprocating Compressors, by Bloch and Hoefner. Copyright 1986 by Gulf Publishing Company. Used with permission. All rights reserved.
Chevron Corporation
800-53
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Reciprocating Compressor Troubleshooting Checklist

Symptoms Noise Vibration Knocking Vibration Pressure Discharge Pressure High Discharge Pressure Low Inter-Cooler Pressure High Inter-Cooler Pressure Low Discharge Temperature High Temperature Outlet Cooling Water Temperature High Overheating Valves Overheating Cylinder Overheating Frames Flow Low Capacity Inspection Findings Abnormal Carbon Deposits Excessive Piston Ring/Cylinder Wear Valve Wear/Breakage 1. L.P. Valves Wear Breakage 2. H.P. Valves Wear Breakage 3. L.P. Unloading System Defective 4. H.P. Unloading System Defective 5. L.P. Piston Rings Worn 6. H.P. Piston Rings Worn 7. Piston Rod Nut Loose 8. Piston Loose 9. Head Clearance Too Small 10. Bearing Clearance Too High 11. Flywheel or Pulley Loose 12. Crosshead Clearance Too High 13. Cooling Water Quantity Too Low 14. Cylinder Lubrication Inadequate 15. Frame Lubrication Inadequate 16. Cylinder Lubrication Excessive 17. Lubricating Oil Incorrect Spec. 1-3-5-16-17-21-25-26-27-30-32-33 5-14-17-21-28-29 1-3-14-16-17-20-21-28-29 Possible Causes 18. Foundation/Grouting Inadequate 19. Piping Support Inadequate 20. Resonant Pulsations (Suction or Discharge) 21. Suction Filter Dirty/Defective 22. Suction Line Restricted 23. System Leakage Excessive 24. System Demand Exceeds Compressor Capacity 25. Discharge Pressure Too High 26. Discharge Temperature Too High 27. Intercooler Fouled 28. Liquid Carry-Over 29. Dirty/Corrosive Products Into Cylinder 30. Cylinder Cooling Jackets Fouled 31. Running Unloaded Too Long 32. Speed Incorrect 33. Suction Pressure Too Low 1-3-5-21-22-23-32 1-3-13-25-27-30 1-3-25-31 1-3-13-14-17-25-30-32 15-25-32 3-25 1-3-5-23-24-32 2-4-6-27 1-3-5-21-22 1-3-13-14-17-25-27-30 7-8-9-10-11-12-14-15-17-18-25 3-11-14-18-19-25-32 Possible Causes
December 1998
800-54
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Centrifugal Compressor and Lube System Troubleshooting Checklist

Symptoms Excessive Vibration Compressor Surges Loss of Discharge Pressure Low Lube-Oil Pressure Excessive Bearing Oil Drain Temperature Units Do Not Stay in Alignment Water in Lube-Oil Possible Causes 1-4-5-6-8-9-10-11-12-13-14-15-22-23-24-25 6-7-16-17 18-19-20 27-29-30-31-32-36-37-38-39-40-41 2-3-21-28-33-34-35-42-43-44 25-26 45-46
Possible Causes 1. Excessive Bearing Clearance 2. Wiped Bearings
Possible Solutions Replace bearings Replace bearings Determine and correct cause
3. Rough Rotor Shaft Journal Surface 4. Bent Rotor (caused by uneven heating or cooling)
Stone or restore journals Replace shaft Turn rotor at low speed until vibration stops, then gradually increase speed to operating speed. If vibration continues, shut down, determine and correct the cause
5. Operating in Critical Speed Range 6. Build-up of Deposits on Rotor
Operate at other than critical speed Clean deposits from rotor Check balance
7. Build-up of Deposits in Diffuser 8. Unbalanced Rotor
Mechanically clean diffusers Inspect rotor for signs of rubbing Check rotor for concentricity, cleanliness, loose parts Rebalance
9. Damaged Rotor
Replace or repair rotor Rebalance rotor
10. Loose Rotor Parts 11. Shaft Misalignment
Repair or replace loose parts Check shaft alignment at operating temperatures Correct any misalignment
12. Dry Gear Coupling 13. Worn or Damaged Coupling
Lubricate coupling Replace coupling Perform failure analysis
14. Liquid Slugging
Locate and remove the source of liquid Drain compressor casing of any accumulated liquids
15. Operating in Surge Region 16. Insufficient Flow 17. Change in System Resistance due to Obstructions or Improper Inlet or Discharge Valve Positions 18. Compressor not up to Speed 19. Excessive Inlet Temperature
Change operating point Increase recycle flow through machine Check position of inlet/discharge valves Remove obstructions Increase to required operating speed Correct cause of high inlet temperature
Chevron Corporation
800-55
December 1998
Compressor Manual
Possible Causes 20. Leak in Discharge Piping 21. Vibration
Possible Solutions Repair leak Probably imbalance or coupling. Refer to IMI Candidate Manual, or other references.
22. Sympathetic Vibration
Adjacent machinery can cause vibration even when the unit is shut down, or at certain speeds due to foundation or piping resonance. A detailed investigation is required in order to take corrective measures.
23. Improperly Assembled Parts 24. Loose or Broken Bolting
Shut down, dismantle, inspect, correct Check bolting at support assemblies Check bed plate bolting Tighten or replace Analyze
25. Piping Strain 26. Warped Foundation or Bed plate
Inspect piping arrangements and proper installation of pipe hangers, springs, or expansion joints. Check for possible settling of the foundation support Correct footing as required Check for uneven temperatures surrounding the foundation casing
27. Faulty Lube-Oil Pressure Gage or Switch 28. Faulty Temperature Gage or Switch 29. Oil Reservoir Low Level 30. Clogged Oil Strainer/Filter 31. Relief Valve Improperly Set or Stuck Open
Calibrate or replace Calibrate or replace Add oil Clean or replace oil strainer or filter cartridges Adjust relief valve Recondition or replace
32. Incorrect Pressure Control Valve Setting on Operation 33. Poor Oil Condition/Gummy Deposits on Bearings
Check control valve for correct setting and operation Change oil Inspect and clean lube-oil strainer or filter Check and inspect bearings Check with oil supplier to ascertain correct oil species being used
34. Inadequate Cooling Water Supply
Increase cooling water supply to lube-oil cooler Check for above design cooling water inlet temperature
35. Fouled Lube-Oil Cooler 36. Operation at a very Low speed without the auxiliary oil Pump Running (if main L.O. pump is shaft driven) 37. Bearing Lube-Oil Orifices Missing or Plugged
Clean or replace lube-oil cooler Increase speed or operate auxiliary lube-oil pump to increase oil pressure Check to see that lube-oil orifices are installed and are not obstructed Refer to lube-oil system schematic diagram for orifice locations
38. Oil Pump Suction Plugged 39. Leak In Oil Pump Suction Piping
Clear pump suction Tighten leaking connections Replace gaskets
40. Failure of Both Main and Auxiliary Oil Pumps 41. Oil Leakage
Repair or replace pumps Tighten flanged or threaded connections Replace defective gaskets or parts
42. Clogged or Restricted Oil Cooler Oil Side
Clean or replace cooler
December 1998
800-56
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Possible Causes 43. Inadequate Flow of Lube-Oil 44. Water in Lube-Oil 45. Leak in Lube-Oil Cooler Tube(s) or Tube Sheet
Possible Solutions If pressure is satisfactory, check for restricted flow of lube-oil to the affected bearings Probably a steam leak condensing in bearings or lube-oil cooler leak. Hydrostatically test the tubes and repair as required Replace zinc protector rods (if installed) more frequently if leaks are due to electrolytic action of cooling water
46. Condensation in Oil Reservoir
During operation maintain a minimum lube-oil reservoir temperature of 120F to permit separation of entrained water When shutting down, stop cooling water flow to oil cooler Commission lube-oil conditioning unit Refer to lube-oil management guide
NOTE: Vibration may be transmitted from the coupled machine. To localize vibration, disconnect coupling and operate driver alone. This should help to indicate whether driver or driven machine is causing vibration.
Chevron Corporation
800-57
December 1998

CMP800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

CMP800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

837 838 840 841 842 843

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

810 Performance Analysis of Reciprocating Compressors and Engines

812 Principles of Compression Analysis

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

813 Principles of Combustion Analysis

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Typical Pressure Volume Display (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Detection Patterns for Valve Problems

Detection Patterns for Valve Problems

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

2-Stroke Cycle versus 4-Stroke Cycle

814 Characteristics of Ignition Problems

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Details of Combustion Pattern (Primary) (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

High voltage indicates:

Low voltage indicates:

High arc voltage indicates:

Low voltage indicates:

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

815 Vibration vs Crankangle

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Fig. 800-10 Vibration Patterns (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Commercial Hardware Available

817 Example of a Typical Predictive Maintenance Program

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Machinery Surveillance and Diagnostics

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

818 Examples of Program Benefits

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Fig. 800-12 Cost Justification Worksheet (1 of 2) Engine/Compressor Analyzer

Operating and Maintenance Data:

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Problems and Costs Summary

Problems and Costs: Power Cylinders

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

820 Maintenance Checklists

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

830 Reciprocating Compressor Piston-Rod Reconditioning

832 Rod Leakage/Surface Finish

Surface Hardness and Finish

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Rod Material Low-Alloy Steel, Through Hardened or Surface Hardened

L NL L, NL L NL Plated or Coated Hardened or Coated 17-4 PH(2)

10-20 6-8 10-20 10-20 6-8

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

833 Rod Deviations