Lecture 3

Internal Structure of the Earth and Lithosphere

Dr. K. Vijaya Kumar School of Earth Sciences SRTM University, Nanded 431 606 Maharashtra, INDIA (E-mail: vijay_kumar92@hotmail.com)

Earths Spheres

Structure of the Earth

Name of the Shell Atmosphere Biosphere Hydrosphere Crust Mantle Core Important Chemical Characteristics N2, O2, H2O, CO2, Inert gases H2O, organic substance and skeletal matter Salt and fresh water, snow and ice Silicate rocks High pressure silicates Iron-Nickel alloy Physical State Gas Solid, liquid and colloidal Liquid (+ solid) Solid Solid Outer core liquid Inner core solid

Volume and Masses of Earth Shells

Name of the Thickness shell (km) Atmosphere Hydrosphere Crust Mantle Core Whole Earth Volume (x 107 cm3) Mean density (gm/cm3) 1.03 2.8 4.5 11 5.52 Mass (x 107 Mass (%) gm) 0.000005 0.00141 0.024 4.016 1.936 5.976 0.00009 0.024 0.4 67.2 32.4 100

3.8 17 2883 3471 6371

0.00137 0.008 .899 .175 1.083

Internal Structure of the Solid Earth

The structure of the body of the solid Earth contains three major zones: the CORE (which is divided into inner and outer zones), the MANTLE (upper and lower), the upper mantle is further divided into asthenosphere, and the lithosphere and the CRUST (upper and lower crust). The three major regions marked by differences in chemical composition. The structure of the upper mantle and crust is not uniform but shows much variability with position and time.

CRUST: rigid outermost layer of the Earth. Consists of two types: oceanic - 3-15 km thick and is composed of basalt (igneous). Young (<180 million years old).

continental - up to 70 km thick and composed of a wide variety of rock types (av. granodiorite). Ranges from young to old (>3.8 billion years old). MANTLE: comprises ~82% of the Earth by volume and is ~2900 km thick. The mantle is characterized by a change in composition from the crust. The mantle is able to flow (plastically) at very slow rates.

CORE: composed of iron, nickel and other minor elements. The outer core is liquid capable of flow and source of the Earth's magnetic field. The inner core is solid Fe-Ni. It is hotter than the outer core, but the intense pressure keeps it solid.

There is no major chemical difference between the outer and inner core. Chemical compositions of crust, mantle and core are given in the following Tables:

Abundance of main Minerals and Rock types in the Crust

Mineral Quartz Alkali Feldspar Plagioclase Mica Amphibole Pyroxene Olivine Clay Minerals Carbonate Minerals Magnetite Others Crust (wt.%) 12 12 39 5 5 11 3 4.6 2 1.5 4.9

Chemical composition of Continental, Oceanic and Bulk Crust

Oxide SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 Volatiles Continental Crust (wt.%) 60.2 0.7 15.2 2.5 3.8 0.1 3.1 5.5 3.0 2.9 0.2 2.9 Oceanic Crust (wt.%) 48.7 1.4 16.6 2.3 6.2 0.2 6.8 12.3 2.6 0.4 0.2 2.5 Bulk Crust (wt.%) 59.3 0.9 15.9 2.5 4.5 0.1 4.0 7.2 3.0 2.4 0.2 2.7

Mineral composition of Upper Mantle (mantle rock is called Peridotite)

Mineral Upper mantle (wt.%) Olivine 60 Orthopyroxene 25 Clinopyroxene 10 Plagioclase/Spinel/Garnet 5

Chemical composition of Upper Mantle

Oxide SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeO MgO CaO Na2O K2O Upper Mantle (wt.%) 45.6 0.12 2.7 8.0 40.7 2.4 0.23 0.05

Chemical composition of Core

Element Fe Ni Si Upper Mantle (wt.%) 84 5.3 11

Bulk Chemical composition of the Earth

Element Fe O Si Mg Ni S Ca Al Na Cr Mn Co P K Ti Bulk Earth (wt.%) 34.63 29.53 15.22 12.7 2.39 1.93 1.13 1.09 0.57 0.26 0.22 0.13 0.1 0.07 0.05

How do we know the Structure and Composition of Earth? Four main approaches for estimating the composition, mineralogy and structure of the Earth 1. Data from Extraterrestrial Sources 2. Seismic data discontinuities and elastic properties 3. Experimental data 4. Study of igneous rocks

Extraterrestrial Sources
Meteorites, which could be fragments of disrupted asteroids, provide evidence for the composition of the Planet Earth. Spectral studies on other planets indicate their relative composition is similar to that of Earth, though absolute proportions may vary. Meteorites of variable sizes fall on Earth. Based on compositional variations, meteorites are classified into 1. Siderites or iron meteorites (Av. 98% metal), 2. Siderolites or stony meteorites (Av. 50% metal + 50% silicate) and 3. Aerolites or stones (chondrites and achondrites). The chemical composition of the Chondrite Meteorite is the primary source of absolute or cosmic abundance of the elements and is good average sample of solar system material.

Seismic Data
Much information about the earths interior is derived from the analysis of earthquake waves. An earthquake generates many kinds of waves, of which the primary P and secondary S are important in detecting the internal structure of the earth including the thickness of lithosphere. The P waves are transmitted by vibrations in the direction of propagation (analogous to sound waves in air). They are the first to be recorded by the seismographs and travel in solid and liquid media. The S waves are transmitted by vibrations at right to the direction of propagation (analogous to light waves). The S waves do not pass through liquid material. The velocities of P and s waves depend on the density and elastic properties of the materials through which they pass. Based on these material characteristics the earth is divided into three shells namely Crust, Mantle and Core. The basis for this division is the presence of two first-order discontinuities (a firstorder discontinuity is one producing an abrupt break in velocity-depth curve) between crust-mantle and mantle-core. The abrupt extinction of S waves at the base of mantle suggests that the outer core is made-up of liquid material.

Experimental Data
The temperatures and pressures expected at the centre of the earth are created in many experimental laboratories world over. These experiments help us in understanding the behavior of material at depth. Variations in density and elastic properties of minerals estimated through seismic methods are reproduced under experimental conditions.

Study of Igneous rocks

Igneous rocks are the products crystallization from magmas. Magmas are generated in the upper mantle and lower crust regions. Some of the igneous rocks such as kimberlite comes from a depth of ~200 km and carries samples of the mantle rock (peridotite). Therefore, the igneous magmas give direct as well as indirect evidence about composition, temperature and volatile content in the upper mantle.

Lithosphere
The lithosphere is solid and relatively cool layer of the upper mantle. It is brittle layer and fractures on the application of pressure. The lithosphere represents the outer 75 km layer (with big variations between 10 and 300km) of the earth and is a region which does not get heated up to near-melting because it is losing heat rapidly to the surface.

LITHOSPHERE consists of Felsic (light coloured) and Mafic (Dark coloured) rocks. The oceanic lithosphere is relatively thinner than the continental lithosphere. The rigid lithosphere is not a continuous single uniform layer but is broken into many pieces. These broken lithosphere fragments are mobile and are designated as PLATES. The lithospheric plates move in different directions depending on the direction of convection currents within the underlying plastic layer called ASTHENOSPHERE. The continents are crustal portions of the lithosphere those sit just above sea level, except for the mountain belts, and include continental areas which are slightly covered by the oceans (<100m depth). The oceans are about 5 km deep in the oceanic basins, but run to 10 km in the trenches and as shallow as 2 km on the midocean ridges. Plate tectonics are possibly responsible for these global patterns.

Types of Lithospheric Plates Continental Lithosphere (Eurasia plate) Oceanic Lithosphere (Pacific plate) Continental-Oceanic Lithosphere (Indian Plate)

Types of Lithospheric Plate interactions Constructive Plate Boundaries (where two plates move away from each other) [Mid-ocean ridges] Destructive Plate Boundaries (where two plates move towards each other) [Subduction zones] Conservative Plate Boundaries (where two plates slide past each other) [Strike-Slip Faults]

Lithosphere Fractures and internal heat and stress The lithosphere is fractured into a few large plates - just enough so that the movement of the plates can deliver interior heat to the surface particularly near the spreading boundaries, where two plates are moving apart, and new material wells up from depth. The lithospheric plate boundaries also release the internal stress of the earth in the form of earthquakes.

Pressure and Temperature Variations within Lithosphere The Earth's interior is characterized by a gradual increase in temperature, pressure and density with depth. On average temperature varies at a rate of 25 C per kilometer depth but ranges from 10 C below old continental regions (called CRATONS) and 50 C at regions of new ocean crust generation (called Mid-ocean ridges) At only 100 km depth, the temp is ~1300 C. The pressure in the lithosphere increases ~3 k bar for every kilometer depth. Temperature in the lithosphere shows large variation both in spatial and temporal terms. The geothermal gradient (rate of increase in temperature with depth) decreases from oceanic through continental to cratonic regions. Similarly the geothermal gradients decrease with time from Archeaen (>2500 Million years ago) to present.

Spatial Variation in Temperature

Temporal Variation in Temperature

Asthenosphere (~100 to 660 km) Radioactive dacay causes the Earth to heat up on time scales of millions of years. In the course of tens/hundreds of millions of years, this heat reduction is enough to warm the interior by hundreds of C. This heat is carried away by the convective circulation of the earth's interior. The convection delivers heat to the surface, so it can eventually be lost into space. Most of the earth's interior is heated to a temperature (> 300C) which makes it ductile, so that it is soft, and can flow like a viscous liquid. You have seen this behavior as glass is heated to near its melting point. The soft region (just below the lithospheric plates) is called the asthenosphere.

In summary Internally, the Earth is divided into three shells (Crust, Mantle and Core) The internal structure of the Earth is determined by Extraterrestrial, Experimental, Seismic and Igneous evidences The Upper 100 Km (Crust + small part of upper Mantle) is called Lithosphere The Lithosphere is rigid and broken. The broken fragments are called plates. Lithospheric fragments could be completely continental, oceanic or combined Lithosphere movements (Plate tectonics) control the earth quakes and volcanism consequently the internal stress and heat energy of the Earth.