Stigma by Association in Coupon Redemption: Looking Cheap because of Others

JENNIFER J. ARGO KELLEY J. MAIN*

The present research establishes that the innocuous behavior of coupon redemption is capable of eliciting stigma by association. The general nding across four studies shows that the coupon redemption behavior of one consumer results in a second non-coupon-redeeming shopper being stigmatized by association as cheap when a low as compared to a high value coupon is redeemed. More important, the research identies a number of factors that protect a non-coupon-redeeming shopper from the undesirable experience of stigma by association, even during another shoppers redemption of a low value coupon.

n todays society a large emphasis is placed on wealth and status. To illustrate, consumers are willing to splurge upwards of $4 for coffee at Starbucks and $20$30 more for groceries at Whole Foods Market, despite the availability of other establishments charging a lower price (Cramer 2005). Empirical research demonstrates that this appeal of brand name and luxury products may be partly related to their potential to help consumers satisfy status needs (Amaldoss and Jain 2005; OCass and McEwen 2004) and avoid appearing cheap (Argo, Dahl, and Manchanda 2005). One implication that arises from societys fascination with wealth and status is that, when consumers engage in behaviors that deviate from this view, they risk being sanctioned. One form of social sanction that may arise is the stigmatization of the deviating behavior. Stigmatization occurs when an individual possesses an actual or believed trait, characteristic, or behavior that is devalued or perceived negatively in a given social context (Crocker, Major, and Steele 1998). Research has demonstrated that being stigmatized has signicant negative consequences for a person (e.g., Crocker 1999; Crocker and Quinn 2003; Sargent and Blanchower

*Jennifer J. Argo is Roger S. Smith Associate Professor of Marketing at the Alberta School of Business, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R6, Canada ( jennifer.argo@ualberta.ca). Kelley J. Main is assistant professor of marketing at the Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba, 181 Freedman Crescent, Winnipeg, MB R3T 5V4, Canada (kelley_main@umanitoba.ca). The authors would like to thank Darren Dahl, Monica Popa, and Katherine White for helpful comments on earlier versions of the manuscript. The authors would like to acknowledge their generous funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Humanities, Fine Arts, and Social Sciences Research Council. John Deighton served as editor and Laura Peracchio served as associate editor for this article. Electronically published July 16, 2008

1994), as can be seen in a variety of consumer settings such as the treatment of smokers by nonsmokers (Gibson 1998) or the negative impressions generated about coupon redeemers (Ashworth, Darke, and Schaller 2005). In fact, researchers have suggested that impression management and stigma-related concerns (Ashworth et al. 2005; see also Donthu and Cherian 1992; Green 1997; Hernandez 1988; Tepper 1994) may be one driver of the low coupon redemption rates that exist in the marketplace (i.e., less than 2%; Ives 2005). Despite consumers attempts to avoid stigmatization by choosing not to redeem coupons, we suggest that there is at least one factor in the retail environment that may thwart such effortsthe behavior of other shoppers. Specically, we propose that non-coupon-redeeming shoppers may experience stigma by association (SBA). SBA, also referred to as a courtesy stigma, occurs when a stigma that arises from one individuals behavior/trait/ characteristic extends to negatively affect another person located nearby (Goffman 1963; Hebl and Mannix 2003). Using a retail context, we conduct four experiments to demonstrate that the presence of one consumer redeeming a coupon results in a second non-coupon-redeeming shopper being stigmatized by association (i.e., perceived as cheap). In general, we nd that SBA is more likely to occur when a low as compared to a high value coupon is redeemed (studies 14). More important, we propose and test factors specic to the consumption setting that may protect a noncoupon-redeeming consumer from SBA, even when another shopper redeems a low value coupon. To achieve this, we empirically manipulate three variables that inuence the degree of similarity (i.e., commonality) that exists between the coupon redeemer and the non-coupon-redeeming shopper: personal relationship (studies 24), physical location (study 2), and attractiveness (study 3). Across the studies, we nd that protection arises when similarity between the two shop559
2008 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc. Vol. 35 December 2008 All rights reserved. 0093-5301/2008/3504-0001$10.00. DOI: 10.1086/591102

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pers is minimized. Finally, we demonstrate conditions under which a stigma does not transfer to a non-coupon-redeeming shopper (i.e., SBA does not arise), and SBA effects are reversed. This research makes a number of contributions to both the marketing and the psychology literatures. Foremost, our research is the rst to demonstrate that the innocuous behavior of coupon redemption elicits SBAa phenomenon typically thought to occur for traits/characteristics/behaviors such as physical disabilities and alcoholism. We nd that coupon redemption on the part of one consumer has negative implications for another non-coupon-redeeming shopper located nearby. Second, we demonstrate that SBA is most likely to occur when the degree of similarity between the coupon-redeeming consumer and the normal shopper is high. Stated differently, when the similarity between the two individuals is minimized through a variety of factors (i.e., absence of a personal relationship, different physical locations, and high levels of attractiveness), the normal shopper is protected from SBA. The identication of conditions under which SBA does not arise despite the presence of the negative behavior is an important extension of the stigma literature as to date no research has empirically identied conditions under which SBA can be prevented. Third, we identify a condition, specic to the environment investigated, under which the elicitation of a stigma related to coupon redemption does not ultimately produce SBA. In particular, when the stigmatized shopper and the non-coupon-redeeming shopper are located in different checkout lines, the transference of a stigma to the latter shopper is mitigated. This demonstrates that, although a stigma may arise, SBA does not necessarily follow. Fourth, another important contribution of this research is that, unlike previous work that has only produced assimilation effects for SBA, we identify a condition under which a contrast effect occurs. We nd that, when a non-coupon-redeeming shopper possesses a highly positive trait, the presence of this trait counteracts the stigma and not only protects this shopper but also extends to protect the coupon redeemer. In the next section we review the literature on social stigmas and SBA and delineate the direction of the current research.

man, and Greenwald 2001). Goffman (1963) also suggests that stigmas can extend from a marked person through a courtesy stigma (i.e., SBA) to taint a normal other (i.e., someone who does not objectively possess the stigmatized behavior/trait/characteristic).

SOCIAL STIGMAS
In the days of the ancient Greeks, stigmatized individuals such as criminals and traitors were typically marked using knives and branding irons (Maio 2004). This mark, or stigma, was an inescapable signal to others that these individuals should be avoided, discredited, or scorned. While the physical marking from ancient times no longer occurs today, the psychological marking of stigmas and their negative implications are still prevalent (Goffman 1963; Jones et al. 1984). Further, stigmas are no longer restricted to only those who have engaged in societal misconduct, but they also have been shown to apply to physical disabilities (Balter 1999), gender (Eagly and Steffen 1984), race (Dovidio, Evans, and Tyler 1986), obesity (Allon 1982), mental illness (Hayward and Bright 1997), and smoking (Swanson, Rud-

Stigma by Association. Since Goffmans (1963) initial discussion of SBA, limited research has focused on the topic. One of the rst empirical investigations to establish the existence of SBA was by Mehta and Farina (1988). In their research, participants who read a description of a college student whose father had a stigmatized trait (e.g., depressed, ex-convict) believed that the normal student would have more difculty in college as compared to if the father did not have this trait. Subsequent research has also found that SBA arose for a heterosexual male when in the presence of a homosexual male (Neuberg et al. 1994) and that the presence of an obese individual negatively inuenced participants assessments of a normal weight individual as a potential job candidate (Hebl and Mannix 2003). One possible explanation for how SBA arises is spontaneous trait transference (Winter and Uleman 1984). According to this literature, people rely on automatically elicited inferences when making social judgments to interpret the behaviors of others, even when these behaviors are casually observed (Winter and Uleman 1984). The inferential process through which traits are transferred has three steps: trait activation (perceivers activate trait concepts during the interpretation of anothers behavior), trait association (activated trait concepts become associated with another person in the social environment), and trait inuence (associated traits transfer to inuence the other person). While the purpose of the present research is not to empirically test for spontaneous trait transference in SBA per se, we use this theoretical framework as a basis for our predictions. We propose that because coupon redemption leads to the activation of cheap traits associated with the redeemer (Ashworth et al. 2005), when judgments about a subsequent consumer (i.e., normal shopper) are made, the accessibility of this trait will lead to the inference that the normal nonredeeming shopper is also cheap, thus, resulting in SBA. Further, we believe that accessibility of the trait and, in turn, spontaneous trait transference will be more likely to occur, the greater the similarity between the redeemer and the normal shopper. Indeed, research has shown that increases in perceived similarity have a positive impact on the accessibility of information (e.g., Karylowski 1990; Sechrist and Stangor 2001) such that it increases the likelihood that stereotypes are activated and transferred (e.g., Sechrist and Stangor 2001), decreases latency times in responding to selfother information (e.g., Karylowski 1990), and facilitates assimilation (rather than contrasts) in social comparisons (e.g., Mussweiler 2003). In sum, we suggest that, when similarity is increased (decreased) between two consumers, spontaneous trait transference will be more (less) likely to arise and result in (offer protection from) SBA effects. In the subsequent sections, we present the results of four experiments, conducted in both the eld and the laboratory,

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that examine SBA in coupon redemption. First, we conrm that the coupon redemption behavior of one consumer produces SBA for a non-coupon-redeeming consumer (i.e., a normal shopper) when a low as compared to a high value coupon is redeemed (studies 14). We then explore the impact of similarity between the two individuals on the tendency for SBA to arise. We achieve this in two ways. First, in studies 24 we seek to empirically demonstrate that increases in similarity due to the presence (vs. absence) of a personal relationship between the redeemer and normal shopper result in SBA. Second, we focus on the impact of minimizing similarity between the coupon redeemer and the normal shopper, through the use of protective factors related to both the physical (i.e., checkout counter: study 2) and social (i.e., attractiveness: study 3) environments, on the extent to which SBA occurs. Finally, in study 4 we change the perspective from which SBA is assessed to determine whether normal shoppers actually believe that they are negatively inuenced by another consumers coupon redemption behavior.

degree (i.e., will be perceived as cheaper) when another consumer redeems a low value (as compared to a high value or no) coupon. Furthermore, given that high value coupons are positively perceived in the marketplace (Schindler 1998) and are therefore unlikely to elicit SBA, we do not anticipate a difference in the extent to which SBA will occur when a high value coupon as compared to no coupon is redeemed. H1: A normal shopper will be stigmatized by association to a greater extent when another consumer redeems a low value coupon (vs. high value vs. no coupon). No differences in SBA are expected between the high value coupon and no coupon conditions.

Method
The purpose of study 1 is to assess whether consumers in a real shopping situation stigmatize by association a normal shopper located in close proximity to a coupon-redeeming consumer. Study 1 manipulated coupon value (low vs. high vs. no coupon) in a between-subjects experimental design. Thirty-two (12 males and 20 females) shoppers (average age p 30.9) completed the survey in exchange for $2.00.

STUDY 1
The goal of study 1 is to extend previous stigma research by demonstrating in a naturally occurring retail environment that the relatively innocuous behavior of coupon redemption is capable of eliciting SBA. In particular, we seek to demonstrate that the negative traits associated with redeeming a coupon can be transferred from the coupon redeemer to another shopper. To achieve this, we investigate the role of a factor inherent in the potentially negative behavior: coupon value.

Coupon Value. Previous research suggests that the presence of an external cue can increase the salience of a behavior/trait/characteristic (Coif 2003; Crocker et al. 1998). This increased salience can in turn enhance the likelihood that someone possessing that trait or engaging in that behavior will become stigmatized (Major and OBrien 2005). In a coupon-redeeming context, one cue that may increase the salience of the behavior/trait/characteristic is the face value of the coupon. Indeed, previous research has found evidence that perceptions of coupons differ depending on the coupons value (e.g., Bawa and Shoemaker 1987; Krishna and Shoemaker 1992). For example, consumers report that using a low value coupon is humiliating (i.e., makes them feel like they are begging for money; Bonnici et al. 199697) and signals that they are low in status, cheap, or not wealthy (Ashworth et al. 2005). In contrast, consumers view high value coupons as attractive and desirable and perceive themselves as smart shoppers for redeeming them (e.g., Schindler 1998). In sum, a coupons value has an inverse relationship with the perceptions it creates (i.e., increases in coupon value decrease negative perceptions related to coupon redemption). Taking this information together with the earlier discussion of spontaneous trait transference, we expect that a normal shopper will be stigmatized by association to a greater

Procedure. A eld study investigated the inuence of coupon value on SBA. In the study, two confederates situated themselves in the line at a checkout counter at a store. When a regular shopper joined the line, the cashier rang through the rst confederates product (i.e., a pen). In the low value condition the cashier then stated that the price of the pen after the 50 cent coupon is $3.50. In the high value condition, the cashier indicated that the price of the pen after the $2.00 coupon is $3.50. Finally, in the no coupon condition, the cashier did not mention a coupon and only said that the price of the pen is $3.50. After the confederate with the pen, the second confederate shopper (who bought a magazine), and the actual shopper paid for their products, an experimenter approached the actual shopper and asked whether s/he would agree to ll out a short survey. In the survey, participants completed a battery of items that assessed their perceptions of other shoppers in the retail context. In particular, they were asked to indicate on 7-point scales (not at all/extremely) the extent to which they perceived the shopper directly in front of them in line to have a number of different characteristics. Embedded within the list and other general questions about the retail environment were three items designed to assess whether shoppers stigmatized by association the normal shopper (i.e., the second shopper with the magazine). These items, which included cheap, penny-pincher, and nancially poor, were combined and averaged together to form a SBA index (a p .95; see table 1 for interitem correlations). Participants were then asked to indicate whether any shopper in line had redeemed a coupon, and if so who. Finally, participants indicated their gender and age. As responses to these two items did not

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TABLE 1 INTERITEM CORRELATIONS Cheap Study 1: Cheap Penny-pincher Financially poor Study 2: Cheap Penny-pincher Financially poor Study 3: Cheap Penny-pincher Financially poor Study 4: Cheap Penny-pincher Financially poor Penny-pincher Financially poor

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STUDY 2
In study 1 we nd that SBA occurs when a low value coupon is redeemed. Study 2 seeks to build on this nding in two ways. First, while study 1 demonstrates that SBA can occur during coupon redemption, study 2 seeks to identify conditions under which a normal shopper can be protected from SBA effects (i.e., SBA no longer arises during coupon redemption). Given our earlier theorizing that a decrease in similarity will lower the likelihood that spontaneous trait transference will occur, in study 2 we manipulate two factors that operationalize similarity in different ways: personal relationship and physical location. A secondary objective of study 2 is to identify a condition under which the elicitation of a stigma does not produce SBA. While previous research on SBA has only shown or suggested that the presence of a stigma automatically leads to SBA, we highlight a condition under which a stigma occurs in isolation. Next we present our discussion on the impact of personal relationship and physical location on SBA.

1.00 .85 .89 1.00 .69 .62 1.00 .75 .72 1.00 .63 .63

1.00 .91 1.00 .74 1.00 .69 1.00 .53

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

predict signicant variance in any of the dependent measures in this study or in the subsequent studies, they are not discussed further.

Results
Preliminary Results. Ninety percent of participants correctly indicated whether a coupon was redeemed, and of that percentage all correctly identied the person with the pen as the coupon redeemer. Test of Hypothesis. A one-way ANOVA with the SBA index as the dependent variable and coupon value as the independent variable revealed that shoppers stigmatized a normal shopper who did not redeem a coupon (F(2, 29) p 21.12, p ! .001). Post hoc tests indicated that SBA was greatest when a low (M p 4.33) versus a high value coupon (M p 2.00; t (29) p 5.44, p ! .001) or no coupon (M p 1.80; t (29) p 5.76, p ! .001) was redeemed. No differences arose in SBA between the high value and no coupon conditions (t ! 1). Thus, redemption of a low value coupon by one consumer affects the extent to which a second shopper is perceived to be cheap. Discussion. This study provides initial, yet robust, evidence that the stigmatized behavior of one consumer redeeming a coupon has negative implications for another normal shopper located in close proximity. Specically, we nd that SBA is most likely to occur when a low value coupon is redeemed; the redemption of a high value coupon protects the normal shopper from being perceived as cheap. Thus, in a naturally occurring environment, where our interest in coupon redemption is not salient, consumers appear to infer that one shopper in the retail environment is cheap, based on the behavior of another. Overall, this study provides a powerful demonstration of SBA in an unexpected context.

Personal Relationship. In general, people tend to like, associate with, and create personal relationships with those with whom they share similar attitudes, beliefs, and values (e.g., Berscheid and Walster 1978; Buss 1985; Byrne 1971; Kandel 1978; Wetzel and Insko 1982). For example, Griftt and Veitch (1974) showed that simply knowing the opinions of participants on various issues facilitated an accurate prediction as to which previously unacquainted individuals would ultimately associate with one another; participants liked others who were more similar to themselves. Taking this together with our earlier discussion on spontaneous trait transference, it follows that SBA will be more likely to occur when two individuals share (vs. do not share) a personal relationship. This prediction is consistent with Goffmans (1963) suggestion that people who are highly susceptible to SBA include those working with (e.g., psychiatrists) and those connected through their personal relationship to (e.g., the spouse of a disabled person) stigmatized individuals (Corrigan and Miller 2004; Struening et al. 2001).
H2: SBA effects will be greater when a personal relationship exists between a coupon redeemer and a normal shopper.

Moderating Role of Physical Location. The effect of personal relationship on SBA is expected to be moderated by the physical location of the two shoppers. In particular, a good predictor that two people are high in similarity and share a relationship is their physical proximity to one another. Indeed, functional distance (i.e., the ease and extent with which two peoples paths cross) has been shown to inuence the likelihood of people becoming friends due to the similarities that arise (Insko and Wilson 1977; Monge and Kirste 1980). Therefore, the closer two people are in terms of distance, the greater the likelihood that similarity will be implied. In a retail context, one way to study functional distance is through the layout of the store at the point

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of purchase. In particular, we predict that, when two shoppers are in the same line at the checkout and they share a personal relationship, SBA will arise as similarity will be high and spontaneous trait transference will be likely to occur. In contrast, when the normal shopper is in a different line from the coupon-redeeming consumer, the decrease in functional distance will minimize similarity, and as a result the impact of SBA on the normal shopper will be mitigated, regardless of the relationship between the two. H3: When a normal shopper is located in the same line as the coupon redeemer, SBA will be more likely to arise when a personal relationship exists (vs. does not exist). When the normal shopper is located in a different line, SBA effects will be attenuated, regardless of the type of personal relationship that exists. Similarly, we also expect that, when the normal shopper is in a different line, SBA will not arise, regardless of the redeemed coupons value. In contrast, when the normal shopper and coupon redeemer are in the same line, similar to study 1, SBA is expected to arise to a greater extent when a low versus a high value coupon is redeemed. Finally, we expect that the coupon redeemer will be stigmatized more when the coupon value is low versus high, irrespective of the layout, as the location of the two shoppers relative to one another is irrelevant to the elicitation of a stigma in this context. H4: When a normal shopper is located in the same line as the coupon redeemer, SBA will be more likely to arise when a low (vs. high) value coupon is redeemed. When a normal shopper is located in a different line from the coupon redeemer, differences in SBA effects will be mitigated, regardless of the coupon value. H5: Coupon redeemers will be stigmatized more when a low (vs. high) value coupon is redeemed, regardless of the normal shoppers location.

Method
This study used a 2 (coupon value: low vs. high) # 2 (location of the normal shopper: same line vs. different line) # 2 (personal relationship: yes vs. no) between-subjects experimental design. Post hoc tests conrmed that, consistent with our conceptualization, similarity was higher when the normal shopper and the coupon redeemer were in the same line at the checkout (Msame p 5.38 vs. Mdif p 3.15; t (30) p 5.00, p ! .001) and when a relationship existed between the two shoppers (Myes p 5.24 vs. Mno p 3.52; t (31) p 7.37, p ! .001). One hundred forty-four University of Alberta undergraduates (71 males and 73 females) completed the study in exchange for a $10 honorarium.

Procedure. In this study participants were asked to read and imagine a scenario that described a shopping experience

that transpired at a local store where they went to purchase a book. They read that, after browsing in the store and locating a book of interest, they approached the checkout to pay for their product. At this time they noticed two other shoppers already in the checkout area (i.e., one with ofce supplies and one with a magazine). To achieve the personal relationship manipulation, the scenario indicated that it was obvious either that the two shoppers knew one another very well (yes condition) or that the two shoppers did not know one another at all (no condition). Participants were then presented with a photograph of the checkout area of a store. The photograph was used to manipulate the location of the normal shopper. In the different line condition participants saw the two other shoppers standing at separate checkout lines located next to each other, while in the same line condition the two shoppers were standing at the same checkout line. After seeing the photograph, participants continued to read in the scenario that they overheard the cashier talking to the shopper with the ofce supplies. This discussion was used to achieve the coupon value manipulation. In particular, they either overheard the cashier indicating the total value of the ofce supplies after the savings with the $0.50 coupon (low condition) or the $2.00 coupon (high condition). After reading the scenario, participants completed a questionnaire that included measures of the dependent variables. First, participants completed open-ended questions that asked them to list ve adjectives that described their thoughts/feelings about the consumer-related traits and shopping characteristics of the person with the ofce supplies (i.e., the coupon redeemer). They then repeated this task describing the shopper with the magazine. The order in which these two questions were asked was counterbalanced to minimize the likelihood of demand effects. Two independent coders, blind to the purpose of the study, coded the cognitive responses for each question, according to the number of adjectives participants listed that described each of the shoppers as cheap. Initial agreement between the coders was 95%, and disagreements were resolved through discussions with one of the authors. Representative comments included cheap, a tight wad, and frugal. Participants then responded to the same three items used in study 1 to assess their impressions of the shopper purchasing the magazine. These three items were combined and averaged together to create a SBA index (a p .80). In addition, these same three items were also included to measure stigma perceptions. In particular, participants were asked to indicate on 7-point scales (not at all/extremely) the extent to which they perceived the shopper with the ofce supplies to be cheap, a penny-pincher, and nancially poor. These items were combined and averaged together to create a stigma index (a p .76). The order of these two sets of questions was counterbalanced. Another set of three items was included to further investigate the implications of SBA for the normal shopper. More specically, participants were asked to indicate, using 7-point scales (not at all likely/extremely likely), the likelihood that they would engage in a variety of behaviors if they were to encounter the normal shopper

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FIGURE 1 STUDY 2: DEGREE OF STIGMA BY ASSOCIATION; RELATIONSHIP # LOCATION INTERACTION

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relationship (F(1, 134) p 32.28, p ! .001; Mno p 1.96, Myes p 3.20). Finally, 92% of participants correctly identied where the normal shopper was located. Thus, the manipulations were successful.

in a social setting (i.e., talk to, go for coffee with, and smile at). These items were combined and averaged together to create a behavioral index (a p .73). Finally, to provide a more global perspective of the implications of one consumers coupon redemption behavior, participants completed ve items using 11-point scales to assess their evaluations of the store (i.e., bad/good, terrible/outstanding, poor/excellent, unpleasant/pleasant, and unfavorable/favorable). These items were combined and averaged together to create a store evaluation index (a p .95). Finally, questions were included as manipulation checks for our independent variables. Participants completed two items on 7-point scales that assessed their perceptions of the size of the discount (i.e., the coupon was a signicant discount [not at all/very much so] and how big was the discount [not very big/very big]; coupon value index r p .82). Second, to assess participants perceptions of the relationship between the two shoppers, they completed three items on 7-point scales. These items, which were combined and averaged together, asked them to indicate the extent to which the two shoppers were not at all central to/were very central to, cared very little about/cared a lot about, and were not at all important to/were very important to each other (relationship index a p .94). Finally, a recall measure asking whether the two shoppers were in the same line (yes/no) indicated participants cognizance of the location of the shoppers relative to one another.

Test of Hypotheses. A 2 (coupon value) # 2 (location) # 2 (personal relationship) ANOVA was conducted using the SBA index as the dependent variable. Consistent with hypothesis 2, results of the analysis produced a signicant main effect for personal relationship (F(1, 135) p 17.67, p ! .001). In addition, main effects for coupon value and location ( ps ! .001) and signicant two-way interactions between location and personal relationship (F(1, 135) p 5.02, p ! .05; see g. 1) and between coupon value and location (F(1, 135) p 17.42, p ! .001; see g. 2) were realized. Planned contrasts of the location and personal relationship interaction revealed that, consistent with hypothesis 3, SBA effects were highest when a personal relationship existed and the two shoppers were in the same line (M p 3.67), as compared to the other three conditions (Mno/same p 2.53, t (139) p 4.84, p ! .001; Myes/dif p 2.70, t (139) p 4.10, p ! .001; Mno/dif p 2.23, t (139) p 5.99, p ! .001). Planned contrasts of the coupon value and location interaction supported hypothesis 4 as SBA effects were greatest when the shoppers were in the same line and a low value coupon was redeemed (M p 3.84) versus the other conditions (Mhi/same p 2.40, t (139) p 6.64, p ! .001; Mlo/dif p 2.50, t (139) p 6.28, p ! .001; Mhi/dif p 2.27, t (139) p 7.41, p ! .001). When the two shoppers were in a different line, no signicant differences in SBA arose, regardless of the coupon value ( ps 1 .10). Responses to the cognitive response questions produced similar patterns of results, with the exception that a main effect for location was not realized ( p 1 .05) An ANOVA using the behavioral index as the dependent variable revealed main effects for coupon value, location, and personal relationship ( ps ! .05) and a signicant interaction between coupon value and location (F(1, 135) p
FIGURE 2 STUDY 2: DEGREE OF STIGMA BY ASSOCIATION; VALUE # LOCATION INTERACTION

Results
Preliminary Analyses. An ANOVA conducted using coupon value, location, and personal relationship as the independent variables and the coupon value index as the dependent variable revealed a signicant main effect for value (F(1, 135) p 28.88, p ! .001; Mlo p 2.71, Mhi p 4.23). An ANOVA using the relationship index as the dependent variable produced a signicant main effect for personal

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4.12, p ! .05). Planned contrasts revealed that participants were least likely to want to interact with the normal shopper when a low value coupon was redeemed and the shoppers were in the same line (M p 3.49), as compared to the other conditions (Mhi/same p 4.45, t (139) p 3.06, p ! .01; Mlo/dif p 4.41, t (139) p 2.96, p ! .05; Mhi/dif p 4.54, t (139) p 3.42, p p .001). Thus, when one consumer redeems a low value coupon and the two shoppers are in the same line, the normal shopper is perceived not only to be cheaper but also as a less desirable person with whom to interact. Analysis conducted using the store evaluation index as a dependent variable produced a signicant main effect for coupon value ( p ! .05), a marginally signicant main effect for location ( p ! .09), and a signicant two-way interaction between coupon value and location (F(1, 135) p 4.17, p ! .05). Overall, the store was evaluated lower when a low value coupon was redeemed and the two shoppers were in the same line (M p 7.58), as compared to the other conditions (Mhi/same p 8.72, t (139) p 3.25, p p .001; Mlo/dif p 8.72, t (139) p 3.30, p p .001; Mhi/dif p 8.80, t (139) p 3.56, p p .001). Finally, an ANOVA using the stigma index as the dependent variable only revealed a main effect for coupon value (F(1, 135) p 38.84, p ! .001). Consistent with hypothesis 5, the coupon-redeeming consumer was perceived to be cheaper when a low (M p 3.88) versus a high (M p 2.75) value coupon was redeemed.

Msame p 3.14). The absence of statistical signicance suggests that the decrease in SBA realized in the different line condition is consistent with our theorizing related to similarity and is not explained by the simple protective nature of greater distance.

STUDY 3
Study 3 seeks to build upon the earlier two studies by determining whether an additional operationalization of similarity (i.e., attractiveness) also protects a normal shopper from SBA. Moreover, this study seeks to identify a condition under which SBA effects can be reversed (i.e., a contrast effect arises), thereby extending the SBA literature, which has been unable to empirically identify such a condition.

Discussion. This study demonstrates that conditions that signal higher (lower) similarity between an individual engaging in a negative behavior and a normal individual increase (decrease) the extent to which SBA occurs. In particular, when a normal shopper was located in a different line (i.e., similarity was low), SBA did not occur, regardless of the personal relationship or the coupon value. In contrast, when the normal shopper and the coupon redeemer were located in the same line (i.e., similarity was high), SBA effects were greater when a relationship existed and the coupon value was low. Finally, this study nds that simply because a stigma exists does not mean SBA will arise. Although the results of this study are consistent with our theorizing, at least one alternative explanation exists for our ndings. Due to the location of the second line, the normal shopper was physically further away from the coupon redeemer in the different (vs. same) line condition. Thus, it is possible that the decrease in SBA was simply due to an increased physical distance between the two shoppers. To test this alternative explanation, an additional experimental (proximity) condition was included. In the proximity condition, 31 participants saw a photograph in which the normal shopper was in the same line as the coupon redeemer. However, in this condition the normal shopper was situated the same distance behind the coupon redeemer as the distance that existed between the two separate lines. Independent sample t-tests comparing the proximity and the same line conditions indicated that the two did not differ signicantly for SBA (t (67) p .67, p 1 .20, Mprox p 2.89,

Attractiveness. Prior research ndings suggest that the attractiveness of individuals may inuence the extent to which SBA arises (e.g., Argo, Dahl, and Morales 2008; Berscheid et al. 1971). For example, psychologists have found that people prefer to approach and marry someone with whom they share a similar level of attractiveness (Berscheid et al. 1971; Huston 1973; Murstein 1986). Given that the majority of people are average in their level of attractiveness, as compared to a smaller number of people who are highly attractive, such as models or movie stars, a normal shopper should be perceived as more (less) similar to another shopper who is average (high) in attractiveness. Stated differently, similarity between the two shoppers will be highest when the normal shopper is of average attractiveness. Taking this together with our earlier conceptualization, we expect that SBA (and stigmatization) will occur to the greatest extent when a normal shoppers level of attractiveness is average (i.e., similarity is high) and both a relationship exists and the coupon value is low. Further, not only do we expect that SBA effects will be mitigated for the normal shopper regardless of the coupon value and relationship status when the shopper is high in attractiveness (i.e., similarity is low), but we also anticipate that high levels of this positive trait can reverse SBA effects and in turn affect perceptions of the redeemer. This follows recent work by Argo et al. (2008), who demonstrate that the impact of highly attractive sources in a retail context is powerful enough to reverse previously identied negative effects of consumer contagion (Argo, Dahl, and Morales 2006). Thus, we expect that, when a normal shopper is high (vs. average) in attractiveness, consumers will be less likely to stigmatize the coupon-redeeming shopper. Stated differently, the positive trait of attractiveness will transfer from the normal shopper to protect the coupon redeemer from the consequences of his/her own negative behavior (i.e., the extent to which stigmatization occurs will decrease). This contrast effect is expected to arise, regardless of the coupon value or the presence of a relationship.
H6a: When the normal shopper is average in attractiveness, SBA and stigmatization will occur to

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the greatest extent when the coupon value is low and a relationship exists. H6b: When the normal shopper is high in attractiveness, differences in both SBA and stigmatization will be mitigated, regardless of the coupon value and the personal relationship.

personal relationship (F(1, 135) p 11.38, p ! .001; Mno p 3.14, Myes p 3.93). No other main effects or interactions were signicant in the analyses. Therefore, all manipulations were successful.

Method
This study used a 2 (coupon value: low vs. high) # 2 (attractiveness: high vs. average) # 2 (personal relationship: yes vs. no) + 1 (no coupon control) between-subjects experimental design. One hundred and sixty-nine undergraduates (64 males and 105 females) from the University of Alberta completed the study in exchange for $10.

Procedure. A similar scenario and dependent variables (SBA a p .87, stigma index a p .81, behavioral index a p .82) as described in study 2 were used with three exceptions. First, the photograph was used to manipulate the attractiveness of the normal shopper (rather than physical location). In the high attractiveness condition the photograph was of an extremely attractive model, while in the average attractiveness condition the photograph was of an averagelooking individual. A pretest conrmed the normal shoppers designated level of attractiveness, while a post hoc test conrmed that those average in attractiveness were perceived to be more similar to a typical shopper (Mavg p 4.73, Mhi p 2.36; t (30) p 7.14, p ! .001). The gender of the shopper in the photograph was varied across participants (e.g., male participants saw both male and female shoppers). This resulting match or mismatch in gender between the participant and the shopper in the photograph did not inuence the results and is not discussed further. Participants also completed three items using 7-point scales (not at all/ very) that assessed their perceptions of the attractiveness of the shopper with the magazine, including attractive, appealing, and good-looking (attractive index a p .96). Second, a no coupon control condition was included. Finally, because this study focused on the impact of the social environment, the three items used to assess SBA were included to assess participants evaluations of the stores clientele (clientele index a p .84).

Test of Hypotheses. A 2 (coupon value) # 2 (attractiveness) # 2 (personal relationship) ANOVA using the SBA index as the dependent variable produced signicant main effects for coupon value and attractiveness ( ps ! .001), a signicant two-way interaction between coupon value and attractiveness ( p ! .001), and a signicant threeway interaction among coupon value, personal relationship, and attractiveness (F(1, 135) p 3.94, p ! .05). To analyze the three-way interaction, a simple interaction was rst conducted selecting for those in the average attractiveness condition. A 2 (coupon value) # 2 (personal relationship) ANOVA with SBA as the dependent variable produced a main effect for coupon value ( p ! .001) and a signicant two-way interaction (F(1, 66) p 4.89, p ! .05). Planned contrasts found that, when the normal shopper was average in attractiveness, SBA effects were greater when a low value coupon was redeemed and a personal relationship existed (M p 5.07) versus the other conditions (Mhi/yes p 2.20, t (66) p 6.51, p ! .001; Mlo/no p 4.15, t (66) p 2.11, p ! .05; Mhi/no p 2.60, t (66) p 5.80, p ! .001). Differences also arose when no personal relationship existed and a low versus high value coupon was redeemed (t (66) p 3.83, p ! .001) and when a high value coupon was redeemed and a personal relationship was present (t (66) p 4.64 , p ! .001; see g. 3). A second simple interaction was then conducted, selecting those in the high attractiveness condition. Results did not produce any signicant effects ( ps 1 .20 ). Finally, post hoc tests comparing the control group revealed that, when the normal shopper was average in attractiveness, the no coupon control (M p 2.18) was lower then when the coupon value was low ( p ! .001) but did not differ from the high value coupon condition ( p 1 .20). When the shopper was high in attractiveness, the no coupon control group (M p 1.82) did
FIGURE 3 STUDY 3: DEGREE OF STIGMA BY ASSOCIATION; VALUE # RELATIONSHIP INTERACTION

Results
Preliminary Analyses. An ANOVA was conducted with the inclusion of the three independent variables and the attractiveness index as the dependent variable. The results produced a signicant main effect for level of attractiveness (F(1, 135) p 94.62, p ! .001; Mhi p 4.85, Mavg p 2.47). A second ANOVA using the coupon value index as the dependent variable revealed a signicant main effect for value (F(1, 135) p 83.11, p ! .001; Mlo p 2.58, Mhi p 4.74). Finally, a third ANOVA with the relationship index as the dependent variable produced a signicant main effect for

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not differ statistically from the low value coupon condition (t (99) p 1.28, p 1 .20) and was marginally lower than the high value coupon condition (t (99) p 1.69, p ! .10). An ANOVA using the stigma index as the dependent variable produced a main effect for coupon value ( p ! .001) and a signicant interaction between coupon value and attractiveness (F(1, 134) p 6.16, p ! .05). Planned contrasts revealed that the consumer redeeming a coupon was stigmatized more when the normal shopper was average in attractiveness and a low (M p 4.48) versus a high (M p 3.03; t (138) p 4.52, p ! .001) value coupon was redeemed. More important and consistent with our prediction that a contrast effect can occur when a normal shopper has a highly positive trait, when the normal shopper was high (vs. average) in attractiveness, a consumer redeeming both a high (M p 3.29; t (138) p 3.73, p ! .001) and a low value coupon was stigmatized less (M p 3.65; t (138) p 2.59, p ! .05). Thus, it appears that the positive trait related to attractiveness not only protects the normal shopper from SBA but also reects back to protect the normal coupon redeemer from being stigmatized. An ANOVA using the behavioral index as the dependent variable revealed a main effect for each of the independent variables ( ps ! .05) and a signicant interaction between coupon value and attractiveness (F(1, 135) p 7.69, p ! .01). Participants were least likely to want to interact with the normal shopper when a low value coupon was redeemed and the shopper was average in attractiveness (M p 3.07) versus the other conditions (Mhi/avg p 4.31, t (139) p 3.54, p p .001; Mlo/hi p 4.53, t (139) p 4.15, p ! .001; Mhi/hi p 4.46, t (139) p 3.98, p ! .001). Finally, similar analysis using participants evaluations of the stores clientele as a dependent variable revealed main effects for coupon value and attractiveness ( ps ! .01) and a signicant two-way interaction between the variables (F(1, 135) p 34.68, p ! .001). Store clientele were evaluated as signicantly cheaper when a low value coupon was redeemed and the normal shopper was average in attractiveness (M p 4.28) versus the other conditions (Mhi/avg p 2.47, t (139) p 7.25, p ! .001; Mlo/hi p 2.79, t (139) p 5.94, p ! .05; Mhi/hi p 3.01, t (139) p 5.09, p ! .001). Thus, stigmas extend to negatively affect perceptions of the stores clientele.

transfers back to attenuate the stigmatization of the coupon redeemer.

STUDY 4
Study 4 extends the results of the rst three studies by investigating SBA from a different perspectivethe normal shopper. In doing so we are able to determine whether normal shoppers actually believe that they are being stigmatized by association and whether this belief is related to the degree of similarity that exists between them and the coupon redeemer. To achieve this, study 4 tests normal shoppers self-reports (i.e., metaperceptions) related to felt SBA arising from another consumers behavior when personal relationship and coupon value are manipulated.

Discussion. The results of this study are consistent with our theorizing that, when similarity is low (i.e., attractiveness is high), SBA is less likely to occur, regardless of the coupon value and the relationship between the two shoppers. When similarity is high (i.e., attractiveness is average) we replicate our earlier ndings. Importantly, this study presents, to our knowledge, the rst evidence for a contrast effect in SBA research. We demonstrate that the positive trait of the normal shoppers physical attractiveness counteracts the negative trait of cheapness associated with coupon redemption. More specically, when a low value coupon is redeemed and a relationship exists, the presence of a highly attractive normal shopper not only mitigates the existence of SBA, thereby protecting the normal shopper, but also

Felt Stigma by Association. To date, research exploring felt SBA has been qualitative and correlational in nature (e.g., Birenbaum 1970; Doyle 1999; Ostman and Kjellin 2002; Wahl and Harman 1989). For instance, survey research shows that caregivers and family members of stigmatized individuals believe that society looks down on them as a family (Struening et al. 2001), and the research indicates that stigmas are personally problematic as they disrupt other family relations (Wahl and Harman 1989). Thus, normal shoppers should experience felt SBA to a greater extent when they share a relationship (high in similarity) with the stigmatized coupon redeemer. Related empirical research on collective threat (e.g., Cohen and Garcia 2005) also supports the possibility that SBA will be sensed by normal people when they are in the presence of someone similar. In particular, this research shows that individuals are concerned that, when one member of their stereotyped group (i.e., similarity is high because they belong to the same group) engages in stereotype-conrming behaviors, this will result in more negative judgments of the entire group. In sum, this preliminary evidence would suggest that normal shoppers will be aware that associating with a stigmatized consumer will lead to a risk of being stigmatized themselves. Taking this together with our earlier discussion on personal relationship and coupon redemption, we expect that felt SBA will be greater when normal shoppers are in the presence of a coupon redeemer with whom they share a relationship and when a low (vs. high) value coupon is redeemed. When in the presence of coupon redeemer with whom they do not share a relationship, normal shoppers felt SBA should not differ, regardless of the coupon value.
H7: Normal shoppers will experience felt SBA to a greater extent when they share a relationship with the coupon redeemer and the coupon value is low (vs. high). Differences in felt SBA will be attenuated when a relationship does not exist between the two individuals, regardless of the coupon value.

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Method
This study used a 2 (coupon value: low vs. high) # 2 (personal relationship: yes vs. no) between-subjects experimental design. One hundred seventy-six undergraduates (67 males and 109 females) from the University of Alberta completed the study in exchange for $10. Participants were run in pairs. As only one member of each pair was an actual participant (i.e., the second member created the personal relationship manipulation and was not of theoretical interest), the size of the sample analyzed in this study actually consisted of 88 participants (25 males and 63 females).

Results
Preliminary Analyses. To assess the success of our relationship manipulation, a 2 (coupon value) # 2 (personal relationship) between-subjects ANOVA was conducted using the relationship index as the dependent variable. Results produced a signicant main effect for personal relationship (F(1, 84) p 225.39, p ! .001; Myes p 5.80, Mno p 1.97). A second ANOVA with the same independent variables and the coupon value index as the dependent variable was also conducted to assess the success of the coupon value manipulation. Results revealed a signicant main effect for value (F(1, 84) p 67.26, p ! .001; Mlo p 2.73, Mhi p 5.05). Therefore, the manipulations were successful. Finally, examination of the open-ended response question indicated that all participants were cognizant of their task. Test of Hypothesis. A 2 # 2 ANOVA was conducted using the felt SBA index as a dependent variable. This analysis enabled us to determine the extent to which non-coupon-redeeming shoppers themselves believed that they were stigmatized by association due to another shoppers couponredeeming behavior. Results of this analysis produced a signicant interaction between coupon value and personal relationship (F(1, 83) p 12.44, p p .001; see g. 4). Normal shoppers believed that they were stigmatized by the cashier the most when they had a personal relationship with the redeemer and the coupon value was low (M p 3.87 vs. Mhi/yes p 2.67, t (83) p 3.59, p ! .001; Mlo/no p 2.67, t (83) p 3.46, p ! .001; Mhi/no p 3.13, t (83) p 2.27, p ! .05). When a personal relationship did not exist, felt SBA did not differ, regardless of the coupon value (t (83) p 1.46, p 1 .10). Discussion. In study 4 we nd that normal shoppers indeed feel SBA. In particular, when a personal relationship existed between the stigmatized and normal shopper, felt SBA was more likely to arise when a low (vs. high) value
FIGURE 4 STUDY 4: FELT STIGMA-BY-ASSOCIATION INDEX; VALUE # RELATIONSHIP INTERACTION

Procedure. To investigate felt SBA a eld study was conducted. Instructions for registering to participate in the study were used to achieve the personal relationship manipulation. In the yes relationship condition, participants were informed that the experiment required that they sign up in pairs with a friend, while in the no relationship condition participants were asked to sign up individually and were matched with a stranger. Prior to the studys commencement the experimenter ensured that participants did not know each other in the latter condition. Upon arrival at the study, participants were told that the purpose of the study was to conduct marketing research for the university bookstore. To achieve this, they were told that they would go to the store together, where one person would make a purchase. One participant was randomly assigned to the role of the coupon redeemer (buyer) and the other person to the role of the normal shopper (accompanier). To determine which product buyers would purchase, they privately selected an envelope that identied a product for them. Unbeknownst to the buyers, all of the envelopes indicated that the target product was a greeting card. To manipulate coupon value, buyers were then privately informed that the bookstore was running a promotion and that a coupon was available for the assigned product. The experimenter provided buyers with $5.00 and a coupon worth either $0.25 (low value) or $1.00 (high value) off the regular price. The pair then entered the store, completed their task, and returned to the experimenter for a questionnaire. Although the buyers responses were not of interest, they completed a questionnaire to maintain the cover story. Normal shoppers beliefs that they were the target of SBA were assessed using metastereotype measures (Vorauer, Main, and OConnell 1998). In particular, participants were asked to indicate their metastereotypes relative to the cashier by indicating to what degree did you think the cashier thought you were ___), with the blank lled in with each of the same measures identied in the earlier studies (felt SBA index a p .73). Manipulation checks were then assessed (coupon value index r p .77; personal relationship a p .97). Finally, an open-ended response question was completed that asked participants to indicate their task in the bookstore.

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coupon was redeemed. In contrast, the absence of a personal relationship mitigates felt SBA, regardless of the coupon value. This pattern of results is consistent with those found in the earlier studies and our theorizingfelt SBA and SBA are most likely to happen when similarity between the normal shopper and the coupon redeemer is high and the coupon value is low. This study is the rst to empirically test for felt SBA as, to date, research exploring felt SBA has been either qualitative or correlational in nature.

GENERAL DISCUSSION
Across four experiments we demonstrate that one consumers actions have unintended implications for another shoppers impression management efforts. We nd that the stigma of coupon redemption negatively taints the impressions of others (i.e., the stigma of cheapness is transferred to them) by creating SBA. Using spontaneous trait transference as a theoretical framework, we propose that the similarity between a normal shopper and a coupon redeemer inuences the extent to which SBA will arise. In general, our results support this proposition. SBA occurs to a greater extent in a coupon redemption context in which similarities are high between the coupon redeemer and the normal shopper (i.e., a personal relationship exists, shoppers are in the same line, and attractiveness of the normal shopper is average) and a low (vs. high) value coupon is redeemed. Recent work in marketing has focused on consumer stigmatization related to cultural backgrounds (e.g., Mexican immigrants; Penaloza 1994), age (Tepper 1994), literacy levels (Adkins and Ozanne 2005), and certain subculture afliations (e.g., Star Trek fans; Kozinets 2001). While these exploratory efforts have identied the prevalence of stigmas in consumption, our research broadens that work by empirically demonstrating the existence of SBA. Our research illustrates that the innocuous behavior of coupon redemption by one consumer in the retail environment results in a normal shopper being stigmatized as cheap despite the fact that the shopper is not redeeming a coupon. Our research is the rst to empirically demonstrate a number of important ndings that extend the psychology literature on stigmas in several noteworthy ways. First, we demonstrate the role of similarity between a normal shopper and a stigmatized other in inuencing the extent to which SBA arises. We achieve this by operationalizing similarity using three different variables: personal relationship, physical location, and attractiveness. Second, we identify a condition under which a stigma arises but does not produce SBA for the normal shopper. In particular, when the coupon redeemer and the normal shopper are in different checkout lines (i.e., similarity is low) in the retail environment, we nd that a coupon-related stigma fails to transfer (study 2). Third, this research highlights a situation in which a trait associated with the normal shopper overrides the elicitation of a stigma and ultimately protects not only the normal shopper from SBA but also the coupon-redeeming consumer from stigmatization (study 3). Indeed, results of this study indicate that the positive trait of the normal shoppers physical at-

tractiveness creates a contrast effect such that it appears to not only protect the normal shopper from SBA but also protect the coupon redeemer. Finally, we nd empirical evidence demonstrating that normal shoppers accurately predict SBA effects due to another consumers behaviors (i.e., felt SBA; study 4). The ndings of the current work also contribute to research outside of the stigma domain, including literature on face work in psychology and mere presence in marketing. First, Goffman (1959, 1967; see also Leary 1995; Leary and Kowalski 1990; Schlenker 1980, 2003) suggests that interactive social encounters are interdependent as each social actors verbal and nonverbal behaviors can deliberately affect each others face work. We extend this by showing that one individual can inuence anothers face work without interaction or intention. Second, we extend literature in marketing that has shown that the mere presence of another shopper affects ones thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (e.g., Argo et al. 2005, 2006; Zhou and Soman 2003), by demonstrating that the actions of noninteracting others can also derail another normal shoppers impression management efforts. While we motivate our hypotheses using spontaneous trait transfer as an explanation for how stigmas are transferred to normal shoppers and suggest it occurs when similarity is high, the absence of explicit process measures prevents us from conclusively determining the underlying process. One of the difculties inherent in stigma research is the social desirability bias wherein people have a tendency to present themselves in a positive light (Tourangeau and Yan 2007). It has been suggested that there are two dimensions of social desirability: self-deception (the unconscious tendency to perceive oneself in a favorable light) and impression management (the conscious self-presentation of oneself designed for a specic audience; Paulhus 1984). Both of these conscious and unconscious efforts to project a positive impression can serve to obscure individuals stigmatized perceptions, leading to increased difculty in examining the process underlying SBA. Future research should seek to explore new methods such as the use of implicit measures to explore SBA. Further, in addition to empirically testing the possibility that SBA arises due to the misattribution of traits, future research is also needed to explore alternative mechanisms such as social contagion (Latane 2000), the halo effect (Thorndike 1920), or social distraction (Sanders, Baron, and Moore 1978) to determine their role in the elicitation of SBA. In the present research we focus on the notion that SBA is undesirable and that consumers require protection from its effects. Future research may seek to explore circumstances in which the stigmatization and SBA of negative behaviors may be desirable. Past social marketing campaigns that have used slogans such as friends dont let friends drink and drive and friends dont let friends smoke have spoofed traditional advertisements focus on the cool aspects of smoking (http:// www.wsd1.org/sargentpark/webquest/index.htm). What both of these social marketing campaigns have in common is that

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they have shifted from negatively focusing on the person engaged in the stigmatized behavior (i.e., drunk driving) to focusing on how others might be perceived for associating with those engaging in the behavior (i.e., you would be unwise to have friends who drink and drive or to associate with someone who smokes). Our research suggests that one way to augment the effectiveness of these campaigns may be to encourage individuals to realize that the impressions others form of them are not only inuenced by their own behavior but also affected by the actions of others in their social environment. There are a number of additional opportunities for future research. First, given the subtlety of coupon redemption as a stigmatized behavior, researchers could focus on the impact of more extreme forms of negative behavior such as binge eating (Faber et al. 1995), compulsive buying (OGuinn and Faber 1989), addiction (Hirschman 1992), and shoplifting (e.g., Cox, Cox, and Moschis 1990). Second, future research could determine the various types of overt and covert strategies consumers can engage in during coupon redemption to minimize SBA and the stigmas arising from the behavior. Third, while we limit the investigation on the impact of SBA to a nonredeeming consumer, future research could test whether such redemption has negative implications for store personnel such as cashiers. Finally, consistent with research on diffusion of responsibility (Latane and Darley 1968) researchers could investigate whether the presence of multiple other shoppers in the retail environment may assist in dissipating SBA. In conclusion, our unique use of multiple methods (i.e., eld studies and scenarios), participant samples (i.e., student and general consumer populations), and perspectives (i.e., the individuals who stigmatize and those who are stigmatized) in assessing SBA provides a stringent and compelling demonstration of both the prevalence of the effect in a coupon redemption situation and the identication of factors that protect normal shoppers. The present research is only a rst step in understanding the role of SBA, and there exist ample opportunities for future investigations.

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