VA Chap 2 WM

For free online lectures on electromagnetics and more information on this material visit www.electromagneticsmadeeasy.blogspot.com or email to lecture.emt@gmail.com, query.emt@gmail.
com
Electrostatics
Electric charges at rest Part-I

In this chapter we will learn how to calculate electric field for static charge distributions. Greeks were the first to observe electrical phenomena. They observed that a piece of amber when rubbed with fur or cat skin acquired the property of attracting small bits of paper and straw. Later on, Coulomb a French scientist conducted experiments using a torsion balance set up to study forces between charged objects. In the following sections we will describe Coulombs law and discuss about Gausss law and then see how potential is used to calculate electric field. For complete grasp of the above topics reader is advised to read section 2.1 to section 2.18 continuously without breaking any section or example in between. After reading upto section 2.18 the reader will be able to appreciate why there are three different methods, Coulombs law, Gauss Law and potential to calculate electric field for a given charge distribution.
2.1 Coulombs Law
i) ii)
is directly proportional to the product of their charges.
iii)
A source charge q is separated from the test charge Q by a distance r as shown in figure 2.1.
88
Copy righted material. No part of this material shall be reproduced in any form.
w.
el
is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the two charges and acts along the line joining the two charges. the nature of the medium in which the charged objects are situated.
ec
tr
Charles Augustin Coulomb, a French scientist using his torsion balance setup performed a series of experiments to study the nature of forces between two charged objects. The results obtained by Coulomb using his torsion balance setup is called Coulombs law. As per Coulombs law the force between two charges
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
For free online lectures on electromagnetics and more information on this material visit www.electromagneticsmadeeasy.blogspot.com or email to lecture.emt@gmail.com, query.emt@gmail.com
Chapter 2
Here r is the unit vector in the direction of F. k is the proportionality constant whose value depends on the medium in which the charges are situated, units in which force, charge and distance are expressed. Because in figure 2.1 the charges are like charges the forces are repulsive in nature. If the charges are unlike charges the forces are attractive in nature. In SI units force is measured in Newton, distance in metre and charge in Coulomb. The proportionality constant k is written as
F=
If the charges are not situated in vacuum but in a medium of permitivity , then = r . The force between the two charges is
= 8.8510-12 C2 N -1 m-2
F=
w.
el
Here is the absolute permittivity of free space whose value is given by
1 qQ r 4 r 2 1 qQ r 4 r r 2
ec
tr
1 qQ r 4 r 2
om
ag
So that equation 2.1 is
ne
ti
k=
1 4o
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
r2
ot
F= k
qQ
.c
...(2.1) ...(2.2) ...(2.3) ...(2.4)
F=
om
The force exerted by q on Q as per Coloumbs law is then
89
Electrostatics
Here r is the dielectric constant of the medium and is a dimensionless
quantity. For air and vacuum r=1.
2.2 Electric Field Intensity

The electric field intensity E is defined as the force exerted on a unit positive charge placed at that point in an electrostatic field. Here electrostatic field refers to the space surrounding an electrostatic charge where the electrostatic forces can be detected. F Q 1 q r 4 r 2
og
sp
...(2.5) ...(2.6)
The electric field produced by charge q in figure 2.1 is
90
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
E=
ee
as
Substituting equation 2.2 in equation 2.5
y.
bl
E=
ot
.c
om
Chapter 2
Consider figure 2.2. Point P is situated at a distance of r from the origin and charge q is situated at a distance of r from origin. The distance between q and point P is r. The electric field at point P is then E(r ) = 1 q r 4 r 2 ...(2.7)
where r = r r .
2.3 Electric Field Intensity Due to a Group of Discrete Point Charges
= F1 + F2 + F3 + ........ + Fn F
i=1
ad
ee
exerted by the charges q1, q2, q3.....qn on the test charge Q. The net force acting on charge Q is
as
y.
Consider a group of discrete point charges q1, q2, q3.....qn as shown in figure 2.3 exerting force on test charge Q. We are interested in calculating the force
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
...(2.8) ...(2.9)
Thus the net force acting on the test charge Q is found by calculating the force due to individual charges separately and then summing all the individual forces. However the addition is vector addition not a scalar addition. That is forces in equation 2.8 must be vectorically added [see section 1.1].
91
w.
el
ec
tr
om
by r i . by qi, r by ri and r
where the force Fi in the above equation is given by equation 2.3 replacing q
ag
ne
ti
F = Fi
cs
Electrostatics
From equation 2.9 F n Fi = Q i=1 Q
bl
og
sp
Now consider figure 2.4. We are interested in calculating the net electric field at point P.
ot
.c
i=1
om
E=
1 4
qi
r i2
ag
r i
ne
With the aid of equation 2.6, 2.11 can be written as
ti
Once again the sum in equation 2.11 is vector addition not scalar addition.
cs
i=1
ad
E = Ei
ee
as
y.
om
...(2.10) ...(2.11) ...(2.12)
2.4 Continuous Charge Distributions

In the previous section we defined the electric field intensity due to a group of discrete point charges. Now let us consider charges that are spread over space. There are three different continuous charge distributions as shown in figure 2.5.
w
1)
w.
el
Line Charge: Charge distributed over a line as shown in figure 2.5a. Mathematically we describe the line charge with symbol = dq dl ...(2.13)
where is charge per unit length. 2)

92
Surface Charge: Charge distributed over a surface as shown in
ec
tr
Chapter 2
ec
tr
figure 2.5b. Mathematically we describe the surface charge with symbol
where is charge per unit area. 3) Volume Charge: Charge is distributed over a volume as shown in figure 2.5c. Mathematically we describe volume charge with symbol
w.
el
dq ds
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
...(2.14)
dq d
sp
...(2.15) is charge per unit volume.
93
ot
.c
om
Electrostatics
For a small charge dq equation 2.6 can be written as
Edq = 1 dq r 4 r 2
...(2.16)
i)
el
Finally the total charge enclosed for the line charge is
ec
surface charge is q= tot
w.
q tot =
d l
tr
Equations 2.17, 2.18, 2.19 gives the electric field intensity at point corresponding to the charge distributions shown in figure 2.5a, 2.5b, 2.5c, respectively.
om
ag
ne
E=
1 4
r2
ti
cs
ad
iii)
For a volume charge dq= d . Substituting for dq in equation 2.16 and integrating over the entire volume ...(2.19)
ee
as
E=
1 4
ds r2
y.
bl
og
ii)
For a surface charge dq= ds . Substituting for dq in equation 2.16 and integrating over the entire surface S ...(2.18)
sp
ot
E=
1 4
r2
.c
d l
ds
and volume charge is
q tot=
94
om
For a line charge dq = d l . Substituting for dq in equation 2.16 and integrating over the entire line l ...(2.17)
...(2.20)
...(2.21)
...(2.22)
Chapter 2
In figure 2.5 we have used primed coordinates d l , ds , d instead of d l, ds, d. The above difference has been made in order to distinguish between source points where charge is located and field points where the field is calculated. For example in figure 2.5c within the volume all the points will be denoted with prime coordinates i.e., ( x , y , z ) because within the volume all the charge is located. However for points like in figure 2.5c we use unprimed coordinates (x, y, z) to denote that it is the point where field is calculated. Thus we use primed symbols for source points and unprimed symbols for field points. One must be careful enough to integrate with respect to either source points or field points where ever necessary.
Ex and Ey for the given charge distribution and substitute the values in the above equation to get E. However in calculating E for certain charge distributions like
Initially we will provide a note on calculating electric field E in two dimension in cartesian coordinates system. The points discussed here are valid in three dimensions and other coordinate systems. The electric field E in two dimensions in given by
E = E x i + Ey j While solving problems using Coulombs law it will be sufficient to calculate
w.
el
ec
2.6 Calculating Electric Field E Using Coulombs Law
tr
om
Equations (2.12), (2.17), (2.18), (2.19) calculate electric field vector E directly in terms of vector. The reader can observe that r is present in the equations mentioned above signifying that E is directly calculated in terms of a vector. We have already seen in section 1.1 and example 1.10 that vectors are very difficult to deal with. Hence, calculation of E using the above mentioned equations becomes complicated even for simple charge distributions. To circumvent this problem much easier methods to calculate E has been developed - Gausss law and potential formulation. As we will see, in Gauss law we use symmetry of the problem to calculate E easily, while in potential formulation we reduce the vector problem into a scalar problem so that E is calculated easily. This point will be more clear to the reader when the reader completes section 2.18.
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
2.5 A Note About Coulombs Law
og
sp
ot
.c
om
95
Electrostatics
the ones solved in example 2.4, 2.5, 2.7 either Ex or Ey might cancel out each other and the remaining component alone is to be calculated. But for certain charge distributions as shown in example 2.9, section 2.14 neither components will cancel out and hence Ex and Ey needs to be calculated separately. Whether the components will cancel out (or) get added up depends on the charge distribution and the point where the electric field is calculated. The above conclusions holds good for three dimensions and other coordinate systems.
same charges are separated by the same distance in mica (r= 6) what is the force of interaction? We know that F= 1 qQ 4 r 2
w.
el
But
1 1 = 9109 = -12 4 4(8.8510 )
ec
tr
om
F=
1 (510-9 ) (7 10-9 ) 4 (2510-2 )2
ag
ne
ti
Hence F =
) (7 10 (9109 ) (510 (25) 2
96
-9
cs
F = 0.50410-5 Newtons For Mica r = 6 F 0.50410-5 Hence Fmica = = r 6
ad
-5
ee
Solution:
as
y.
bl
og
Two charges of magnitude 510-9 Coulomb and 710-9 Coulomb are separated by 25 cm in vacuum. Find the force of interaction between them. If the
sp
ot
Example 2.1
.c
om
Chapter 2
Fmica = 8.410-7 Newtons. Example 2.2 A line charge = 5( y ) 4 nano coulomb/m is situated along y axis from 0 to 7 cm. Calculate the total charge.
Solution:
From equation 2.20 q tot =
q tot = 16.807 coulomb
In a circular disk of radius R charge density is given by = k(r ) 2 . Calculate the total charge.
Solution:

el
ec
From equation 2.21
tr
From figure 2.6 ds = r dr d

R 2 0 0
w.
q= tot
q tot Hence =
om
2 k(r ) r dr d
ag
ds
ne
ti
Example 2.3
cs
ad
q tot = 75 nano coulombs
ee
as
y.
q tot
( y )5 7 = 5( y ) dy = 5 5 0 0
7 4
bl
og
d l
sp
ot
.c
om
97
Electrostatics
Example 2.4
Solution:
2.8a. Let each charge q produce an electric field of Eq at point P as shown in figure
98
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
Two charges each having magnitutde q are separated by a distance 2a as shown in figure 2.7. Find the net electric field at point P.
ad
ee
as
k R 4 q tot = 2
y.
bl
og
q tot =2 k
R4 4
sp
ot
.c
om
Chapter 2
w.
The magnitude of electric field Eq produced by q at point P is Eq = 1 q 4 PB2
Resolving Eq into Eqx and Eqy in figure 2.8b we see that the x components Eqx cancel out each other while Eqy components add up. Hence, the net electric field at point P by the two charges each of magnitude q is given by
The line CPD shown in figure 2.8a is shown separately in figure 2.8b.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
99
Electrostatics

E = 2 Eq y j
From figure 2.8c cos ( 2 - ) = Eq y Eq
ec
tr
el
E= 2
w.
1 q 4 PB2
om
Substituting for Eq
ag
t +a
ne
E = 2 Eq
ti
cs
Substituting for sin in E
t t +a
2 2
= E Example 2.5
1 qt j 3 4 2 2 2 t + a
A line charge is present in the region a y a with a uniform line charge density as shown in figure 2.9. Calculate the electric field at point P at a distance t from point O, where O is the centre of the line charge?
100
ad
as PB2 = t 2 + a 2
ee
sin =
AP t = 2 PB t + a2
as
From figure 2.8a
y.
bl
og
E = 2 E q sin j
sp
Substituting for Eqy in E
ot
.c
E q y = E q sin
om
Chapter 2
Solution:
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
In order to calculate the electric field produced by the entire line charge let us divide the line charge into number of small strips each of length d l . Let us consider two strips d y each holding a charge d y as shown in figure 2.10. Let us calculate the electric field by these two strips initially and finally integrate between
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
101
Electrostatics
0 to a in order to calculate the net electric field produced by the line charge lying between a to a. The magnitude of electric field produced by single strip d y at point P as shown in figure 2.10 is Es = 1 d y 4 r 2 1 d y 4 ( y ) 2 + t 2
w.
t Es x = Es r
el
ec
tr
Es x =
om
cos =
Es x t = Es r
ag
t ( y ) 2 + t 2
Substituting the value of Esx in dE dE = 2 t ( y ) + t

2 2
102
ne
From figure 2.10 we can write
ti
Es
Es i
cs
dE = 2 Es x i
ad
other while Esx components add up. Let us denote the net electric field at point P due to the two strips as dE and dE is given by
ee
components as shown in figure 2.10 we see that Esy components cancel out each
Resolving the electric field Es due to the two strips into Esx and Esy
as
y.
bl
og
Es =
sp
ot
.c
om
Chapter 2
Substituting the value of Es in dE dE = 2 t ( y ) 2 + t 2 1 4 d y i 2 ( y ) 2 + t 2
This is the field produced by two line elements d y at point P. The field produced by the entire line charge at point P is E=
dE =
0
Two point charges q1=10 nanocoulombs and q2=20 nanocoulombs are located at (1, 1, 3) m and at (2, 3, 2) m respectively. Calculate the magnitude of force on q1 by q2.
Solution:
The distance between the two charges is r= (2 -1) 2 + (3 -1)2 + (2 - 3)3= 6m
w.
el
Example 2.6
ec
tr
om
E=
a i 2 2 t a + t
ag
ne
ti
t = 4
a y i 2 2 2 t ( y ) + t 0
cs
ad
ee
t 2
( y ) 2 + t 2
as
d y
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
1 t d y dE = 2 2 2 ( y ) + t
.c
om
103
Electrostatics
The force exerted by q2 on q1 is given by F= 1 (1010-9 ) (2010-9 ) r 4 ( 6) 2
w.
Now F =
Example 2.7 Charge is uniformly distributed on a circular disc of radius R. Calculate the electric field at point P at distance y from the center of the disc. Charge density on the surface of the disc is uniform.
104
el
= F
300 ) Newtons 109 ( i + 2 jk 6 300109 6 = 300109 Newtons 6
ec
tr
om
ag
r =
r i + 2 jk = r 6
ne
ti
and r = 1 + 4 + 1 = 6
cs
ad
r=
i + 2 jk
ee
as
y.
r = (2 -1) i + (3 -1) j + (2 - 3) k
bl
og
let us calculate the vector r pointing from q2 to q1 In order to find r
sp
ot
.c
F = 30010-9 r Newtons
om
is the unit vector pointing from q2 to q1 Here r
Chapter 2
Solution:
In order to calculate the electric field produced by the entire surface charge divide the surface of the entire disc into number of small surface elements ds . Let us consider two surface elements ds each holding a charge ds as shown in figure 2.11 a,b. Let us calculate the electric field due to these two surface elements ds initially and, finally integrate between 0 to , 0 to R in order to calculate net electric field produced by the entire disc. 1 ds 2 4 y + (r )2
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
Ee =
sp
ot
The electric field produced by the single surface element ds at point P is
.c
om
105
Electrostatics
Resolve Ee into Eex and Eey components as shown in figure 2.11b. Clearly
Eex components cancel out while Eey components add up. Let dE be the electric field produced by the two elements at point P. Then as per the above discussion cos = dE = 2 E ey j
From figure 2.11 b E ey Ee = y y 2 + (r )2 y y 2 + (r ) 2 Ee
ag
Substituting for Ee in dE dE = 2
Now the field produced by the entire disc is then E = =
y d s dE = 2 2 y + (r )
el
ec
tr
om
y 2 + (r ) 2
ne
ti
y + (r ) 2
w.
dE
y 2
ds y 2 + (r ) 2
cs
dE = 2
Ee
1 ds j 4 y 2 + (r ) 2
3
106
ad
Substituting the value of Eey in dE
ee
as
y.
E ey =
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
Chapter 2
y 2
R 0 0
E=
r dr d y 2 + (r )2
r1 = 2 i + 4k
The electric field of 1 ncoulomb charge at point P is E1 =
Now r1 = 4 + 16 = 20 r1 2 i + 4k = r1 20
w.
el
ec
r 1 =
tr
om
1 1109 r 1 2 4 r1
ag
r2 = 1 j + 4k
ne
ti
The position vector of 2 ncoulomb charge with respect to point P is
cs
ad
The position vector of 1 ncoulomb charge with respect point P is
ee
Solution:
as
y.
A 1 ncoulomb charge is situated at (2, 0, 0) m and 2 ncoulomb charge is situated at (0, 1, 0) m. Find the electric field at point P whose coordinates are (0, 0, 4)m.
bl
og
sp
Example 2.8
ot
.c
y 1 = E j 2 2 2 y + R
om
107
Electrostatics
Hence, E1 = ) 1 1109 (-2 i + 4k 4 20 20
E1 = 0.20125 i + 0.4025 k
Consider figure 2.12. As shown the electric field produced by q1 is acting along x axis and is given by
The electric field produced by q3 is acting along y axis and is given by

108
w.
Solution:
el
Three charges of magnitude q1, q2, q3 are situated at the three corners of a square of side b. Calculate the net electric field produced at the fourth corner of the square.
E1 = E1 i
E3 = E3 j
ec
tr
om
ag
Example 2.9
ne
E= 0.20125 i 0.2568 j +1.4295 k
ti
cs
) + (0.2568 ) E = E1 + E2 = (0.20125 i + 0.4025 k j +1.027 k
ad
The net electric field at point P is
ee
as
E2 = 0.2568 j +1.027 k
y.
bl
E2 = (9109 )
) (2109 ) ( j + 4k (17) 17
og
sp
ot
r 2 =
r2 j + 4k = r2 17
.c
om
Now r2 =
1+16=
17
Chapter 2
The electric field produced by q2 is along the diagonal and is denoted as E2. The net electric field at point O is given by E = E1 + E2 + E3
Thus E = E1 i + E2x i + E2 y j + E3 j
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
E = (E1 + E 2 x ) i + (E 2 y + E3 ) j
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
E2 = E 2 x i + E2 y j
ot
.c
To find E we need to resolve E2 into its x and y components as shown in figure 2.12b
om
109
Electrostatics
Example 2.10 Three charges shown in figures (2.13) are in equilibrium. Find the value of a.
Solution:
In the lower classes the reader would have learnt about ordinary angle which is angle in two dimensions. The ordinary angle is shown in figure 2.14a. It is the angle between two lines. In figure 2.14a it is the angle between line OA and OB.
When is in radians = l r
where l is the arc length and OA = OB = r in figure 2.14a. As we increase OA, OB in figure 2.14b to OA1, OB1, remains the same.
110
w.
el
ec
2.7 Solid angle
tr
om
a = 1.5339 mm
ag
ne
a2 =
(27) (12) (20) (27) (102)
ti
cs
a2
ad
(27) (12)
(27) (102) (12) (102) = 20 (20 - a) 2
ee
For the charges to be in equilibrium
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
Chapter 2
Thus the ordinary angle is the angle in two dimensions. Solid angle is the angle in three dimensions. Take a plain sheet of paper and rotate it in the form of cone as shown in figure 2.15. The angle subtended is the solid angle. The solid angle is denoted by . Now consider figure 2.16a. We have shown solid circle along with x, y, z axis. Now in figure 2.16a AB is area. The solid angle is given by = Area AB r2
111
w.
el
l r = = = r r
ec
tr
Similarly for a semicircle l = r
om
ag
l 2r = = 2 r r
ne
ti
As we increase l it finally forms a circle as shown in figure 2.14c. For a circle l = 2r.
cs
l l That is = = 1 [OA1 = OB1 = r1] r r1
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
Electrostatics
112
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
Area AB Area A1 B1 = = [OA1 = OB1 = r1] 2 r2 r1
ne
ti
cs
From figure 2.16a as r is increased to r1 in figure 2.16b still remains constant
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
Chapter 2
As the area AB is increased and closed finally, we get a sphere as shown in figure 2.16c. For a sphere the surface area is 4r 2 . Hence for a sphere solid angle is = Area AB r2 = 4r 2 r2 = 4
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
r2
ot
2r 2
= 2
.c
om
For a hemisphere surface area is 2r 2 . Thus solid angle for hemisphere is
113
Electrostatics
For a sphere we have seen that the solid angle is 4. Although we have derived for the case of sphere the result holds good for any closed surface. That is, the solid angle substended by any closed surface is 4. Now consider figure 2.17. Let area BC be S. From figure 2.17 it is clear that AB is the projection of BC. Hence from section 1.12 we can write Area AB = Area BCcos Area AB = Scos Area AB r
2
Consider an arbitrary surface S which is enclosing a charge q as shown in figure 2.18a. Let E be the electric field produced by q as shown in figure 2.18a. r is the is the unit vector in the direction of E. Consider a small strip of area ds and n is . and r unit vector normal to ds. The angle between n
114
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
In this section we will prove Gausss law and later we will see how Gausss law simplifies the calculation of electric field as compared to Coulombs law.
ad
ee
2.8 Gausss Law
as
y.
bl
Scos r2
og
sp
...(2.25)
Substituting 2.24 in solid angle
ot
.c
om
...(2.23) ...(2.24)
Chapter 2
The flux passing through the small surface ds is
= E .ds
= E.ds
S
...(2.26)
The total flux passing through the closed surface S is ...(2.27)
[Reader should note that we are using unprimed symbols instead of primed symbols because we are dealing with field points]. 4 r 2
Substituting the above equations in equation 2.27
om
But from figure 2.18b and using equation 2.25
where d is the solid angle as shown in figure 2.18b. But because the solid angle subtended by any closed surface is 4. Hence,
el
ec
Total flux =
ag
ne
Total flux =
q 4
ti
cs
are unit vectors the dot product r = cos . Thus Because r , n . n
ds cos r2
ad
E.ds = 4
r2
ee
ds r .n
as
y.
bl
og
...(2.28) ...(2.29)
But E =
r , ds = ds n
q 4
tr
sp
d = 4
...(2.30)
w.
E.ds = 4
4 =
Suppose the charge q is situated outside the surface S as shown in figure 2.19. Consider two small strips ds1 and ds2. At surface ds1 the electric field is
ot
.c
om
115
Electrostatics
-qd 4o
ec
2 hence the flux at ds is At ds2 the E is pointing in the same direction of n 2
Hence the net flux through the elements ds1 and ds2 is =qd qd + =0 4 4
The above fact is true for any cone drawn through the surface S in figure 2.19. Thus if the charge is lying outside the surface the net flux enclosed by the surface due to the charge is zero.
116
w.
el
tr
om
small strip ds1 and not the entire surface S]. qd 4
ag
[Here we need not integrate because we are considering only
ne
ti
cs
ad
1 , the unit vector normal to ds . Hence flux at ds is [using pointing opposite to n 1 1 equation 2.30]
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
Chapter 2
In figure 2.18 if the charge is situated in a medium of dielectric constant 1 then the flux is
E.ds = r
...(2.31)
Here E is the net electric field due to all charges
w.
q enc = d
el
ec
From equation 2.22 ...(2.36)
assuming that a volume charge densits is enclosed in surface S in figure 2.18. is the volume enclosed by surface S in figure 2.18. In equation 2.36 we use unprimed symbol instead of primed symbol because we are dealing with field points.
With aid of Gauss divergence theorem
E.ds = . E d
S
tr
q1, q2 ......qn.
om
and (Flux)1, (Flux)2, ..... (Flux)n are the fluxes through the surface S due to charges
ag
where q1+ q2+ ........+ qn = qenc is the total charge enclosed by the surface S
ne
ti
E.ds = S
cs
q enc
ad
E.ds =
S
q1 + q 2 + q3 + ..... + q n
as
y.
bl
1 2 n E.ds = + + ....... +
og
sp
Total flux = (flux)1 + (flux)2 + ...... + (flux)n
.c
charges q1, q2, q3.........qn then told flux enclosed by the surface S is
om
In figure 2.18 instead of one charge if the surface S encloses n number of ...(2.32) ...(2.33)
ot
ee
...(2.34)
...(2.35)
...(2.37)
117
Electrostatics
Substituting equations 2.37, 2.36 in equation 2.35
. E d =
...(2.38)
Equation 2.40 tells us the fact divergence of the electric field produced by a static charge distribution is non zero. Recall that divergence means spreading out. Equation 2.40 says that the electric field of a static charge distribution spreads out. For example we sketch the electric field of a point charge in figure 2.20a and see that electric field spreads out.
118
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
2.9 Sketches of Field Lines
ad
law.
ee
The above form of Gausss law is called differential or point form of Gausss
as
y.
. E =
bl
og
sp
. E d =
ot
.c
The above integration considers a small volume d and then integrates over the entire volume . Equation 2.38 is valid even for the small volume d. In that case we need not integrate. Hence,
om
...(2.39) ...(2.40)
Chapter 2
We have sketched the electric field in figure 2.20a in terms of vectors. However instead of sketching the field in terms of vectors as in figure 2.20a we can sketch the field in terms of field lines as shown in figure 2.20b. Few important points to be noted in the case of field lines are a) b) Field lines do not cross each other, otherwise electric field would have two different directions at that point. Field lines start on positive charge and end on negative charge as shown in figure 2.21a otherwise, they extend to infinity as shown in figure 2.21b.
One of the examples in which we used field lines is in defining flux in section 1.12 and utilising it in deriving Gauss law in section 2.8.
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
119
Electrostatics
2.10 Curl of E
Consider a point charge q situated at origin as shown in figure 2.22. The electric field at point P is given by E= E= q 1 r 4 r 2 q 1 r 4 r 2 r
w.
el
From figure 2.22
r = x i + y j+ zk r = x2 + y 2 + z 2
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
...(2.42) ...(2.43) Substituting equation 2.43, 2.42 in 2.41 E= x q i + y j+ zk 3 4 2 2 2 2 x + y + z ...(2.44)
120
sp
ot
.c
om
...(2.41)
Chapter 2
E= x q i 3 4 2 2 2 2 x + y + z y q j 3 4 2 2 2 2 x +y +z z q k 3 4 2 2 2 2 x + y + z
ot bl og sp
.c
...(2.45) ...(2.46) ...(2.47) ...(2.48) ...(2.49)
E = Ex i + Ey j + Ez k where Ex =
w.
el
ec
Ez =
tr
Ey =
q y 3 4 2 2 2 2 x y z + +
om
q z 3 4 2 2 2 2 x + y + z
ag
q x 3 4 2 2 2 2 x + y + z
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
om
121
Electrostatics
We know that i E = x Ex j y Ey k z Ez
E y
q y = 4 z 2 z 2 2 x +y +z
el
ec
E z -3q zy = y 4 2 2 2 x +y +z
ne
ag
ti
E z q z = y 4 y 2 2 2 x +y +z
3 2
cs
5 2 3 2
ad
ee
as
E E y z z y
bl
og
Let us calculate
sp
...(2.51) ...(2.52) ...(2.53)
E y E E E y E x E z z k - x j + = i + x y z x y z
.c ot
w.
tr
om
-3q yz = 4 2 2 2 x +y +z
5 2
122
y.
om
...(2.50)
Chapter 2
Now E E y z y z -3q zy = 4 2 2 2 x +y +z 3q + 5 4 2 yz 2 2 2 x +y +z 5 2
E = 0
om
ag
Substituting equations 2.54, 2.55, 2.56 in equation 2.50 ...(2.57) Thus curl of E is zero. Suppose there are number of charges each producing E E1 + E2 + ...... + En = E1 = 0 E2 = 0 ................. En = 0 for individual charges.
123
el
the field E1, E3,......En then from equation 2.11
ec
tr
ne
ti
E y
E x =0 y
cs
ad
E x E z =0 z x
ee
as
Similarly
y.
bl
E E y z = 0 z y
og
sp
ot
...(2.54) ...(2.55) ...(2.56) ...(2.58) ...(2.59)
With the help of equation 2.57 we see that
w.
.c
om
Electrostatics
Thus for the net electric field E due to all charges given in equation 2.58 E = E1 + E2 + ......... + En From equation 2.59 then E = 0 ...(2.61) The above equation is true for any static charge distribution. Recall that curl is a measure of circulation or rotation. E = 0 says that electric fields due to static charges do not circulate about. Electric fields due to static charges are irrotational fields. ...(2.60)
(- V) = 0
ag
ne
From example 1.9, curl gradient of any scalar is zero. Hence, ...(2.63) Here V is a scalar quantity and is known as electric potential. The inclusion of the negative sign in the above equation will be explained later. E = - V
el
Comparing equations 2.62 and 2.63 ...(2.64) ...(2.65)
w.
V = - E.d l
R
Where R the reference point is the zero of the potential i.e., where we fix the potential to be zero and P is the point where the potential V is calculated. We will learn more about point R in future sections. For the time being let us fix the zero of the potential at .
124
ec
tr
om
ti
E = 0
cs
From equation 2.61
ad
In this section we will derive expression for potential. In the later sections we will see how potential simplifies the calculation of electric field as compared to Coulombs law.
ee
as
y.
2.11 Potential of Discrete and Continuous Charge Distributions
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
...(2.62)
Chapter 2
Hence V = - E .d l
P
...(2.66)
Consider figure 2.23. The potential at is zero. Charge q is located at origin. The point P lies at a distance r from charge q.
From equations 2.67, 2.68
w.
el
ec
E.d l =
q 4
tr
om
1 .(dr r ) r 2 r
ag
d l = dr r
ne
From figure 2.23
ti
cs
E=
1 q r 4 r 2
ad
In figure 2.23
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
...(2.67)
.c
...(2.68) ...(2.69)
E.d l =
q 1 dr 4 r 2
om
...(2.70) Substituting the equation 2.70 in equation 2.66 V = - q 1 dr 2 4 r
r
...(2.71)
125
Electrostatics
V =V=
r q -1 4 r
...(2.72)
q 1 4 r
...(2.73)
w.
Equation 2.73 holds good for figure 2.23 where the point charge q lies at origin. In general the point charge q need not lie in origin as shown in figure 2.24. For such situations the potential is given by
If there is a collection of n number of point charges as shown in figure 2.4 then the total potential at point P can be calculated as follows. From equation 2.11 the net electric field at point P in figure 2.4 is E = E1 + E2 + ....... + En ...(2.75)
126
V=
q 1 4 r
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
...(2.74)
ot
.c
The negative sign in equation 2.63 was selected to make the potential of the positive charge come out positive.
om
Chapter 2
Integrating
E.d l = E1 .d l1 + E2 .d l 2 + ........ + En . d ln

...(2.76) ...(2.77)
For continuous charge distributions shown in figure 2.5 a, b, c the potential is
V=
el
For surface charge in figure 2.5b
ec
V=
1 4o
w.
tr
1 4
d l r
om
ag
For line charge in figure 2.5a ...(2.80)
ds r
ne
ti
cs
the distances of charges q1, q2,q3......qn upto point P respectively in figure 2.4.
point P in figure 2.4 is given by equations 2.77, 2.78, 2.79. Here r1, r2, r3......rn are
ad
ee
Thus when there are collection of point charges in figure 2.4 the potential at
as
V=
1 4
i=1
y.
qn rn
bl
og
sp
V=
1 q1 1 q2 1 qn + + ............ + 4 r1 4 r2 4 rn
ot
.c
...(2.78) ...(2.79) ...(2.81) ...(2.82) ...(2.83)
127
using equation 2.74 we get
For volume charge in figure 2.5c V= 1 4
d r
For a point charge situated at origin in figure 2.22 E from equation 2.46 is E = Ex i + Ey j + Ez k
om
V = V1 + V2 + ........ + Vn
Electrostatics
Where the components Ex, Ey, Ez are given by equations 2.47, 2.48, 2.49. For a point charge situated in origin in figure 2.23 the potential is given by equation 2.73 V= 1 q 1 = 4 r 4 q x2 + y 2 + z 2
2.25c. The mass of the object along x, y, z axis is m, not mx, my, mz, because mass is a scalar quantity. If the mass of the object is 50kg it will be always 50kg along x, y, z axis. Similarly the potential V is a scalar and hence along x, y, z axis its value
split up into three components Ex, Ey, Ez.
is V and not Vx, Vy, Vz. However the electric field E is a vector and hence it can be Hence if you are using Coulombs law directly, to calculate electric field then you have to work with three components Ex, Ey, Ez. Hence you have to fuss with direction. However if you are working with potential you are working with
128
w.
el
Vx, Vy, Vz. To make this point further clear consider an object of mass m in figure
ec
Electric field E is a vector and hence can be resolved into components as shown in figure 2.25a. However the potential at point P in figure 2.25b is V and does not have components. That is along x, y, z axis the potential is V, not
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
As we see there are no components for V because V is a scalar. Vectors alone have components. Scalars dont have components. This point has been discussed in detail in section 1.9.
ot
.c
om
Chapter 2
only one component V alone and need not bother about direction because along x, y, z directions the value is V alone. This makes working with potential V, easy as compared to working with E directly. Once V has been found then E can be calculated using the relation E = -V The way in which potential simplifies calculation of electric field as compared to Coulombs law will be more clear to the reader when the reader goes through section 2.18. A final point. The potentials calculated in equations 2.80, 2.81, 2.82 will tend to infinity if the charge distribution itself extends to infinity. In that case we select a suitable different reference point.
2)
That is
w.
el
ec
1)
On the Gaussian surface E.ds = E ds cos can be easily evaluated. On the Gaussian surface E cos is constant so that in the integral E.ds , E cos can be pulled out. ...(2.84)
E.ds = E cos ds
Because E cos is constant over Gaussian surface
E cos ds = E cos
tr
Our aim is to calculate E using the above equation. However E is inside the integral. If we want to calculate E using the above equation then E must be taken out of the integral. For this, for a given charge distribution we construct a imaginary Gaussian surface such that the following conditions are satisfied.
om
ag
ne
ti
E.ds =
q enc
ds
cs
ad
We know that Gausss law is
ee
2.12 Calculating Electric Field Using Gauss law and Potential
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
...(2.85)
129
Electrostatics
Now ds , the calculation of area of the Gaussian surface is simple mathematics. Thus from Gauss law
E.ds =
q enc
E = -V
2.13 Electric Field Due to an Infinite Line of Charge

Consider an infinite uniform line charge present along y axis as shown in figure 2.26. The charge per unit length of the line charge is . Let us calculate the electric field at pont P which is situated at a distance of r from point O as shown in
130
In the following sections we will calculate the electric field by using Coulombs law, Gausss law and potential for different charge distributions and compare the results and methods.
w.
el
ec
tr
Then the alternative method to calculate E is by calculating potential initally and then determining E using the relation
om
ag
If for a given charge distribution, a Gaussian surface cannot be constructed such that E.ds cannot be easily evaluated (or) if E cos is not constant over Gaussian surface, then E cannot be pulled out of the integral. In such situations calculation of E using Gausss law becomes difficult.
ne
ti
cs
Hence from the above equation E can be easily calculated.
ad
ee
E=
q enc 1 cos ds
as
y.
bl
E cos ds =
q enc
og
sp
...(2.87) ...(2.88)
Because E cos is constant over Gaussian surface
ot
.c
E ds cos =
q enc
om
...(2.86)
Chapter 2
and Esy we see that, Esy components cancel out each other while Esx components add up. Let the net electric field at point P due to the two strips be dE. The dE is given by dE = 2 Es x i ...(2.89)
131
Let us divide the entire line charge into small strips dy and consider only two strips as shown in figure 2.26. Each strip holds a charge of dy . Let us initially calculate the electric field due to these two strips. Finally we integrate to calculate the net electric field at point P due to the entire line charge.
Resolving the electric field Es due to each strip into x and y components Esx
w.
el
ec
a) Using Coulombs Law
tr
om
figure 2.26. Now let us calculate the electric field at point P using Coulombs law, Gauss law, potential formulation.
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
Electrostatics
From figure 2.26 cos = Es x Es ...(2.90) ...(2.91)
Es x = Es cos Substituting 2.91 in 2.89 dE = 2 Es cos i
.c y. bl og sp ot m ad ee as ti cs ne
The electric field Es produced by the single element is given by Es = 1 d y 4 r 2 ...(2.93)
From figure 2.26
y = r tan dy = r sec 2 d and r = r cos
w.
el
Substituting equation 2.97 in 2.92 dE = 2. 1 d cos i 4 r ...(2.98)
132
Es =
1 d 4 r
ec
Es =
1 r sec 2 d cos 2 2 4 r
tr
om
Substituting equations 2.95, 2.94 in 2.93 ...(2.96)
ag
om
...(2.92) ...(2.94) ...(2.95) ...(2.97)
Chapter 2
The field produced by the entire line charge at point P is 1 E= 2 r
cos d i
...(2.99)
w.
E.ds =
L E.ds + E.ds + E.ds = o End Curved End face1 face face 2
el
The first step is to get the feel of the field. In figure 2.26 we see that only x components survive, while y components cancel out. Hence the field of the infinite line charge looks radial as shown in figure 2.27a. Next step is to construct a Gaussian surface, keeping in mind that evaluation of E.ds must be easy and E cos must be constant over the Gaussian surface. A little thought shows that the cylindrical Gaussian surface satisfies the above requirement. So we construct the cylindrical Gaussian surface as shown in figure 2.27b. The Gaussian surface is an imaginary surface. Let r and L be the radius and length of the cylindrical Gaussian surface. Applying Gausss law to the cylindrical Gaussian surface
ec
tr
q enc o ...(2.102)
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
In figure 2.27 we show the infinite line of charge. We have to calculate field due to infinite line of charge by applying Gausss law.
ad
ee
b) Using Gausss law
as
y.
E=
i 2o r
og
sp bl
E=
1 i [sin ] 0 2 2 r
ot
.c
In the above integration we are integrating from point O to , only half of the entire line charge because we are considering strips on two sides. For the point O the angle is zero. For the infinite point, as y the angle 2 . Hence
om
...(2.100) ...(2.101)
133
Electrostatics
Hence equation 2.102 is
w.
el
ec
At the end faces the angle between E and ds is 90 and at the curved surface the angle between E, ds is zero degrees
tr
om
where qenc = L is the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface. End face 1, 2 and curved face of the cylindrical Gaussian surface are shown in figure 2.27b.
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
L o
og
sp w
End face1
ot
E ds cos90 + E ds cos 0 + E ds cos90 =
Curved face End face 2
134
.c
om
...(2.103)
Chapter 2
As cos 90 = 0, cos 0 = 1 equation 2.103 is
E ds =
Curved face
L o
...(2.104)
While calculating electric field using Coulombs law the Ey components cancelled out as shown in figure 2.26 and hence the difficulty involved in calculating electric field using Coulombs law is less obvious in the above example. However future examples will show that Gausss law eases out the calculation of electric field as compared to Coulombs law. Let us redraw figure 2.26 as shown in figure 2.28. Let us calculate the potential at point P in figure 2.28 due to a small element dy which carries a charge of dy . We have
c) Using Potential
w.
el
V=
1 dy 4o r
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
E=
2r o
cs
E(2rL) =
L o
ad
ee
Curved face
as
Now
ds
is the area of the curved face which is equal to 2rL. Hence
y.
bl
og
Curved face
sp ti
ds =
L o
ot
.c
...(2.105) ...(2.106) ...(2.107) ...(2.108)
hence
om
From figure 2.27b it is clear that E is constant over the curved surface and
135
Electrostatics
The total potential due to the entire line charge is V= 1 4o d y r -
...(2.109)
2 2 V= l n y + ( y ) + r - 4o V=
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
...(2.111) As previously mentioned if the charge distribution extends to infinity then the potential calculated using equation 2.80 goes to infinity. However we can calculate the potential difference between two points. We have
136
ot
1 V= 4o
( y ) + r
.c
d y
om
From figure 2.28 r 2 = ( y ) 2 + r 2 . Hence
...(2.110)
Chapter 2
V=
2 2 y ( y ) r + + l n 4o -
...(2.112)
The above equation can be written as V = lim 4o

t 2 2 l n y ( y ) r + + -t
2 ro t + 2 2 2t ln Vo = lim 2 ro t 4 o 2t 2
w.
el
ec
Consider a reference point ro. The potential at the reference point ro is
tr
om
r2 t 2 + 2 2t V = lim ln 2 t 4o r 2 2t
ad
r 2 r + t t 1 + 2 2t
2 2
ee
as
y.
For t >> r we have
bl
og
t + r2 + t2 V = lim l n t 4 o -t + r 2 + t 2
ot sp
.c
...2.(114)
om
...(2.113)
ag
ne
ti
cs
...(2.115)
...(2.116)
r2 2 t 2 + r o 2 2 2t 2t V - Vo = lim . ln 2 r 2 t 4 o r o t 2+ 2 2t 2 2t
...(2.117)
137
Electrostatics
r2 2 + 2 2 2t ro V - Vo = lim l n 2 . 2 r t r o 2 + 2 2t
...(2.118)
E=
w.
el
2o r
ec
tr
E=
1 1 r 2o r ro o
om
ag
E=
r l n r 4o ro
ne
ti
cs
E = -(V - Vo ) = -
(V - Vo ) r
ad
ee
Now the electric field is
as
y.
V - Vo =
r l n 2o ro
og
sp bl
...(2.120) ...(2.121) ...(2.122) ...(2.123) ...(2.124)
V - Vo =
r2 ln o 4o r 2
.c
...(2.119)
Applying the limit
Why we are using potential difference instead of potential, to calculate E and what is the physical significance of the reference point, will be clear to the reader in future sections.
138
ot
om
Chapter 2
2.14 Electric Field Due to the Finite Line of Charge

Consider a uniformly charged wire of length L, the charge per unit length being . Let us calculate the electric field at point P as shown in figure 2.29. The coordinates of point P is (x, y). Let us divide the entire line of charge into small elements d x each carrying a charge of d x . We will calculate the field produced by the small element d x and then integrate over the entire length to get the field of the entire line charge. The point of intersection of point P on the line charge is at a distance of x from one end of the line charge and the element d x is situated at a distance of x from origin O as shown in figure 2.29. The electric field produced by the element d x is dE. Let us resolve dE into x and y components dEx, dEy respectively. From figure 2.29 we can write
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
dE x =
1 d x cos 4o r 2
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
...(2.125)
139
Electrostatics
But from figure 2.29 r 2 = y 2 + ( x - x ) 2 cos = x - x y + ( x - x ) 2
2
...(2.126) ...(2.127)
Substituting equations 2.126, 2.127 in 2.125

dE x = 1 d x 4o y 2 + ( x - x ) 2 ( x - x ) y 2 + ( x - x ) 2
dE x =
L is
The x component of the electric field due to the entire line of charge of length 4o
ti
Ex =
dE y =
w.
Now let us calculate the y-component 1 d x sin 4o r 2 ...(2.132)
From figure 2.29

sin = y y + ( x - x ) 2
2
el
ec
1 1 2 2 2 2 4o y + ( x - L) x + y
om
ag
y 2 + ( x - x ) 2
ne
Ex =
( x - x )dx
cs
ad
ee
1 ( x - x ) dx 3 4o 2 2 2 ( ) + y x x
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
...(2.128) ...(2.129) ...(2.130) ...(2.131) ...(2.133)
tr

140
as
y.
om
Chapter 2
dE y = 1 d x . 4o y 2 + ( x - x ) 2 y y 2 + ( x - x ) 2
...(2.134)
L- x + Ey = 4o y y 2 + ( x - L)2
y 2 + L2 x
ee
as
y.
y Ey = 4o
L 0 2
y + ( x - x )
3 2 2
bl
d x
og
sp
...(2.136)
L is
The y component of the electric field due to the entire line of charge of length
ot
.c
...(2.137) ...(2.138)
point P the Ey components cancel out each other leaving only Ex components. Now let us consider the infinite line of charge as shown in figure 2.30b. In this case because the line of charge is infinite, for each line element d x there will be always opposite line element d x such that Ey components cancel out and Ex
Initially we show a line charge with two elements d x in figure 2.30a. At
w.
Step one is to plot the electric field or to get a feel of the field. For comparison purposes let us sketch the field due to the finite and infinite line of charge.
el
ec
tr
b) Using Gausss Law
om
where Ex and Ey are given by equation 2.131 and 2.137 respectively.
ag
ne
E = E x i + E y j
ti
The net electric field at point P due to the entire line charge is then given by
cs
ad
om
dE y =
1 y d x 3 4o 2 2 2 ( ) + y x x
...(2.135)
141
Electrostatics
components alone adds. Hence either it be point P or P1 or P2 or any other point in figure 2.30b the field is always radial as shown in figure 2.30b because at every point in figure 2.30b the Ey components will cancel out and Ex components will add up. Hence radial components are alone present in figure 2.30b. Hence we were able to construct a cylindrical Gaussian surface in figure 2.27b such that the electric field E.ds can be easily evaluated for the cylindrical Gaussian surface and also E is constant over the cylindrical Gaussian surface. Thus using Gauss law we calculated E for infinite line of charge in section 2.13b. P the Ey components cancel out and Ex components are alone present. Thus field at
142
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
the same direction. But at points like P1, P2, E makes an angle with ds as shown in
ee
will not cancel out. Hence the field will not be radial at points like P1 and P2 as shown in figure 2.30c. Now let us construct a cylindrical Gaussian surface for the finite line of charge as shown in figure 2.31. Clearly at points like P E, ds are in
as
y.
bl
point P in figure 2.30c is radial. However at point like P1 and P2 the Ey components
og
sp
Now let us consider finite line of charge. In figure 2.30c we see that at point
ot
.c
om
Chapter 2
Hence at the edges or at any other point where E, ds are at some angle to each other evaluation of E.ds is difficult over the entire Gaussian surface. Even if we some how manage to calculate E.ds, E cos is not constant over the Gaussian surface and hence taking E cos out of the integral E.ds = E cos ds becomes difficult. It is still true that over the cylindrical Gaussian surface
w.
E.ds =
But however evaluation of E.ds and taking E cos out of the integral E.ds is difficult. Hence using Gausss law to calculate electric field in the above case finite line of charge, becomes tedious. Instead of selecting a cylindrical Gaussian
el
ec
tr
q enc o
om
figure 2.31. Thus at edges of the cylindrical Gaussian surface E, ds have different directions.
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
143
Electrostatics
The same is true for any charge distribution. For a given charge distribution if we are interested in using Gausss law to calculate E, then we must be able to construct a Gaussian surface such that E.ds must be evaluated easily and E cos must be constant over Gaussian surface so that E cos can be pulled out of E.ds . If we are unable to construct a Gaussian surface which satisfies the above requirement then Gausss law cannot be easily applied to calculate E. It is q enc still true that E.ds = over the Gaussian surface, but Gauss law is not useful o in calculating E.
144
w.
el
ec
Thus we have seen using Gauss law evaluation of E, for a finite line of charge is very difficult.
tr
om
surface we can select a Gaussian surface of different shape. However until E.ds can be easily evaluated and E cos can be taken out of the integral E.ds , easy evaluation of E using Gausss law is not possible.
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
Chapter 2
c) Using potential The potential at point P in figure 2.29 due to the element d x which carries a charge of d x is dV = 1 d x 4o r ...(2.139)
Ex = 4o
w.
el
ec
tr
Ex =
-V -1 -1 x- L x = sin h sin h 40 x x y y
1 1 1 1 2 2 y y x - L x +1 +1 y y
om
ag
Now let us calculate electric field components ...(2.143)
ne
V=
4o
x - L sin h-1 - sin h-1 y
cs
Integrating
ad
ee
V=
4o
y 2 + ( x - x ) 2
as
d x
y.
bl
og
sp
x y
V=
1 4o
d x r
ot
...(2.140) ...(2.141)
.c
The potential at point P due to the entire line of charge in figure 2.29 is
om
ti
...(2.142)
...(2.144)
145
Electrostatics
1 1 2 2 4o ( x - L) 2 + y 2 x + y ...(2.145)
Ex =
Now the Ey component is Ey = x -V -1 x - L - sin h-1 = sin h 4o y y y y -x 1 y x2 +1 y2
L- x x + Ey = 4o y ( x - L)2 + y 2 x 2 + y 2
ad
ee
-1 x-L Ey = 2 4o ( x - L) 2 y +1 y2
og
sp
...(2.147) ...(2.148) ...(2.149)
Where Ex, Ey the components are given by equations 2.145, 2.148.
2.15 Electric Field Along the Axis of a Uniformly Charged Circular Disc
Consider a circular disc of radius R on which charge is uniformly distributed with surface charge density . Let us calculate the electric field at point P at a distance y from the center of the disc as shown in figure 2.32.
146
w.
el
ec
tr
om
E = Ex i + Ey j
ag
Now E is given by
ne
ti
cs
as
y.
bl
ot
.c
om
...(2.146)
Chapter 2
a) Using Coulombs Law We have calculated the electric field for the above problem in example 2.7 using Coulombs law.
b) Using Gausss Law In figure 2.33 field distribution for a uniformly charged disc at few points is shown. Clearly construction of a Gaussian surface (over which E.ds can be easily evaluated) is not that easy. Hence for similar reasons mentioned in section 2.14b Gauss law is not useful here in calculating E. Let us calculate the electric field at point P in figure 2.32 using potential. Consider a surface element ds situated at a distance of r from point P. The potential due to the surface element at point P is given by
c) Using Potential
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
147
Electrostatics
bl
V=
ds = r dr d
ee
From figure 2.32
as
y.
1 4o
ds r
og
sp
...(2.150)
ot el ec tr
V= 1 4o
.c om
2 R
ag

0 R 0
r dr d y 2 + (r ) 2 r dr
ne
r = y 2 + (r )2
ti
cs
ad
V=
2 4o
w.
y + (r )2
V=
2 2 y + R - y 2 o 2 2 y R y + 2 o
E = -V = - i + j x y
148
om
...(2.151) ...(2.152) ...(2.153) ...(2.154) ...(2.155) ...(2.156)
Chapter 2
As
V =0 x
E=-
E=
y 1 j 2 2 2 o R + y
.c m ad ee as y. bl og sp ot
om
...(2.158) ...(2.159) ...(2.160)
149
2 y + R 2 - y j y 2 o
...(2.157)
Note:
Integration here is carried from 0 to 2 for , that is over the entire disc because we consider only one surface element ds . In example 2.7 we carry out integration from 0 to for , that is over only half of the disc because we consider two surface elements.
Hence the net field due to the two strips at point P is dE = 2 Esz z Esz Es From figure 2.34 sin =
Esz = Es sin
w.
cancel out while Esz components add up.
el
the figure. Resolving the Es into components Esr, Esz we see that Esr components
ec
situated opposite to each other. The electric field Es due to each strip is shown in
tr
om
Consider a infinite plane sheet of charge carrying a uniform surface charge density as shown in figure 2.34. We are interested in calculating the electric field at point P. We will use cylindrical coordinates (r, , z). Consider two strips ds
ag
ne
ti
2.16 Electric Field Due to an Inifinite Plane Sheet of Charge
cs
Electrostatics
The field due to single strip ds at point P is Es = 1 ds 4o r 2 ...(2.161)
From figure 2.34
150
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
Chapter 2
sin = z r ...(2.162)
2 2 But r = z + (r )
om
The field due to the entire plane sheet of charge is then
ec
E=
w.
el
z 2o
tr
ag
ne
ds
ti
dE =
z ds z 3 2o 2 2 2 (r ) + z
cs
ad
z + (r )
ee
dE = 2
ds 1 2 4o z + (r ) 2
as
y.
bl
dE = 2
1 ds sin z 4o r 2
og
sp
...(2.164) ...(2.165) ...(2.166)
3 2
dE = 2 Es sin z
z 2 + (r )2
ot
Substituting equations 2.161, 2.162, 2.163 in equation 2.159
.c
om
3 2
Hence sin =
z z 2 + (r )2
...(2.163)
...(2.167)
E=
z 2o
r dr d (r ) 2 + z 2
r dr z
...(2.168)
E=
z 2 o
(r ) 2 + z 2
...(2.169)
151
Electrostatics
-1 z E= 2 o 2 2 (r ) + z z 1 2 0
...(2.170)
152
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
Now let us calculate the electric field of a infinite plane sheet of charge using Gausss law. Step one is to get feel of the field. Clearly as shown in figure 2.34, 2.35a the field due to a infinite plane sheet of charge points in z direction.
as
y.
bl
b) Using Gausss Law
og
sp
E=
z 2 o
ot
.c
...(2.172)
om
E=
z 1 z 2 o z
...(2.171)
Chapter 2
Hence as shown in figure 2.35b we construct a Gaussian surface in the shape of pill box with surface area S. Half of the pill box lies above the plane sheet of charge and half of the pill box lies below the plane sheet of charge. Bottom half of the pill box is not shown in the figure. As per Gausss law q enc o q enc o
ne
ti
For the top and bottom of pill box the angle between E, ds is zero. Hence
cs
E.ds top + E.ds bottom =
q enc o
ee
For the sides of two pill box as shown in figure 2.35b the angle between E, ds is 90. Hence E.ds = 0 for sides of the pill box. Equation 2.173 is then
as
y.
bl
E.ds top + E.ds bottom + E.ds sides =
og
sp
...(2.173) ...(2.174) ...(2.175) ...(2.176) ...(2.177) ...(2.178)
The above integral can be written for the pill box as
ad
om
top
ag
E ds cos 0
E ds cos 0
bottom
q enc o
ec
E ds + E ds =
q enc o
w.
Because |E| is constant over the top and bottom faces of the pill box
el
tr
ds + E
ds =
q enc o
E S+E S =
q enc o
ot
.c
E.ds =
om
153
Electrostatics
From figure 2.35 q enc = S. Hence,
2 E S= S o
...(2.179) ...(2.180) ...(2.181)
E=
E=
154
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
z 2 o
.c
om
2 o
Chapter 2
c) Using Potential The potential at point P due to entire plane in figure 2.36 is V= 1 4o 4 o ds r r dr d (r )2 + z 2
...(2.182)
V = lim
ec
V = lim
tr
w.
el
2 2 t + z - z 2 o z2 t 2 + z 2 t 1 + 2 2 t 2 t 1 + z - z 2t 2
om
t 2 2 (r ) + z 2 o 0
ne
ti
cs
V = lim
2 o
(r ) 2 + z 2
r dr
ad
The above equation can be written as
ee
as
(r )2 + z 2
y.
V=
2 o
r dr
bl
og
by substituting equation 2.162.
sp
...(2.184) ...(2.185) ...(2.186) ...(2.187) ...(2.188)
As t >> z,
Hence V = lim 2 o
ag
ot
.c
V=
om
...(2.183)
155
Electrostatics
V = lim 2 o
2 t + z - z 2t
...(2.189)
Consider a reference point z0. The potential at reference point z0 is
as VVo in equation 2.192 doesnt contain terms with r, . z 2 o ...(2.196)
Substituting equation 2.192 in 2.195 E=
156
(V - Vo ) 1 (V - Vo ) (V - Vo ) + E = - r + z r z r - (V - Vo ) E= z z
om
In cylindrical coordinates
ag
E = -(V - Vo )
ne
Now the electric field is
ti
cs
V - Vo =
[ zo - z ] 2 o
ad
ee
Applying the limit
as
y.
V - Vo =
z2 z2 lim - o + zo - z 2 o t 2t 2t
og
The potential difference between points z and z0 is
sp
...(2.191) ...(2.192) ...(2.193) ...(2.194) ...(2.195)
w.
el
ec
tr
bl
ot
.c
Vo = lim
2 o
2 t + zo - z o 2t
om
...(2.190)
Chapter 2
Why we use potential difference instead of potential to calculate electric field and what is the physical significance of reference point zo will be clear to the reader in future sections.
2.17 Electric Field of a Uniformly Charged Spherical Shell

Consider a spherical shell of radius R as shown in figure 2.37. Charge q is distributed uniformly on the shell with surface charge density .
a) Using Coulombs Law i) At a point interior to the spherical shell Consider point P in the interior of the spherical shell as shown in figure 2.38. Consider two cones with pont P as their apex extending upto the surface of the sphere where they cut the sphere. Cone 1 and cone 2 substends a solid angle of d1 and d2 respectively. Both the solid angles are equal
157
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
Electrostatics
ne
Because the spherical shell is uniformly charged the charge on the each elements is proportional to the area. Hence, dq 2 ds 2 = dq1 ds1
w.
el
ec
tr
2 ds 2 r2 = 2 ds1 r1
om
ag
ds1 r12
ds 2 2 r2
ti
d1 = d 2
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
...(2.197) ...(2.198) ...(2.199) ...(2.200)
The ratio between electric field at point P due to the elements ds1 and ds2 is 1 E 2 40 = 1 E1 40 dq 2
2 r2 dq1
ot
...(2.201)
158
r12
.c
om
Chapter 2
E 2 dq 2 r12 = 2 E1 dq1 r2 From equations 2.199, 2.200
2 dq 2 r2 = 2 dq1 r1
...(2.202)
om sp ot .c om ag ne ti cs m ad ee as y. bl og
...(2.203)
Hence
E2 = 1 E1
...(2.204)
From figure 2.38 the field due to ds1 and ds2 at point P is oppositely directed. Hence the field at point P is zero. This is true for any point in the interior of the sphere. ii) At a point exterior to the spherical shell Consider figure 2.37a. Clearly the x, y components of electric field at point P due to the symmetrically placed surface elements cancel out and only the z components add up. Thus we have to integrate over the z components, dEs cos dEs = 1 dq 4o r 2 of the elements and here dEs is field produced by the surface element at P given by
Thus the field due to the elements ds1 and ds2 at point P are equal in magnitude.
tr
dq = ds = R 2 sin d d
w.
We have
el
ec
...(2.205)
...(2.206)
in spherical polar coordinates. From figure 2.37b r 2 = R 2 + z 2 - 2R z cos ...(2.207) ( in figure 2.37b is denoted as in equation 2.207 to note that it is a source point).
159
Electrostatics
Also, cos = z - R cos r ...(2.208)
Now the electric field at point P due to the entire shell is
Substituting equations 2.206, 2.207 and 2.208 in equation 2.210 Ez = R2 4o
Ez =
1 2 R 2 ( z - Rt) dt Ez = 1 4o -1 (R 2 + z 2 - 2R zt) 2 2 R 2 Ez = 4o 1 2 z 1 R 2 + z 2 - 2R zt -1 ( zt - R)
w.
Hence
el
ec
= t = -1
tr
Let t = cos dt = - sin d = 0 t = 1
om
ag
ne
2 R 2 4o
( z - R cos )sin d (R 2 + z 2 - 2Rz cos )
cs
ad
ee
( z - R cos )sin d (R 2 + z 2 - 2 Rz cos )
as
y.
bl
og
Ez =
1 dq cos 4o r 2
sp ti
ot
...(2.210) ...(2.211) ...(2.212) ...(2.213) ...(2.214)
160
.c
om
E z = dEs cos
...(2.209)
Chapter 2
2 R 2 1 z-R z+R + Ez = 2 2 4o z ( z - R) 2 z + ( R)
Ez = 2 R 2 4o 2 4 R 2 1 = z 2 4o z2
...(2.215)
...(2.216)
Now the total electric field at point P due to the entire spherical shell is = E = Ex i + Ey j + Ez k as Ex and Ey are zero. b) Using Gausss Law 1 q k 4o z 2
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
Ez =
1 q k 4o z 2
ot
But 4 R 2 = q the total charge enclosed by the spherical surface. Hence
.c
om
sp
...(2.217)
161
Electrostatics
First step is to plot the electric field of the uniformly charged spherical shell as shown in figure 2.39. Clearly if we want to evaluate E.ds easily then we have to construct the Gaussian surface to be a sphere. i) At a point interior to the spherical shell We construct a Gaussian surface as shown in figure 2.40 for a interior point P. Gauss law states
w.
E ds cos 0 = 0
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
From figure 2.40 the angle between E, ds is zero and the charge qenc enclosed by the Gaussian surface is zero. Hence from Gausss law
og
sp
ot
...(2.218)
E.ds =
q enc o
E =0
162
.c
om
Chapter 2
Hence electric field at the interior point of the charged spherical shell is zero. ii) At a point exterior to the spherical shell
E.ds =
w.
el
We construct a Gaussian surface for an exterior point P as shown in figure 2.41. The angle between E and ds is zero and the total charge enclosed by the spherical shell is q. Applying Gauss s law
ec
tr
q enc o q o
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
...(2.219) ...(2.220) E ds cos 0 = E
ds =
q o
ot
...(2.221)
.c
om
163
Electrostatics
E 4z 2 = q 4o z
2
q o
...(2.222) ...(2.223)
E=
The potential at point P in figure 2.37a is given by V= 1 4o
R + z - 2Rz cos
0 0
tr
V=
el
ec
2 R 2 4o
om
ag
ne
V=
1 4o
ti
cs
R 2 sin d
ad
V=
1 4o
ee
R 2 sin d d
as
Substituting equations 2.207 and ds we get
y.
bl
ds r
sp og
...(2.224) ...(2.225) R 2 + z 2 - 2Rz cos sin d ...(2.226) ...(2.227) ...(2.228) ...(2.229)
R 2 + z 2 - 2 Rz cos
2 R 2 V= 4o
1 2 2 R + z - 2 Rz cos Rz 0
V= i)
Inside the spherical shell z < R.
164
w.
2 R 2 2 2 (R + z ) - (R - z ) 4o Rz Inside the spherical shell
ot
.c
c) Using Potential
om
Chapter 2
Hence equation 2.229 is V= 2 R 2 z [(R + z ) - (R - z )] 4o Rz 4 R 2 4o R q 4o R q = - i + j +k x y z 4o R ii) Outside the Spherical Shell Hence equation 2.229 is V= ...(2.230) ...(2.231) ...(2.232)
V=
w.
el
2 R 2 [(R + z ) - ( z - R)] 4o Rz
ec
tr
om
2 R 2 2 2 (R + z ) - ( z - R) 4o Rz
ne
ti
cs
Outside the spherical shell z > R
ad
ee
E=0
as
y.
bl
og
Now E = -V
sp
...(2.233) ...(2.234) ...(2.235) ...(2.236) ...(2.237)
165
V=
4 R 2 q = 4o z 4o z q = - i + j +k x y z 4o z
Now E = -V
E=
q 4o z 2
ag
ot
V=
.c
om
V=
Electrostatics
Of the three methods discussed here Gausss law is the easiest as the reader may observe. The next two methods are Coulombs law and potential formulation. Luckily the reader can see how much steps are involved in calculating Ez component using in this problem Ex, Ey components cancelled out and Ez component alone exist and
Out of the three methods we see that Gausss law is the easiest method. From selections 2.13, 2.16 and 2.17 we observe Gausss law is able to calculate the electric field intensities for the respective charge distributions very easily as compared to Coulombs law and potential formulation. Successful application of Gausss law requires construction of Gaussian surface for a given charge distribution over which E.ds can be easily evaluated and
166
Let us now compare the methods we used to calculate the electric field for a given charge distribution - Coulombs law, Gauss law, potential formulation.
w.
el
2.18 Comparison of Coulombs Law, Gausss Law and Potential Formulation
ec
tr
om
which is easy as compared to Coulombs Law.
ag
E = Ex i + E y j + Ez k
ne
ti
V V V E = -V = - i + j +k x y z
cs
ad
three components Ex, Ey, Ez. However the potential V is a scalar quantity and we have already seen that it doesnt have components. So we perform only single integration as we have done in equations 2.224 to 2.229 and finally calculate E as
ee
as
y.
repeat similar procedure for Ex, Ey each separately. The reader can see how much tedious procedure it would be. The problem is, Coulombs law calculates electric field directly in terms of vector. There are three different directions x, y, z and hence
bl
og
sp
separately. That is, as we calculated Ez through equations 2.205 to 2.217 we have to
ot
if Ex and Ey components do not cancel out then Ex and Ey must be calculated
.c
Coulombs law. Suppose for a given charge distribution in addition to Ez component
om
Chapter 2
over the Gausian surface |E| cos must be constant so that |E| cos can be pulled out of the integral
E.ds =
E cos d s = E cos ds
This point has been made clear in sections 2.14, 2.15. When Gauss law is not useful we are left out with two options to calculate the electric field - Coulombs law and potential formulation. As we have previouly mentioned Coulombs law calculates E directly in terms of vector. This makes the calculation of E using Coulombs law difficult. Section 2.17 illustrates this point. If you are interested in calculated E using Coulombs law then you have to work with three components - Ex, Ey, Ez. However working with potential is easy. Potential is a scalar quantity and doesnt have to be split into components. Working with vectors is comparatively difficult than working with scalars. This fact has been made clear in section 1.1 and example 1.10. This point has also been made clear in section 2.17.
167
w.
el
ec
tr
om
If symmetry doesns exists in the given problem then easy calculation of E.ds is not possible using Gausss law. In such situations Gausss law is not useful q enc in calculation of E although it is still true that E.ds = . o
ag
ne
ti
cs
The above conditions are easily satisfied when symmetry exists in the given charge distributions. In section 2.13 cylindrical symmetry exists. In section 2.16 planar symmetry exists. In section 2.17 spherical symmetry exists. Existence of symmetries in the respective charge distributions facilitated easy calculation of E.ds .
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
E=
q enc 1 cos d s o
sp
ot
E.ds = E cos ds =
q enc o
.c
om
Evaluation of the area using Gauss law
ds
is simple mathematics. E can thus be calculated
Electrostatics
We will see one more example below to show working with vectors is diffcult as compared to working with scalars. We redraw figure 2.11a, 2.32 in figure 2.42a, b.
, ds 2 is In figure 2.42a the electric fields due to two surface elements ds1 shown. The electric field produced by the surface elements at A, B acts along AC
168
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
and BD respectively. These fields are denoted as E1 and E2 respectively. Resolving
E1 and E2 as shown in figure 2.43 into x and y components we see that x components cancel out while y components add up.
om
Chapter 2
Then we need to integrate the Ey components to calculate the net electric at point P due to entire disc. Now consider figure 2.44a. We are interested in calculating the electric field at point P1 due to the charge
Then we integrate over the entire disc to get Ex and Ey and hence the electric field. If the problem happens in three dimensions then we need to keep track of three components Ex, Ey, Ez as we have mentioned at the end of section 2.17. The trouble with above method is electric field being a vector has a direction. For example in figure 2.44a E1 is in the direction from P1 to C1 while E2 is in the
169
components are adding up. E1x and E2x are in same direction and E1y and E2y are in same direction. Summing up we get x and y components due to the two elements.
w.
el
to the elements ds1, ds2 into x, y components in figure 2.44 b. Clearly both x, y
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
density over the entire disc, we have resolved the electric fields, E1, E2 due
Electrostatics
170
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
Chapter 2
direction from P1 to D1. Hence you have to resolve E1, E2 into components then
add the x, y components separately and then finally integrate it to find the field at P1 due to the entire disc. In figure 2.44a, the problem is two dimentional what about three dimentions. The problem becomes even more complicated in three dimensions because there are now three components to work with Ex, Ey, Ez. Now consider calculating the electric field E using potential formulation. As shown in figure 2.45 we need to calculate the potential at point P1 without worrying about what is the direction of the potential because potential being a scalar doesnt have direction. One need not get confused with components whenever working with V because potential being a scalar doesnt have direction and hence components.
w.
el
ec
tr
om
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om
171
Electrostatics
Thus if we are going to calculate E using Coulombs law then we have to keep track of the direction and mess up with components. If the charge distribution is complex it is very hectic to calculate E using Coulombs law because in that case working with components will be highly confusing. In calculating potential V we need not bother about direction because V is a scalar quantity. Once V has been calculated then we can calculate E using E = -V. In summary we attempt to find E for a given charge distribution by using Gausss law. However when Gausss law cannot be used then we calculate E, first by calculating potential V. Coulombs law is rarely used. Finally we have developed three different methods to calculate the electric field of the given charge distribution. Given the initial charge distribution we plug in charge distribution into the respective equations and finally find the electric field. However in most practical cases the initial charge distribution is not known. Without even knowing the initial charge distribution we are supposed to find the electric field. Two methods have been developed to calculate electric field in such situations. Method of images and Laplaces equation method. Before discussing about these methods we will discuss about some intemediate topics like uniqueness theorem, boundary conditions etc., which we will be using in the above methods.
Figure 2.46a shows a dipole in which there are two charges q and q separated by a small distance d. We are interested in calculating the electric field at point P in figure 2.46a due to the dipole. It is assumed that the point P is situated at a large distance from O so that d <<< r. As said in section 2.18 out first attempt will be to use Gausss law to calculate the electric field. First step is to plot the electric field of the dipole as shown in figure 2.47. Clearly there is no symmetry in the problem.
172
Two charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign separated by a small distance form a dipole.
w.
el
ec
We will calculate the electric field of the dipole in this section. We will be using the concept of dipole in future sections.
tr
om
2.19 Electric Field of a Dipole
ag
ne
ti
cs
ad
ee
as
y.
bl
og
sp
ot
.c
om

VA Chap 2 WM

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

VA Chap 2 WM

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

For free online lectures on electromagnetics and more information on this material visit www.electromagneticsmadeeasy.blogspot.com or email to lecture.emt@gmail.com, query.emt@gmail.

Electric charges at rest Part-I

2.1 Coulombs Law

is directly proportional to the product of their charges.

Here is the absolute permittivity of free space whose value is given by

So that equation 2.1 is

The force exerted by q on Q as per Coloumbs law is then

quantity. For air and vacuum r=1.

2.2 Electric Field Intensity

The electric field produced by charge q in figure 2.1 is

Substituting equation 2.2 in equation 2.5

2.3 Electric Field Intensity Due to a Group of Discrete Point Charges

From equation 2.9 F n Fi = Q i=1 Q

With the aid of equation 2.6, 2.11 can be written as

2.4 Continuous Charge Distributions

where is charge per unit length. 2)

Surface Charge: Charge distributed over a surface as shown in

figure 2.5b. Mathematically we describe the surface charge with symbol

Finally the total charge enclosed for the line charge is

surface charge is q= tot

and volume charge is

E = E x i + Ey j While solving problems using Coulombs law it will be sufficient to calculate

2.6 Calculating Electric Field E Using Coulombs Law

2.5 A Note About Coulombs Law

1 1 = 9109 = -12 4 4(8.8510 )

1 (510-9 ) (7 10-9 ) 4 (2510-2 )2

) (7 10 (9109 ) (510 (25) 2

F = 0.50410-5 Newtons For Mica r = 6 F 0.50410-5 Hence Fmica = = r 6

q tot = 16.807 coulomb

From equation 2.21

From figure 2.6 ds = r dr d

q tot = 75 nano coulombs

The magnitude of electric field Eq produced by q at point P is Eq = 1 q 4 PB2

From figure 2.8c cos ( 2 - ) = Eq y Eq

Substituting for sin in E

From figure 2.8a

Substituting for Eqy in E

Substituting the value of Esx in dE dE = 2 t ( y ) + t

From figure 2.10 we can write

300 ) Newtons 109 ( i + 2 jk 6 300109 6 = 300109 Newtons 6

let us calculate the vector r pointing from q2 to q1 In order to find r

is the unit vector pointing from q2 to q1 Here r

The electric field produced by the single surface element ds at point P is

From figure 2.11 b E ey Ee = y y 2 + (r )2 y y 2 + (r ) 2 Ee

Now the field produced by the entire disc is then E = =

Substituting the value of Eey in dE

The electric field of 1 ncoulomb charge at point P is E1 =

The position vector of 2 ncoulomb charge with respect to point P is

The position vector of 1 ncoulomb charge with respect point P is

The electric field produced by q3 is acting along y axis and is given by

E= 0.20125 i 0.2568 j +1.4295 k

) + (0.2568 ) E = E1 + E2 = (0.20125 i + 0.4025 k j +1.027 k

The net electric field at point P is

2.7 Solid angle

(27) (12) (20) (27) (102)

(27) (102) (12) (102) = 20 (20 - a) 2

For the charges to be in equilibrium

Similarly for a semicircle l = r

l l That is = = 1 [OA1 = OB1 = r1] r r1

Area AB Area A1 B1 = = [OA1 = OB1 = r1] 2 r2 r1

From figure 2.16a as r is increased to r1 in figure 2.16b still remains constant

For a hemisphere surface area is 2r 2 . Thus solid angle for hemisphere is

2.8 Gausss Law