European Studies in Mass Communication 1-Arab Image in the Minds of Western Imagemakers Introduction While the notion of national

and international image has received significant attention in mass communication studies, researchers have ignored analysis of image in the minds of image-makers in favor of media content analysis. Likewise , researchers have concentrated on the distorted image, misconceptions and false stereotypes as depicted in mass media and somewhat - overlooked cultural , historical and religious factors out of which media portrayals arise Purpose of the study The purpose of this study is threefold. 1. First is to investigate the image of Arabs in the minds of Western image-makers and the consistency between the image and the attitude they have toward Arabs. 2. Second is to identify the situation out of which Western image-makers perceive the Arab image and the interests that image serve.
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3. Third is to examine the overlap between the images of Arabs, Muslims and that of Islam and whether an image shift has occurred . Introduction of the research problem As for the Arabs, they have been portrayed in Western media in many ways. Prior to the creation of Israel the Arabs were thought of in terms of camels, dancing girls and pyramids. Following the start of the Arab Israeli conflict the West view the Arab as someone backward , fanatic , dishonest , fatalistic and lazy. After 1967 war another dimension was added, that of corrupt leaders and irrational and fanatic mobs . With the rise of the Palestinian Liberation Organization a new image was created, that of fanatic, blood- thirsty terrorist Numerous studies have shown Western partisanship in favor of Israel both in attitudes as well as in suggested policies toward the peoples and countries of the region. These same studies have also revealed a strong anti Arab bias as reflected in the publics negative
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stereotypes of the Arabs, their society, culture and institutions. Similarly , studies concerning issues and perceptions tend to show that Americans hold stereotyped images of Arabs. It is axiomatic that most people in the U. S. electorate have little interest in Middle East affairs. Because of this, Members of Congress are relatively free to vote however they see fit , without much concern for constituent backlash The one-sided media coverage and attitudes toward the Middle East not only affect the publics perception of it and so their lobbying ;it also directly influences the government for the President and Congress all read The Washington Post and The New York Times each morning, and non of them have access to another counterbalancing side of the story Searching for the roots, Sharabi emphasizes the importance of historical and religious factors in determining the distorted image of Arab of source distortion of Arab image in the West is not merely ignorance , but rather a specific kind

of knowledge rooted in religious and racial antagonism toward the Arabs and Islam The fear of Islam and Muslims is a major factor in the production of the negative Arab image in the West, most specifically in the United Sates. This is the case since, in much of the writing about Arabs, there is confusion concerning Arabs and Muslims. Consequently , to many if not most Western peoples the term Arabs and Muslims are interchangeable Statement of hypothese There will be a significant correlation between the stereotyping Arab image Western image makers have and their negative attitude toward Arabs. There will not be a significant correlation in the stereotyping image American and European image makers have of Arab. There will be a significant portion of Western image-makers who still have had a mistaken idea about the relationship between Arabs, Muslims and Islam. Research questions

1.What are the main factors behind the distorted image of Arabs?
2.

What are the main negative consequences of the distorted image of Arabs? To what extent do Western image-makers think Arabs are responsible for such a negative image and whether they see Arab culture as a threat to the West ?

3.

4.Is the negative image of Arabs and Islam changing Conceptual framework Image In literature there is no clear definitive delimitation between such concepts as stereotype, prejudices , or image. Often the terms overlap or are used differently from author to author. The term image became popular in the 1950s, especially in the United States, and was used to describe the aura of person in public life, a party, a product, a nation, a people, and so forth . The image is something created and cultivated , by its possessor Images of nations might be seemed to form, fundamentally , through a very complex communication process involving varied information sources. The process starts with ones
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experiences in very early life; in school; in children books, fairytales and other leisure literature ;the theater and so on and may include accounts by relatives, acquaintances , and friends. But radio and TV transmissions of international programs, newspapers and magazines, cultural exchange programs, sports, books, news services, and so on are probably the strongest image shapers For the purpose of this study: We define the image as a mental package in which a collection of stereotypes or characteristics are combined to identify a nation, a group or a member of that group without reference to particular differences or complexities . These identifying characteristics are based on limited experience, as well as simple, general, misleading , rigid , distorted and biased ideas derived from the historical and the present sources of knowledge including mass media, education, and the varied means of socialization. Image and attitude are closely related and heavily affect the social, political and cultural interaction between different nations or groups. Arab and Muslim world
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There have been numerous studies that found a confusion in the perception of western peoples of Arabs, Muslims and Islam, and since they are similar in the perceptual map of Western man, the image of one of them strongly feeds the image of the other. It should be noted that the terms Arabs, Muslims and Islam are used interchangeably while they are not completely identical What makes the Arab World a unit that is sufficiently definable and distinguishable from the rest of the world as to justify studying it as a unit ? Western image-makers Western image-makers as used here refer to reporters, correspondents, technicians, columnists , writers, newsmen, editors, freelances in United States and European countries. In other words imagemakers are those who are responsible for gathering , producing, writing and editing the content of Western newspapers and magazines and therefore they are the creators of stereotypes and images Literature review Since the 1960s, scholars have been interested in image studies of Arabs
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Most of these studies have linked Arabs to Israel and the Middle East conflict. These studies focused on four issues: 1) News flow from the Middle East 2) Changes in the directions of favorability /unfavorability of Arab and Israeli image 3) Comparison of the Arab and Israeli images 4) Sources of anti- Arab and anti- Israeli biases in media coverage What promotes the negative image of Arabs? Where does it come from, and why does it persist ? Research methodology This research is based on a survey of Western imagemakers of leading media organizations in the United States and Europe. The questionnaire consists of 72 items and administered to respondents via Internet during the period from January to April 2000 Findings and discussions a) Sample characteristics

b) Analysis of the communication behavior and past experience c) Arab image analysis Is Arab and Islamic culture a threat to the West? One of the crucial issues addressed in this study is whether Western image-makers think Arabs deserve to be portrayed in a false image and to what extent Arab and Islamic culture represent a threat to the West Conclusion The purpose of this study was to examine the Arab image in the minds of Western image-makers . A further purpose was to identify the situation out of which image-makers perceive Arab image. Unfortunately, Arabs, Muslims, and Islam images in the minds of Western journalists have remained unchanged The three tested hypotheses and the three big questions of this empirical research have obviously proved that Western image-makers have biased, false and distorted image of both Arabs and Muslims The preceding discussions demonstrate the impact of negative stereotypes in the minds of pervasive
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media practitioners on the portrayals of Arabs in Western media, the formation of international public opinion toward Arab and Muslim issues, formation of adversary policies making against Arab and Muslim world

Ultimately , the negative stereotyping Western image-makers have of Arabs is a barrier to effective international communication and understanding.

Assignment

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- Analyze the features of (oral, written, electronic communication) by using (a speech of a governmental official, a newspaper essay, and a TV advertisement). Answer Guide: Student uses some models of speeches , newspapers essays & TV ads to explain the features of oral, printed & electronic media Homework From your point of view, write a report about the images of nations in mass media. Answer Guide: - Student writes a report about ways of depicting nations in mass media, the distorted image, misconceptions and false stereotypes as depicted in mass media and somewhatoverlooked cultural, historical and religious factors out of which media portrayals arise

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2-Satellite Television and Egypt : Is there a Link ? Introduction

Public

Sphere

in

Among the most salient developments in present societies are fundamental and rapid changes of mass media . Public discussions and academic literature are speculating on the societal consequences of these changes. There is a concern that media changes contribute
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to a deterioration of the political process in general and to a fragmentation of the public sphere and an increase of political cynicism in particular This paper adopts the "media constructed public sphere" approach originally developed by Winfied Schulz (2001) in his article" Changes in Mass Media and Public Sphere The main idea of this approach is that media are regarded as constitutive of a public sphere This article discusses how satellite television introduces a new public space for Egyptians to engage in debate about sociopolitical issues Public Sphere and Democracy The public sphere is viewed as a resource for growth of democracy, promoting discussions of civil society and public life. The concept of the public sphere appeals to the nature of civil society as it attempts to explain the social foundations of democracy and to introduce a discussion of the specific organization of social and cultural bases within civil
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society for the development of an effective rational-critical discourse The importance of the public sphere to democratic theory and democratic movements cannot be underestimated . For a functioning and purposeful citizenry to develop, it is argued that they must have a space in which to engage debate and make decisions The public sphere and democracy should not be considered as inseparable from one another, because the democratic political systems are based on the voice of the people and the rule of the majority that is likely formed through a liberal public sphere in which people freely discuss the critical public issues

In Egypt

The situation is different from that of Western countries, as the separation between public sphere and democracy is the most likely dominant principle in the Egyptian milieu .

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The government is obliged to allow a partly-free public sphere. However, it restricts the formation of real public opinion and establishes the types of laws and legislations that perpetuate the dominance of the ruling party

It is possible to state that public sphere depends to a large extent on the nature of the political system in which it exists. In Europe , the public sphere-which was achieved despite opposition from the state powers, is at odds with what transpired in the United States Arab political systems have created a politically repressive atmosphere to control the public sphere. The development of media and state in the Arab world confirm the fact that all Arab states controlled the media, especially radio and television, to prevent the establishment of a free public sphere, to restrict the formation of public opinion and to hinder any democratic transformation in the region The author completely agrees with Hbermas's notion of the priority of public interests as a
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condition for the public sphere. First, in order for the public sphere to exist, priority has to be given to social issues In Egypt, the overwhelming majority are poor, illiterate , and unemployed people who spend much of their time trying to save their food. Hence , the majority is handicapped / by illiteracy, poverty , ills and unemployment to such a great extent that they lack motivation to engage in the "public sphere Mass Media and Public Sphere Many scholars regard the media as the main institution of the contemporary public sphere. However, we have to consider the fact that restricted media will never contribute to public sphere. If the media are state-owned, working under direct supervision of the government officials and suffer from political and economic pressures, the government's voice is the only one that will be heard in the public sphere It is not acceptable to conclude that entertainment-oriented media or government
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owned media will play a significant role in shaping an Egyptian public sphere The national control of governments over the information delivered to the national population was eroded . The new ICTs allowed information to traverse borders and individuals to interact with other audiences beyond the reach of the state The impact of communication technologies in fostering democracy is not universal Satellite television's potential for democratization depends on the overall socioeconomic political context in which it operates Satellite Television and Public Sphere in Egypt

Because the global nature of satellites limits governments ability to control the domestic usage of these technologies, Egypt has begun taking tentative steps to deregulate their broadcasting policies and liberalize their content.

Egyptian government has also found itself unable to cover the cost of infrastructure
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, and has chosen to let private investors enter the market The ongoing changes in the Egyptian audiovisual sector can be understood from three different perspectives: 1. Firstly, the political: Egyptian Radio and Television Union, "ERTU" a state monopoly, is a tool of state power, a mouthpiece of state policies, official Islam, Egyptian heritage, and good morals. Through what it reveals and conceals, television reflects a biased societal view. 2. Secondly, the economic: the ongoing liberalization process jeopardizes the state's monopoly on television. 3. Thirdly, the technological: without falling into "technological determinism" or limiting ourselves to this paradigm, we can hold that the spread of broadcast satellite has played an important role in the current changes Due to the critical role of satellite television in determining public sphere that shapes public opinion which eventually restricts the government dominance, the Egyptian
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government directs, distorts and constrains the local political satellite communication The quasi-liberal public sphere represents a threat to Arab governments that managed recently to put more restrictions on Arab satellite television. In February, 12, the Council of Arab Ministers of Information with the exception of Lebanon and Qatar issued a document that includes the principles organizing satellite transmission of radio and television broadcasting It is obvious that Al Jazeera's coverage of the Arab sensitive issues along with some few channels and their positive impact on the Arab public sphere lies behind the joint action made by Arab Ministers of Information to put an end for the potential of the liberal channels It is clear right now that the structure and ownership of the Egyptian satellite television limits its role as a public sphere and undermines impact on shaping public opinion. Equally important to the ownership of television is content that mainly reflects the voice of the state

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An accurate observation of the content of satellite television may conclude that the television is far from being a public sphere for the following reasons: It does not present a wide variety of new and views The overall content of the Egyptian satellite does not meet the aspiration of the people who are looking for democratic communication. The major content is biased in favor of the ruling party especially during election time.

Viewers with hostile views are not allowed to attend the talk shows offered by the stateowned satellite television Newscasts do not present any opposition parties related activities, and emphasizes to that of the ruling party Satellite channels incomplete stories opinion.
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sometimes provide and mislead public

 The inability of satellite channels in Egypt to access and publish accurate information and objective and balanced coverage of the hot conflicts The intense debate on how satellite television provide a liberal or repressive public sphere for Egyptians reflects the need for empirical research that can be carried out through a threestep research project : 1. Analysis of the controversial programs broadcast by Arab satellite television. This analysis will demonstrate how much the programs represent a varied and free content which is more contingent upon the inputs of the public rather than the government. 2. Surveying the public opinion to examine how much the public is convinced that the content represents its voice and how much it is affected by it. 3. Public policy analysis and policy makers analysis to investigate how much public opinion emerging from the public sphere is influencing the policy makers agendas and public policies.
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Conclusion 1. It has made it clear that satellite television has brought about a new quasiliberal public sphere in Egypt. 2. Unfortunately, the efforts of the aforementioned media outlets are not dramatically affecting the formation of a real public opinion. 3. The non-participant, alienated and latent Egyptian public opinion is a significant indicator that public sphere has little or no impact on politics. Assignment Search for a definition of the concept "communication", and then analyze the main factors of this term relying on the definition you introduced. Answer Guide: Student searches in handbooks or on the internet for a definition of "communication" and then analyze the factors of this term by using the definition HOMEWORK

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Discuss from your point of view "how satellite television introduces a new public space for Egyptians to engage in debate about sociopolitical issues. Answer Guide:- Student presents his point of view about the role of satellite television in encouraging Egyptians to engage in debate about their different issues , government control , public sphere and democracy

3- Communication Revolution Freedom :Keynote Speech Introduction

and

Academic

The communication revolution derived by digital communications has profoundly changed the ways that university members conduct research, store data, share and publish research findings. It has also heavily affected ways of teaching and learning. Communication revolution has not only transformed the university activities-research, teaching and outreach-but as well changed how universities are organized, financed and managed.

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Our approach of understanding the linkages between communication revolution and academic freedom depends on a simple but important idea that communication revolution derived by information and communication technologies (ICTs) brings with it the knowledge society which is mainly dependent on the human brain and human skills Communication Revolution, Knowledge Society and University At present time, we are undergoing a social and economic revolution; the knowledge revolution, which matches the impact of the agricultural and industrial revolutions. This is a "knowledge revolution" driven by knowledge and by the information technologies that process and communicate it The Knowledge society is being created through the convergence of a number of industries which include : The information providers (television program makers, publishers, artists, government) Carriers of electric information (broadcasters, telephone and cable television companies)

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 Manufacturers of platforms able to make electronic information accessible to people (microelectronic industry, television, computer) Software developers who develop applications which allow information to be collected, stored, transmitted and used The convergence of these industries has shaped the knowledge society with a number of unique characteristics which include: Intensive use of information by the common citizen Use of information as a strategic resource by organizations

Development of the information sector within the economy Growth of the information sectors quicker than the global economy and quicker than the growth of specific nations Continuous efforts from different countries to develop their infrastructures and integration within an international common standard

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Given this unique relationship between knowledge society and the university, it is believed that the role of university will be substantially broadened A specific question that emerges is: how does the current communication revolution differ from previous ones? The qualities of the current tools or fuels of knowledge society are different from previous ones, furthermore, the globalizing impact of the current ICTs in nearly all aspect of life is profound, unprecedented and unpredictable. The new communication revolution have vastly increased our capacity to do things differently, it is likely to reshape in profound ways knowledge based-institutions such as the university. Qualities of Revolution the Current Communication

The first quality of the communication revolution is digitization which permits the construction of networks. By translating every kind of information into a universal binary code The second quality is the information processing that provides the power to transform ever-richer

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streams of information into digital code and back into human-absorbable form The bandwidth-the amount of information capable of being transmitted over a network-does not just double every eighteen months, but triples every twelve months The global decentralized and standardized system of the Internet, the most successful of all digital networks represents the fourth quality of the current communication revolution As knowledge can be created, absorbed, and applied only by the educated mind, universities will play increasingly important roles as our societies enter the digital age The potential impact of communication revolution on ways of conducting research is quite high. This is because of the basic feature of ICTs; interactivity, the desired quality of communication systems A second possible impact of ICTs use on the substance of research is that Internet will increase efficiency and productivity of research. With Internet we would not only have to expect more and faster results but as well new types of results and with more productivity
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Our discussion of the link between communication revolution, knowledge society and university would not be complete without some attention to the unique qualities of ICTs that made its influence obvious, distinct and profound

Firstly, unlike newspaper, television, radio or any other medium of communication, it is relatively difficult, though not impossible, to censor, and the barrier to entry are very low. Secondly, the amount of information available by the Internet is enormous. made

Thirdly, Internet is able to target useful segments of academicians very effectively without having the limits of geography. Fourthly, Internet does not only spread information more widely, but it is also a communication medium for bringing academicians together and organizing. We should distinguish between technology as part of the social system and technology as a set of instruments and practices used by particular individuals with particular skills and goals in a particular cultural environment
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From this perspective I would like to emphasize the point that ICTs are creating many opportunities for modern university, but because of their uneven distributions and adoption, they are also creating new risks and challenges for traditional universities. It would be very useful to understand the overall impact of ICTs on both the university and academic freedom from what has been known as digital divide Communication Freedom Revolution and Academic

All traditional statements on academic freedom were conceived in a context prior to the age of communication revolution, where traditional media mentality was dominant. Academicians are currently heavily affected by the communication revolution where the individual can participate in horizontal, interactive, synchronous, asynchronous and decentralized communication. The major principles of academic freedom guarantee freedom of inquiry and research, freedom of teaching, and freedom of expression and publication and outreach. These freedoms enable the university to advance knowledge and to transmit it effectively to its students and to the public
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The 1940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom states that: Teachers are entitled to full freedom in research and in the publication of the results. Teachers are entitled to freedom in the classroom in discussing their subject, but they should be careful not to introduce into their teaching controversial matter which has no relation to their subject. College and university teachers are citizens, members of a learned profession, and officers of an educational institution. Academic Freedom and the Problem of Secrecy The critical determinant of academic freedom as shown is the freedom of expression. In the absence of this principle, academic freedom will face a lot of troubles especially with the advent of communication revolution The desire for secrecy has led external sponsors of academic research to impose, as a condition of funding, contractual restrictions on the publication rights of researchers

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At this point, it seems important to mention that academic freedom is not an absolute right. There are, however, some restrictions to the activities of research and publication which mainly seek to safeguard human rights Future Trend It is not only communication revolution that will result in substantial changes in the concept of academic freedom, but the overall characteristics defining the age of globalization. Among these characteristics are the trend toward deregulation and liberalization, privatization, globalization of commerce, culture and capital, the multilateral free trade system derived by competition, the lifelong educational needs of citizens in a knowledge-driven global economy and so many Needless to say that academic freedom as suggested here comes with a corresponding social responsibility. While accountability must prevail among peers within the institutions, it also involves external accountability to society as a whole

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Only one questionthough- lies beyond the limits of this paper I want to raise; that is where does academic freedom in Arab and African universities stand in this debate of communication revolution? Given the qualities of the communication revolution one has to ask whether Islamic culture compatible with it and thus enhances a modern concept of academic freedom or it stands against this revolution?

Conclusion The potential impact of communication revolution, on the university has a series of implications for academic freedom that should be considered; otherwise, Arab and African universities will not be able to enter the knowledge society Free accesses to Internet information and posting of controversial materials as well as protecting the privacy of electronic communication are crucial conditions to safeguard academic freedom Islamic culture is consistent with the spirit and necessities of communication revolution and knowledge society, and calls for the most extent
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possible of freedom of expression and academic freedom

Assignment What will be the most convenient forms of Communication in case we want to provide information or to change behavior. Answer Guide: Student should mention the most convenient type of communication that we can use to give information for people or to convince them change their behavior. Homework The communication revolution derived by digital communications has profoundly changed the ways that university achieves its role. Comment. Answer Guide: - Students comment on the effects of communication revolution on conducting research, storing data, sharing and publishing research findings ways of teaching and learning and managing universities

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4-Historical And Political Analysis Of Mass Media In Egypt Introduction Egypt was the home of one of the principal civilizations of the ancient Middle East. Its culture had an important influence on ancient Greece,
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which in turn helped to form the civilization of the modern West. Egypt also provided Africa with its earliest civilization and may well have had considerable influence on the development of other African cultures. For almost 13 centuries Arabic has been the written and spoken language of Egypt The research assumptions The basic assumption of this paper is that there is an organic relationship between mass media institutions and the Egyptian society in the way those institutions are organized, performed and controlled The second assumption is that Egyptian governments throughout history tended to control mass media print and electronic with the justification that the country faces overwhelming external and internal problems requiring unity and a minimum of dissent in the public debate. The third assumption is that communication technology in Egypt has grown significantly and the infrastructure of mass communication has
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developed satisfactorily, simultaneously, however indirect censorship and other forms of directed and constrained communication increased and became ever more diversified and threatened the right of communication Print Media The history of press in Egypt can roughly be divided into three main historical periods. The first period extends from the French expedition in 1798 until 1920s. This period is characterized by the struggle between the native press that played a significant role in the evolution and development of Egypts political consciousness and the press that took the side of European imperialism. The second period starts from 1922 until 1954. During this period the new Kingdom in Egypt has taken the form of a constitutional monarchy and the struggle was continually waged among three opportunist contestants - the King, the Wafd party and the British occupation The third period starts from 1954 and extends to the present time. The 1952 revolution was an explosion that destroyed the old regime and
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created a new set of institutions sustaining a new political order, including mass media system The question to be raised is to what extent the press was able to satisfy the right of communication during the period of parliamentary democracy?

Four basic rights and freedoms could be defined as the cornerstones of the generic right to communication: The right to publish opinions in the mass media The right to participate in the management of the mass media The right of free association and mutual interlinkage for realizing individual and common needs Equality of citizens in both rights and duties

To better understand and analyze the evolution and performance of the press as well as relationship between the press and the government during the post revolutionary period
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- which represents the third phase in the history of the Egyptian press we have to keep in mind the following points:

The Egyptian press contributed in paving the way to the successful July23rd revolution through creating peoples awareness of the corrupted regime The Free Officers realized that they had to take over the main two sources of power, the army and the mass media The Free Officers had not any ideological perspective or any futuristic project to attract people except the six principles of the revolution A permanent crisis among the Free Officers and the intellectuals in the absence of definite ideology affected the relationship between the ruling elite and the press Under the leadership of Nasser the press was supportive of the regime. Mass communication system was controlled In this system type, the audience is open to receive message relatively constrained in number and content
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With the advent of the multiparty system, Egyptian press entered into a new phase. Opposition newspapers and magazines were permitted to be published. Cautious liberalization of organized political participation as well as the reinforcement of both the press and the Assembly were measures taken to balance the structural legitimacy of the regime The actual behavior of the ruling elite toward the press and journalists and the general political atmosphere in Egypt had negatively affected press freedom. In this atmosphere the press was not able to create credibility. It is not surprising that national press failed to set publics agenda The limited effect of the national newspapers in setting public agenda may be due to the following factors: National press promotes and propagates government policies and programs the

National press adopts almost one way asymmetric communication from government to public. National press sometimes provides incomplete stories of events and misleads public opinion.

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 National press self - censorship affects the way journalists gather and publish news and views. The inability to reach and publish accurate information in the right time negatively affects its credibility The Egyptian press association played different roles in the history of the press : two

The first role was to defend the government interests through the loyalty of the association council to the government. The second role played by the association rests on the fact that it was the association, which led the struggle against the government to attain press freedom. Electronic Media The history of Egyptian radio can be divided into four stages : Stage 1 (1934 - 1947) Stage 11 (1947-1952) Stage111 (1952 -1981) Stage IV (1981 -)
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Broadcasting Networks The Public Program Network The Local network Youth and Sports Network The Cultural Network Holy Quran Network Middle East Network Arab Voice Network Programs Directed for Foreign Audience Television On July 21, 1960 the first channel went on the air with recitation from Quran, followed by a speech by president Jamal Abdel Nasser. After five broadcast hours, the station signed off at midnight. This channel is considered the mother one. It seeks to satisfy the informative, cultural, and the entertainment needs of Egyptian people. Egyptian television programs Religious programs, to enhance Islamic values and relate religion to human behavior and revelation to human sciences
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 Entertainment programs focused on introducing information while they entertain audience Services and Development deal with audiences problems and solution Educational programs, the objective is to diffuse the scientific knowledge and simplify sciences Mass Media laws and Regulations The Egyptian media in general, and the press in particular, has undoubtedly had a long history of struggling to maintain its power and influence on policy- making. In 1980, law 148 was passed. The law laid down the following rules and principles:

The press is an independent popular authority in the service of the society using all available means of expressions. The press freedom is guaranteed, press censorship and suspension via administrative fiat are prohibited.

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 The law guarantees the freedom to own and publish newspapers by public and private legal entities and political parties.

The Supreme Press Council is established to strengthen press freedom and guarantee the protection of the fundamental principles of the society as well as national unity and social peace Concerning radio laws it became government owned and operated, and power was passed into the hands of the Ministry of social affairs in 1947. In 1963, presidential decree 2958 was issued and controlled the Egyptian broadcasting organization under the ministry of national guidance. This was followed by three laws that transferred the Egyptian broadcasting organization to the radio and TV Union, an apparatus theoretically independent from the government Recent trends and developments Egypt satellite channel relies on three satellite (Arabsat, Eutelsat, and the Intelsat)

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 On October 6 1993 Nile TV was launched to explain the Egyptian position concerning the political and economic issues Egypt has joined the world of international news through an independent news channel operated by CNE through the American CNN At present, Egypt which has 11 local broadcasting stations will continue to serve as a pioneering state through Nile TV and the Egyptian satellite as well as the City of the Communication Production Conclusion Mass media system in Egypt is an output of political, cultural, and economic systems. As a result, media ownership, freedom, performance, and function have been subjected to significant changes throughout history. Mass media can be seen not only as a cornerstone of democracy, but also as one of the most important arguments against direct democracy this is because mass media can easily manipulate individuals needs, desires, and choices. Two factors will help contribute in the future development of mass media in Egypt:
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 The first is an internal one in the way that Egypt is moving towards privatization of economy which will sooner or later lead to privatization of politics and mass media. The second factor is an external one where the dramatic change in the international flow of communication through satellites will create the best circumstances for individuals to rationalize their decision and develop their perception of social reality Finally, it is necessary to point out the difference between a normative reality and a perception of that reality. The two sides of communication process (the sender and the receiver) influence the representation of the reality. Without adhering to Islamic teachings and Islamic ethics It will be a false reality

Assignment Write a report with an application on a Campaign for convincing people to use "Seat Belts" or following the Principles of good nutrition. Answer Guide:

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Student should design a campaign to convince people how to use "Seat Belts" or following the Principles of good nutrition according to communication process explaining how we can use communication in Persuation Homework Determine the importance of the main historical period of print media in Egypt. Answer Guide: - Student determine from his point of view the importance of each historical periods of print media The first period extends from the French expedition in 1798 until 1920s The second period starts from 1922 until 1954 The third period starts from 1954 and extends to the present time

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5-Managing Editors Introduction Development Communication: A Critical Appraisal Introduction There have been a number of substantial changes in the meanings and practices of development communication over the last 60 years. These changes reflect the confusion and ambiguity in the discipline and illustrate the ideological debate among different schools of thought Origins of Development Communication Development communication has its origin in postwar aid programs to countries in Latin America, Asia and Africa that were struggling against
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poverty, illiteracy, poor health and lack economic, political and social infrastructures.

of

Development communication commonly refers to the application of communication strategies and principles in the developing world The early generation of development communication studies was dominated by modernization theory. This theory suggests that there is a necessary fitness between a modern culture and economic and political development The media were seen as both channels and indicators of modernization: they would serve as the agents of diffusion of modern culture, and would suggest the degree of modernization of society A major paradigm shift in development communication took place in the Honolulu Conference, 1975. The conference resolved that the dominant paradigm was not compatible with the development agenda and instead communication researchers should use a human-centered approach Development communication as viewed by participatory theorists requires sensitivity to cultural
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diversity and specific context that were ignored by modernization theories One of the most powerful critiques of modernization/diffusion theories came from dependency paradigm. This paradigm played an important role in the movement for a New World of Information and Communication Order from the late 1960s to the early 1980s. Instead of the top-down communication emphasized in most early development communication paradigms, the democratic-participant theory favors a grassroots communication approach expressing the needs of citizens The final report of UNESCO experts meeting on development communication India, 2003, made it clear that can take place at different levels: Decision making Implementation Benefits Evaluation A Critical View

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If development originally, meant the process by which the Third World societies could become more like Western developed societies as measured in terms of political system, economic growth, life-style, and educational levels, it is more likely that development programs will fail This Western development thinking isto a large extent- responsible for the failure of both the development programs and development communication. Both are interrelated and support each other in theory and practice. Unfortunately, people of the developing countries have no choice but to accept the international development projects especially that are sponsored by the USAID. It seems that the ready-made development programs are serving the priorities of the foreign policies of the donors, in addition to the needs of the ruling elites in the developing countries Development and development communication efforts will probably fail also when people involved are not given equal rights and equal access to information and freedom to express opinions, feelings and experiences to arrive at collective decisions and collective solutions
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Paradigm Shift The current neoliberal policy atmosphere has clearly contributed to a significant shift in development thinking. In the 1970s, the primary development concerns were to undertake stateinitiated programs to achieve redistribution with growth, to ensure the satisfaction 6 of basic needs, to enhance peoples participation, and so on The new paradigm is moving against the will of human beings ignoring empowerment of poor and not considering cultural and social dimensions of development. On the contrary, it stresses the economic growth at the expense of the right of the beneficiaries to set the whole agenda of development and development communication It seems that most development communication scholars have understood social traditions, habits and behaviors, which in most cases work against development thinking in Muslim societies, as if they are generated by and attributed to Islam Islam is not a neutral factor in the development process, in the sense that its main principles especially that are related to equity, sincerity, transparency,
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accountability, responsibility, and ethics of work are all working in favor of development Equal access to sources of knowledge and freedom of expression as well as participation in setting development agenda, sharing its benefits and evaluating development programs are some of the components of what could be called the Islamic Development Paradigm IDP)) Taking into account that Islamic television programs are the most frequently used in Muslim societies, IDP will be highly effective in knowledge acquisition, attitude and behavioral change of the beneficiaries towards the desired direction Paradigm Shift: Why? It is safe to state that all development and development communication paradigms have obviously failed to redress the widening gap between the rich and the poor either between or within countries Both the dominant paradigm of modernization and the widely accepted participatory model are not universal in nature. The problems with these two main paradigms and others such as dependency lies in the fact that they ignore the socio-religious and cultural
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dimensions the developing countries ICTs and Development Communication

of

With the advent of information and communication technologies (ICTs), development communication thinking has been shifted from focusing on the traditional mass media to ICTs. As stated in the final report of the international experts meeting on development communication, New Delhi, India, 2003, there are two parallel and opposite tendencies in ICTs and development In the information age, it seems that most developing countries have invested in ICTs as if they were the real indicators of development. However, ICTs are not the sole determinant of change; they are only facilitators As with traditional media, or other technology, it is the social context within which these new technologies are introduced and, more importantly, where they are implemented, that determines their usage and impact. In other words ICTs are social products and not an entirely technological issue. Two Opposite Views
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There are at least two opposite views on the impact that ICTs may have on development. The first states that direct impact of ICTs on poverty reduction takes several routes On the other hand, several research findings and theoretical foundations pertinent to impact of ICTs on development challenge the idea that new communication technologies will radically alter social relations and democratize communication and suggest that this idea is unable to pass critical scrutiny Needless to say that ICTs-development relation is complicated. To redress the digital divide and achieve the development will require a new development model However, access to new technology will not be enough, as poor communities also need justice. Such justice must include protection from the dangerous or unlawful actions of private interests or corrupt governments especially in developing countries, where regulations are often weak or unenforced

Assignment Write a report about what communication can satisfy of our needs.
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Answer Guide: Student should mention the needs which Communication satisfies, and why we use Communication. Homework Write a report about the origins of development communication. Answer Guide: - Students write a report about development communication which has its origin in post-war aid programs to countries in Latin America, Asia and Africa that were struggling against poverty, illiteracy, poor health and lack of economic, political and social infrastructures

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6-Internet Potentials for Challenges in the Arab World Introduction

Democratization:

The creation and spread of information and communication technologies (ICTs) has created an intense interest in the idea that ICTs and especially the Internet will contribute to, or even be primarily responsible for, a new era of participatory democracy Yet opinions strongly differ over whether or not the growth of electronic networks will result in expanded democracy. On one side of the debate are cyber utopians who believe that new technologies can eliminate the institutional form of democracy with which so people are dissatisfied On the other side, there are antiutopians who fear that with the intrusion of the Internet into many facets of life, personal freedom will be impeded and the existing rift between the haves and have-nots in society will grow
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It is also appealing to think that the new communication technologies can solve social problems, but they cannot. Only humans, acting consciously, can address and resolve problems such as poverty, environmental degradation, racism, and militarism Research Argument The plan of this paper is based on the argument that it is not only the information and communication technologies that may activate democracy, but also the overall societal context in which ICTs operate. The paper also poses a specific question: is the Internet a democratizing medium that increases political participation and activates democracy or is it the medium that adds to the power of those who already control traditional media? Problem Statement The article considers the role of the ICTs in democratization process. Most studies of ICTs and democracy have either conducted in Western context or ignored the socio-economic context of the Internet in other non Western countries. The present article seeks to compensate for this neglect by examining both the potentials and
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limitations of the Internet in the democratization process particularly in the Arab World Research Method In researching the potentials the Internet has for democratization and obstacles that tend to undermine its role in revitalizing the democratic process especially in the Arab World, this paper deals with two parts: The first part attempts to break down the broad concept of democracy into four constitutive elements: information and knowledge rational debate participation representation The second part tend to concentrate on the empirical evidences with emphasis on the Arab World ICTs and Democratization Literature The political and communication sciences literature on democratization offer little guidance on the hypothesized relationship between electronic
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communications and the level of democracy within a nation This is of course not surprising; given the novelty of the Internet, e-mail, direct satellite broadcasting and even the widespread availability of fax machines Electronic democratization is closely related to another school of thought that believes in direct democracy as an ideal, or at the very least in strong democracy As a means of communication the Internet has the potential to revolutionize political activity far more profoundly than telephone, newspaper, radio or television ever did, for unlike them it offers the possibility of direct two-way interaction between the citizens and politicians From the communicative perspective of the democracy, it seems essential to differentiate between the technical and the communication dimensions of the term: While the technical dimension refers to the institutional separation and the sovereignty of laws

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 The communicative aspect requires two basic assumptions; access to information and civic responsibility The Potentials and Pitfalls of the Internet for Democracy To draw conclusions on the potentials and pitfalls of the Internet for democracy it is essential that the term be separated into more observable parts. This should help us answer the basic question: Is the Internet a tool for democratization? To offer a cohesive framework, this paper applies the potentials and pitfalls the Internet has to the four components of democracy (1) The Internet and Knowledge Components It is likely that through the Internet every individual can communicate with every other individual throughout the world The question that should be raised here is to what extent the Internet flow of information is reliable? (2) The Internet and Political Debate Compared to traditional media, previous political communication between government, public,
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media and interest groups was predominately a one-way process Unlike traditional media, the Internet provides an inexpensive interactive medium of political communication (3) The Internet and Political Participation It is believed that the nature of the Internet as an interactive medium of communication would activate individuals to get feedback for their remarks and interact with others and evaluate others contributions and remarks Hence, political participation within the democratic political system will be enhanced, and the democratic, symmetrical communication is expected to flourish (4) The Internet and Representation and Accountability The prospects for both accountability and representation are improved as the discussions and progress within legislators as a whole can be instantly available to voters On the other hand, some fear that the seeming transparency and openness of the Internet lead to

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a loss of privacy, rather than the emergence of a virtual public sphere The Real World Indicators The question that should be raised is could the Net expansion be correlated to human freedom in general and democracy in particular? And why it is unlikely for the Internet to help replace the old rigid authoritarian political communication with new democratic one in the Arab world? The Arab Potentials World Challenges the Internet

The Internet potentials for democratization depend on the overall socio-economic political context in which it operates

There is no single relationship between ICTs and democracy, and it is safe to suggest that the Internet may have different and sometimes contradicting effects on the democratization process in different socio-economic and political contexts

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The Human Freedom and Democracy in the Arab World The Arab World in general as will be shown later is hampered by the freedom deficit, which in turn neutralizes the Internet and excludes it as a means for democratization and perhaps makes it a tool for perpetuating the authoritarian regimes and supporting the existing power structure Among the forces that negatively affect the Internets potentials is the Arab political culture, which is a censorial one, and as such it deeply affects the regions media operation including the Internet The chronic and critical problem that undermines the potentials of the Internet in Arab World is the low level of political participation. The active level of political participation is needed to establish and reinforce the legitimacy of public office and public authority With respect to the Arab World, investigations of the relationship between Arab media performance and public opinion conclude that Arab public opinion is latent, alienated, and non-participant. The latent public would lack motivation to seek information about politics

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Manipulation of the Internet is another large obstacle blocking the efforts to improve democracy. Governments and large corporations started to extend their power over the Internet as they have actually done with regard to traditional mass media Poverty and Digital Divide The Arab region is extremely large and diverse, the poorest in the world in terms of water and agriculture resources The digital divide, is a strong indicator of Arab societys income inequalities. The Internet access capabilities and individual online transactions remain the privilege of elite The Illiteracy Hampered Potentials of the Internet the Democratizing

It is well known that the Internet will not be a data superhighway accessible to everyone equally; use of the Internet will remain the purview of the educated and the affluent. No matter how ubiquitous online access becomes, no matter how easy software is to use, no matter how many gigabits of data can flow down cable televisions, the uneducated and the poor will not
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be active environment

participants

in

the

electronic

Environmental Obstacles Most challenges in ICTs adoption and usage lie in the regulatory environment. With uneven records in legal and regulatory issues, weak ICTs strategies, chronic R&D shortages, excessive reliance on foreign technology, and ongoing weaknesses in ICTs implementation, Arab countries are frequently lagging in their readiness for the networked future Marginal Arabic Language Content The lack of Arabic-language content shuts out the Arab public from ICTs. Websites in the Arabic language represent less than one percent of all websites in 2001 Therefore, English language is an important obstacle, which undermines the potentials the Internet has for democratization not only in the Arab World but also in other countries, which speak English as a second or third language Conclusion Based on the analysis of the empirical as well as the theoretical studies on this topic, the paper offers
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support for the main assumption that the Internet probably fosters democracy and enhances democratic communication in democratic systems But it plays a different role in the developing countries including the Arab World as it may be used to perpetuate the power of the ruling elites and privileged strata

Assignment - What are the main functions of Mass Media in Society according to "Wright's Model"? Answer Guide: Student should mention the functions of the Media according to Wrights Model (1960) Homework The broad concept of democracy could be broken down into four constitutive elements Comment. Answer Guide: - Student comments on the main elements of democracy (information and knowledge - rational debate - participation - representation)

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7-Media, Violence and Terrorism in the Arab World: Critical Assessment Introduction At the beginning of the twenty first century terrorism has come to be regarded by government officials as the most important issue facing the world It has also earned the attention of media, public opinion and social scientists especially after September 11, 2001 In this respect, the Arab world has obviously occupied a special place in the international debate of terrorism. Many of the more dramatic and violent incidents of recent decades have been perpetrated either in the Middle East or elsewhere by groups involved in the domestic and inter-state conflicts in that region
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More importantly is the fact that prior to September 11th the Western media have successfully created and perpetuated the impression that terrorism is rooted in Muslims and Arab Muslim people It is worthy at the beginning of this report to empathize three facts: (1) The terrorist attacks against the Western countries are receiving a lot of attention in media and international public opinion as well as in the UN and international bodies. However, the terrorist attacks on civilian targets belonging to other, less powerful nations, specially in the Arab Palestinian occupied lands never received the same amount of international interest (2) Terrorism and violence are the most sensitive issues in the Arab world. They are related to the instability of the Arab social, political and economic environment, the military Israeli occupation of the Arab lands in Palestine, Syria and Lebanon as well as the interference of the U.S. in local affairs of the region (3) A significant gap exists between the importance of terrorism in the Arab world and the rarity of scholarly work on this subject in general and in the field of communication in particular
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The purpose of this report is: 1) To present global synthesis and critical assessment of studies and publications on media, violence and terrorism in the Arab world during the four- year period of January 1998 to December 2001 2) To offer a brief abstract of each research study and detailed bibliography of resources. It also presents suggestions for further investigations and recommendations Research Method Basically, this report is based on the assumption that whereas the Arab world has been accused throughout the history as a violence and terrorism - producing environment especially after September 11 2001, Arab communication scholars have yet to participate in any type of research that seriously examines the communication implications of violence and terrorism Critical Assessment of Research and Theories of Terrorism (1) Violence and Terrorism: A World View A variety of Western theories have been offered as to why individuals and groups resort to terrorism as a tactic to achieve their goals.
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 One major approach argues that deprivation, oppression, and frustration result in terrorism as individuals strive to better their social conditions The term terrorism has neither a precise definition, nor one, which is widely acceptable. Terrorism is defined by the nature of the act, not by the identity of the perpetrators. All terrorist acts involve violence or threat of violence, often coupled with specific demands Terrorism has five distinguishing characteristics: 1) it is premeditated and designed to create a climate of extreme fear 2) it is directed at a wider target than the immediate victims 3) it inherently involves attacks on random or symbolic targets including civilians, 4) it is considered by the society in which it occurs as extra-normal; that is in the literal sense that it violates the norms regulating disputes, protest and dissent 5) it is used primarily, though not exclusively, to influence the political behavior of governments, communities or specific social groups (2) Arab Islamic View: Expanding the Concept of Terrorism
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In the era of globalization and Internet with its extreme and dramatic transformations, terrorism took different forms, techniques and objectives Terrorism into seven major categories: Political terrorism Military terrorism Bio-terrorism Chemical and nuclear terrorism Economic terrorism Racial terrorism Information and media related terrorism

The Terroristic Occupation Theory This view considers the occupation of others territories as the highest level of terrorism that violates international laws, conventions and ethics, challenges the stability of the international system and terrorizes the civilians of the occupied territories The Global Injustice Theory of Terrorism

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 This theory explains international terrorism as any abuse of the military forces of the super power in the unipolar international system and the absolute or relevant absence of the global justice. Forms of the global injustice impinge upon the violation of international law through allies initiated by the super power and other Western countries against Arab and Muslim countries or other developing nations Arab Political Terrorism Research on Violence and

An Arab political sciences scholar who has conducted many studies on political violence and terrorism in the Arab region sees the concept of political violence as comprising different types of behaviors and practices that imply the real use or threat to use power to cause any injury or harm to individuals or to damage public and private possessions in order to attain political, economic, social or cultural goals Most significant for the present discussion is the official Islamic position toward terrorism and violence as reflected in the Islamic Summit Conference held at Casablanca during the first half of December 1994. The conference announced a code of conduct, including the following:
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1) to declare that Islam is innocent of all forms of terrorism that involves the assassination of innocent people as it is prohibited by God 2) to strongly condemn the perpetrators of those serious crimes which are committed under the plea of implementing Islam or any other justification 3) to confirm that the struggle of peoples under colonial or foreign control or occupation for realization of their right for self- determination does not constitute an act of terrorism (3) Media, Violence and Terrorism: Is There a Relationship? As incidents of terrorism have risen, so has the interest of communication scholars all over the world- except in the Arab world - who have attempted to understand medias relations to terrorism.

This is partially attributable to the fact that many have come to view terrorism as a form of communication

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Literature review shows that expert opinion on terrorism and media can be crudely divided into two schools: The great majority of authorities consider the media culpable of some degree of terrorism. A scattered few take issue, arguing that the media are vulnerable to but not responsible for terrorism For which purposes do the terrorists use the media? What gratifications terrorists satisfy by using media? 1) to convey the propaganda of the deed and to create extreme fear among their target groups 2) to mobilize support for their cause among the general population and international opinion by emphasizing such themes as the righteousness of their cause and the inevitability of their victory 3) to frustrate and disrupt the response of the government and security forces 4) to mobilize, incite and boost their constituency of actual and potential supporters and in so doing to increase recruitment, raise more funds and inspire further attacks

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Arab Media Terrorism Literature: A Critical View A significant phenomena: gap exists between two

The proliferation and intensity of terrorism and violence acts in recent decades with an international emphasis on charging the Arab world as the source of this phenomenon and its mass loss and damage The rarity of the number of research studies devoted to understanding the complexity of the incidents of terrorism from the Arab point of view Arab Image Image Research: Misleading Terrorist

Just after the bombing of the World Trade Center, a number of officials suggested to the press: that Osama bin-Laden was responsible The newly appointed Director of the FBI accused nineteen suicide bombers and mobilized all the facilities of his agency and intelligence services to hunt for the perpetrators Media Policy Options on Terrorism Coverage The debate around the relation between media and terrorism aroused many questions including:
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 What form should the medias role take? And at whose behest should the necessary policing of the media come? Suggestions for Further Investigations/Studies While media terrorism literature provides some general findings on how media portray violence and terrorism and how the Western media in particular contribute to mobilizing international public opinion to act against Arabs and Muslims, and view them as terrorists they do not offer a comprehensive approach to understand media-terrorism relationship The future Arab research on violence and terrorism has to deal with the following research areas: 1) How and why the terrorists use media, uses and gratification research 2) How Arab media characterize acts and perpetrators of political violence and terrorism, comparative media studies 3) What is the impact of media coverage of violence and terrorism on public opinion effects research 4) How various segments of Arab public opinion react to terrorist acts public opinion research,
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5) How the opponents and supporters of terrorists use Internet to manipulate the audiences new media research 6) Is there a cause-effect relationship between media coverage of terrorism and the contagion awareness, and interference effects, longitudinal and experimental and quasi - experimental studies 7) What is the impact of media coverage of terrorism on crisis management and decision making, political communication research 8) Are there terrorists - media relationship before and after acts of terrorism: motives and consequences media relations studies 10) How various Arab subcultures differ in defining terrorism, media and cultural studies 11) What types of media ethics, policies, regulations in different Arab countries towards violence and terrorism media policies studies 12) Why the Arab image has been portrayed in Western media with terroristic implications, image research 13) Why there is a gap between Arab and Western governments position towards the international allies
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against the groups of international international terrorism research

terrorism,

14) What is the credibility of local and international sources of news media for the Arab people in times of terrorism, comparative credibility studies 15) How American, Israeli and Arab media portray the violence of Arab-Israeli conflict, news frames research Conclusions The report has shown the rarity of the Arab serious scholarly work in the area of media and terrorism. It also highlighted the need for serious academic research projects in which Arab communication scholars are required to contribute to the understanding of the most critical issues facing the international system Assignment Write a report about "Characteristics of the Message" with applying on a mass media campaign. Answer Guide: Student writes a report about : 1- The Amount of Communication
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2-The Frequency of Communication With applying on amass media campaign in the area of (Health, culture, politicsetc.) Homework The Arab world has obviously occupied a special place in the international debate of terrorism" Discuss from your point of view. Answer Guide: - Student presents his (her) opinion about the special place of Arab world in the international debate of terrorism especially that many of the more dramatic and violent incidents of recent decades have been perpetrated either in the Middle East or elsewhere by groups involved in the domestic and inter-state conflicts in that region.

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8-Satellite Broadcasting Regulation and Cultural Exception: An Arab Islamic View Aim of the study The general aim of this study is to identify regulatory conditions for the Arab satellite broadcasting that helps serve both cultural diversity and cultural exception from an Arab Islamic view This paper admits the difficulties of regulating satellite broadcast channels because of the international dimensions of the information

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technologies and the increasing between content and technologies

convergence

Cultural Exception and Cultural Diversity: Why? The term cultural exception concerns the regulation governing audiovisual policies in the international trade liberalization agreements adopted by the World Trade Organization The underlying belief behind much of European cultural policy and the call for a cultural exception in world trade agreements is that the media have a cultural dimension and that media products cannot be equated with other commercial products The effect of modern forms of means of communication especially the direct satellite broadcasting has been to homogenize diverse cultures. There are thought to be about 10,000 distinct cultures - but many are being marginalized or eliminated In the Arab world, one can not find an official Arab position against the American cultural invasion through the liberalization of cultural products in general and the audiovisual services in particular. However, the idea of a Western cultural invasion is a recurring

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leitmotif in religious, political, discourse in the Arab world

and

intellectual

Cultural diversity stems from cultural relativity which means that social values and moral codes indicate a wide range of cultural diversity which should be beyond the criticism of outsiders. The philosophy of cultural relativism specifics that different cultures and societies have developed over historical periods different attitudes to the notion of human rights or human dignity Islam as culture in Arab and Islamic countries which determines social behaviors needs to be taken into consideration in the application of modern human rights. In Islam basic human rights are guaranteed, namely the right to life, he who kills a person is like he who killed all humanity, and he who gives life to a person is like he gave life to all humanity Cultural exception could help preserve cultural identities and maintain cultural diversities Audiovisual industry is just one actor that can help in this regard

Arab Satellite Broadcasting: Major Developments and Trends

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 Most existing broadcasting systems in the Arab world were originally set up by the French or British colonials. When these institutions were taken over by local (nationalists) elites upon independence, they were largely turned into instruments of social mobilization and political control The will of the Arab countries to set up a common audiovisual system was born directly after 1967 war against Israel. A meeting of the Council of Arab Ministers of Information was organized the same year under the auspice of the Arab League in order to think about a common strategy in information matters Arab satellite television channels have been increasing enormously during the 1999s onward, however, most of these channels still working under the same concept of the old broadcasting system. They are delivering similar boring content mostly entertainment or superficial political discussions The digital age communication brings with it new challengers to the old Arab media and communication system. Changes of the global environment and the results brought about by globalization, communication technologies and direct satellite broadcasting have increasingly influenced all Arab countries
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The gradual transformation of Arab media system embraces different initiatives in different states with different purposes. In such a world of uncontrolled, confusing change, the behavior of the Arab states in general and media and communication sector in particular is reactive in its nature, limited in its scope, and reluctant in its intention The reality of the situation, however, is that most Arab governments that have allowed a level of freedom to satellite television still exercise substantial control While Arab governments maintain various levels of control over their satellite television stations, they are notably permissive when these stations are critical of other Arab governments Arab Satellite Broadcasting: The Need for a New Regulatory Framework Why are governments apparently so keen to revisit their media regulatory frameworks? There are a number of interlocking reasons The first is the general neo-liberalistic climate which has been a feature of global capitalism since 1980s and which has been associated with privatization of
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previously publicly owned services and of an ideological emphasis on the importance of free market forces, untrammeled by unnecessary restrictions. Secondly, convergence is bringing up anomalies in existing regulatory practice. This is true particularly in relation to digitization, the transformation of telephone network into a data telecommunications distribution channel, and the development of cable and satellite as alternative methods of distribution to traditional broadcast transmission Three factors have motivated some Arab states such as Egypt to gradually let go of their TV and radio monopolies: 1. Firstly, the competition of global, mostly Western satellite programs has made it necessary for Middle Eastern states to fill the professionalization and information gap between the old national state and the foreign programs. 2. Secondly, external competition has spurred the ambitious of some countries in the Middle East to broaden their influence in the region and make their new programs attractive to larger audiences beyond their national confines.

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3. Thirdly, pressure from the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has increased the willingness of Middles Eastern governments to include the media sector in their economic adjustment and privatization programs Despite the facts that lend support to deregulation of broadcasting and complete reliance on market forces and despite the presence of a developing trend toward increasing deregulation in broadcasting, a number of justifications for regulating the media have been accepted and serve as the continuing basis for existing regulation Media regulations especially that govern Arab television were induced to control the potential tension between the governments and peoples and were triggered by any new developments in media technology Given the fact that direct satellite broadcasting channels in the Arab region are mostly owned and operated under a direct strict governmental control, and based on the fact that the broadcasting system is just a dependent subsystem of the whole Arab cultural, political and economic system, it is not expected that broadcasting system will be revolutionary changed

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without real democratic changes in the structure of Arab system The emphasis on profit oriented, advertising fuelled content in the Arab region has already led to a decline in the range of informative voices. The cheap entertainment is prevailing throughout the Arab private channels to gain more profits To sum up the situation of the Arab broadcast media, it is possible to divide the TV channels into three categories: 1) the first is the state owned censored channels with emphasis on political propaganda and the least impact on public opinion 2) The private owned broadcast media, which are dedicated to entertainment programs, contests, and profit making 3) Al Jazeera, Al Arabya , Al Manar, Iqra, along with a few programs in some other cannels such as Abu Dhabi, Al Mehwar, Al Sharjah, and Orbit represent the third type of Arab satellite broadcast channels A Suggested Regulation
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Model

for

Arab

Broadcasting

 It is necessary to identify models of media regulation in order to understand which of these models will be suitable for the Arab world. There are clear difference between US, European and Arab regulation of media market In contrast to both American and European media regulations, Arab regulation historically stresses the tight government control over media especially radio and TV to achieve development, national integration and other political claims It is suggested that the independent media model to be suggested as a regulatory framework for Arab broadcasting Though, the suggested model will help overcome some shortcomings of both state and private owned broadcasting media in the Arab world, it will not per se solve the intricate problems related to the development of convergence between information technology and broadcasting media Conclusion This paper proves that throughout history, Arab state - owned broadcast channels are the invention of the state to perpetuate its domination and control at the expense of freedom of expression,
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cultural diversity, the right to communication and human rights among others The private - owned broadcast channels are not indications of media liberalization; they are the possible solution to solve the financial problems facing the governmental sector Assignment Write a report about the effect of "meaning of words" on communication. Answer Guide: Student writes a report about the following points: - In effect, communication, except in very simple situations, involves actions, reactions and interactions, depending on the flow of information, questions, and answers - One of the most frequent causes of misunderstanding is meanings of words. Homework Cultural diversity stems from cultural relativity" Comment. Answer Guide:

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- Student comments on the importance of respecting the differences among cultures which means that social values and moral codes indicate a wide range of cultural diversity which should be beyond the criticism of outsiders. - The philosophy of cultural relativism specifics that different cultures and societies have developed over historical periods different attitudes to the notion of human rights or human dignity

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9-Global Culture or Cultural Clash: An Islamic Intercultural Communication Perspective Introduction Central within the current debate on the impact of the information and communication technologies are the theories of the "global culture" and "cultural clashes", or global village and clash of civilizations

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According to the first theory (ICTs) will generate global culture or American culture and homogenous religious patterns; the cultural dimension of globalization On the other hand, theory that ICTs intensifies awareness of cultural difference that ultimately lead to cultural of cultural clashes claims clashes There are two competing views on what impact new information and communication technologies have on culture: 1) Those scholars who argue that we can expect an increasingly unified global culture. The main thesis of this vision is in line with the cultural imperialism theory 2) Those scholars who expect culture to remain complex and varied, and that these cultural differences may even lead to future cultural clashes. The dominant thesis of this vision is that the pattern of conflict in the era of globalization will follow the fault- lines of civilizations The Islamic perspective provides Third Way based on a harmonious mix of global communication values to safeguard a peaceful, tolerant, diversified and democratic intercultural communication
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Islam comprehends and fulfils all the requirements of life, past and future until the end of human existence on the earth whether these requirements are spiritual, material, political, economic, social, moral, intellectual, or aesthetic, in other words Islam determines the rules, which should form the basis of social, cultural relationship, economic, judicial, and political dealings, maters of war and peace, and international affairs Clash of Cultures Perspective The "us/them confrontation is the most persistent theme in world order perceptions. The dichotomy can take a variety of forms- the native versus the foreigner, the friend versus the foe, the familiar versus the strange, the Orient versus the West, the North versus the South, the developed versus the developing countries To what extent is this mode of thinking a product of culture and to what extent is cultural dualism intensifying hostility between the rest of the world and Islamic culture? Although a biased presentation of international events, such as the Gulf War, or regional events such as those arising from the confrontation between Arab and Islamist regimes, has no doubt fostered the
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perception of a threat, the dichotomy established by many between Islam and the West is based primarily on the false perceptions which have been conveyed traditionally to different peoples, as a result of a misinterpretation of history After the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, the debate around the question of clash of civilizations has been intensified and many scholars have taken this attack to support their notion about the clash between the Muslim world and the West However, it is imperative to emphasize two facts in this respect: 1- Israel and its followers in the US and the West have been trying to convince the West that the new "enemy" is the entire Islamic world. The tragedy of September 11 came as a gift from the sky to Israel and its supporters. They used the Taliban as a representation of all Islam and Muslim nations 2- Israel and its followers in the U. S and the West have been trying to equate Palestinian legitimate resistance to occupation with terrorism, specially after the successful experience of the Lebanese resistance movement

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To what extent the clash perspective has sound claims or allegations towards Islam and Muslim world? Huntington and others assert that Islamic culture explains in large part the failure of democracy to emerge in much of the Muslim world. However, the critical investigation of many studies shows that Islam is not an obstacle to the evolution of a democratic polity The author completely agrees with Muzaffar who noted that Huntington contradicts himself when he said that Muslims are the victims of violence, how can they be held responsible for generating violence? Shouldnt one distinguish the violence of the victim from the violence of the aggressor? By what moral criteria does one put both kinds of violence in the same bracket? In any case, there is no justification at all for linking Islam to violence The author also completely agrees with Abbas Malek and Krista Wiegand in when they tell us that the key problem is a lack of cultural relatively, which allows one to judge another culture by its standards rather than by using Western standards Global Culture Perspective The modern vision of the global village comes from the communication theory. Marshall McLuhan
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focuses on the rise of (and consequences of) electronic communication and rapid transportation, and their effects on culture. The electronic communication allowed people from different corners of the globe to simultaneously experience the same culture. Globalization, according to many theorists denotes, not only structural characteristics, but also includes culture. This will lead to increasing levels of tolerance and generate processes of cultural unification and homogenization. People will become increasingly aware that they belong to a global world, thus a global identity, mentality and culture is growing This perspective is mainly based on the idea that globalization of the electronic mass media especially Internet has established a new transnational identity and culture; the Western or definitely American identity and culture In this respect, the author between two global phenomena: differentiates

1.The first is the penetration of the communication technologies 2.The second is dominance of the culture of the West
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It is safe to say that theories about the inevitability of social, political, and economic change toward globalization and homogenization underestimate the resiliency of local identity and cultural difference in the developing world and the Islamic world in particular The Third Way Perspective " The Third Way" can contribute a great deal to the global civilization in general, and the intercultural communication in particular It can provide a corrective and a check to the materialism that characterizes much of contemporary civilizations, offering instead compassion, piety and a sense of humanity The Islamic principles which encourage flexibility and rational choice are reflected in the exchange: ijtihad, independent judgment; shura, consultation; and ijma, consensus. Clearly, rationality and mans own judgment play a significant part in arriving at decisions. Islam also places knowledge at the highest level of human endeavor. Reasoning and reinterpretation are embedded in Islamic history and text It is not new to state that the Third Way perspective very appreciate the value of democracy. The critical
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investigation of many studies shows that Islam is not an obstacle to the evolution of a democratic polity. And it would still be wrong to argue that Islamic culture is responsible for the failure of democracy in the Muslim world The Third Way is based also on one of the values that are imperative for developing a just intercultural communication. Justice is the hallmark of the Islamic system of government since God commands Muslims to uphold the principles of just dealings and fairness in setting disputes with non- Muslims Sadly, the old-new question about the terrorism and Muslims is still being asked in the West and even by the elite. Unfortunately, the other two intercultural communication perspectives completely misunderstand the Islamic Jihad and therefore undermine the potentials of the Third Way With regard to the ethics of the intercultural communication of the Third Way, Islam does not permit, not even to a journalist, to spy and seek to confirm suspicious, slander, circulation of rumor, and name-calling. Islam has established strong tradition of critical evaluation of the sources of news, use of sound methods of verification, documentation of evidence

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and testimony wherever possible, reporting within the proper context and treating the subject fairly Conclusion This paper proves the inability of both clash of cultures and global culture perspectives to offer a democratic, peaceful and just intercultural communication in the era of globalization. It also demonstrates the fundamental principles of the Islamic intercultural communication perspective which is capable to overcome the problems generated by the other alternatives and provides the globe with the values of tolerances, freedom, democracy, equity, balance, justice, modernity, rationality and peaceful coexistence The main conclusion the paper finds is that the humankind is in bad need to support the efforts that enable the Third Way perspective to replace dominance with tolerance, the monoculture with multiple cultures and clashes with peace Finally, I would like to emphasize the issue addressed by many Western and Muslim scholars : If we are to see a more positive Euro- American appreciation of Islam, all the misconceptions which each side holds concerning the other need to be re-examined
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Assignment Write a report about the two competing views on what impact new information and communication technologies have on culture Answer Guide: Students write a report to differentiate between 1) Those scholars who argue that we can expect an increasingly unified global culture. The main thesis of this vision is in line with the cultural imperialism theory 2) Those scholars who expect culture to remain complex and varied, and that these cultural differences may even lead to future cultural clashes. The dominant thesis of this vision is that the pattern of conflict in the era of globalization will follow the fault- lines of civilizations Homework The modern vision of the global village comes from the communication theory" Discuss. Answer Guide: - Student discuss the concept of the global village which comes from the communication theory (Marshall McLuhan focuses on the rise of (and consequences of)
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electronic communication and rapid transportation, and their effects on culture).

10-ICTs and Cultural Diversity with Reference to the Islamic Perspective Purpose

Special

This paper is an attempt to deal with two crucial questions of whether the new information and communication technologies (ICTs) help promote an open society based on cultural diversity and thus offer opportunities for a wide range of cultural voices to be heard in the global arena, or facilitate the erosion of cultural and linguistic differences and threaten cultural identity and sovereignty? The main assumption The paper is based on the assumption that ICTs can be a tool for either cultural diversity or cultural monism, they can serve to repress as well as to liberate, to unite as well as to fragment culture and society.
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 It is argued that ICTs can only be a tool for cultural and linguistic diversity if they enable the peoples of developing countries to express their culture through their native language and frame of reference with affordable cost Research significance The importance of this issue stems from the fact that the world is undergoing a revolution in ICTs, which has significant implications for cultural and linguistic diversity In March 2002 a UN report on ICT concluded that the growth rate of Internet users is roughly 150,000 persons per day, 220 million devices were accessing the World Wide Web and almost 200,000 devices were added each day Research questions Specifically, the following two questions are raised: a) Can information and communication technologies (ICTs) help promote global cultural diversity or Western cultural hegemony? b) To what extent Islamic culture enhances cultural diversity or encourages cultural clashes?
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Research method This paper is divided into three parts:

1.The first part attempts to give an explanation for the broad concept to the of cultural diversity with special reference Islamic perspective. It requires surveying and analyzing the dominant intellectual approaches in understanding cultural diversity 2.The second part assesses the potentials the Internet has with regard to cultural diversity. A number of communication theories as well as international statistical sources were reviewed 3.The third part discusses the ways the communications theories adopt to bridge the digital divide and summaries the main findings of the paper Part 1: Understanding cultural diversity If we are to investigate the impact ICTs have on culture, the opportunities and challenges they offer for cultural diversity, we should first understand cultural diversity.

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The prominent approaches of international cultural differences can be discussed under two headings: The first is the dichotomous classification of world cultures, such as individual versus collective, modern versus traditional, Western versus non-Western Variability theory is the second approach to understand cultural diversity .Hofstede identifies four value dimensions that are influenced and modified by culture: (a) individualism collectivism (b) uncertainty- avoidance (c) power distance (d) masculinity and femininity Multicultural world then is one, which comprises varied cultures that are continuously engaging in a tolerant cultural dialogue with internal as well as external differences. It is hard for a culture to claim and defend its tolerance with other cultures unless it practices an internal cultural dialogue, or internal cultural tolerance and opposite quite International cultural paradox
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Whereas international references and declarations talk about the ideal of cultural diversity, in practice even well-intentioned economists still see the ideal as integrating cultural values into their own growth paradigm or putting such values at the service of technology, rather than putting both technology and economics at the service of the cultural values and goals of local people In contrast to the universal human rights laws, international laws and conventions, the structure of new world order is obviously moving towards perpetuating the global monoculture or the American cultural and political values. The spread of this culture is supported by the global structure of power, which is currently a unipolar structure Western and Islamic cultures: Is there a conflict? The critical test of Western vision of cultural diversity depends on its ability to let others experience their preferable way of life, use their value systems and beliefs and express their cultures with its strength and weakness through their own languages and frame of

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references which seem partially inconsistent with what is prevailing in the West In this regard, one can definitely refer to the current misunderstanding between the Western and Islamic cultures. Instead of understanding the Islamic way of life, culture and Islamic Shariah (Law), in the context of cultural diversity, they are used by many to support arguments in favor of civilization and cultural incompatibility Islam and cultural diversity Scholars find evidence in the Quran to support the fact that cultural diversity and differences of opinion and disagreement are natural in social life and embedded in mankind Quran asserts when peoples and nations differ in cultures, experiences and perspectives, they can benefit from knowing one another, as this cultural diversity can enrich cultures and lead to beneficial exchange between them This cultural dialogue is emphatically energizing any culture to develop itself as well as enrich other cultures. Our Cultural Diversity Report issued by UNESCO in 1995 affirmed the fact announced in the Quran since its revelation by the blessed Prophet 1420
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years ago. The report states that any culture can benefit by comparison with other cultures, as it discovers its idiosyncrasies and peculiarities Part 2: ICTs and cultural diversity: Theoretical foundations There are two main competing views on what impact ICTs have on culture: 1) Scholars who argue that we can expect an increasingly unified global culture 2) Those who expect culture to remain complex and varied, and that these cultural differences may even lead to future cultural clashes These two perspectives have generated and will be producing a lot of troubles amongst peoples of the world as they threaten the fundamental democratic bases on which the intercultural and intra-cultural communication must evolve A fundamental argument about cultural imperialism on the Internet is whether the Net promotes heterogeneous or homogenous culture. If the vote is heterogeneous then the Net is not imperialistic. If the Net is homogenous then it is because a culture willingly adopts the new culture to replace its own
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There is no doubt that the main challenge of ICTs is the digital divide. This divide excludes entire cultures, groups and countries from the benefits of information and knowledge. This is giving rise to paradoxical situation where the needy and the disadvantaged groups and the illiterate populations do not have access to the tools which would enable them to become fully fledged members of the information society The universal problem of ICTs: The overlap of power and language Literature review in the area of ICTs shows that the majority of scholars, researchers, and politicians amongst others agree on the fact that advances in ICTs did more than almost anything else to drive the last decades economic boom, cultural homogenization, and integration of markets around the planet. At the same time, ever larger disparities between haves and have-nots undermine the kind of cultural and social consensus essential for world stability and political progress The Internet and cultural diversity: The macro analysis
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 The broader socio-economic explanation of the cultural implications of the Internet tells us that powerful force of standardization assault cultures and values. These forces homogenize, dilute and relegate diverse cultures to purely ornamental, vestigial or marginal positions in society The macro- economic analysis of the Internet in relation to cultural diversity affirms that despite the advent of our current information society, information itself and its technology have remained in the hands of the economic elite The Internet is far from being a tool for cultural diversity The North- American origin of the Internet is evident in the dominant language of the Net as well as the origin of most existing sites. The Anglophone influence in both form and content could be interpreted in terms of cultural dominance, or cultural homogenization and the Internet could be seen as a vehicle for marketing ideas, cultures, and values stemming from a specific part of the world However, historically, Arab Islamic culture did not constitute a closed system, but rather displayed, at
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major historical junctures, a profound ability to open up, developed and transcend itself. It welcomed the experiences of other nations and incorporated them in its knowledge systems and way of life, regardless of the differences and variations that distinguished Arab and Muslim societies from those nations and their experiences It is certain that the Internet cultural implications have forced Arab Muslim countries to engage in different activities, all of which focus on the ways of handling the threats of Internet unrestricted flow of communication and its expected internal cultural conflicts. Compared to the international standard, the efforts at control and censorship made by the Arab countries can be judged as varying between selective and severely restrictive ICTs and the risk of commercial visual culture The other form of the negative impact ICTs have on culture is that they have become the vehicles for the cultural goods; satellite communications technology from the mid-1980s gave rise to a powerful new medium with a global reach and to such global media networks as CNN The risk of this commercial visual culture is that the international dissemination of images transcends
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linguistic barriers, and global television has created a space of its own through a unique merger of entertainment and information technologies The crucial question for the Islamic societies as well as many other Asian and African societies is whether the emerging global information communication community is a moral and ethical community or just another stage in the unfolding picture of a transformation in which the West is the center and the rest is the periphery ? Part 3: Narrowing digital divide: communication theory perspective The

Cyber-optimists have used the normalization theory of the 19th Century French sociologist Gabriel Trade advanced by communication scholars Elihu Katz and Everett Rogers. The theory predicts that given standard demand, prices will fall further to attract new users, allowing laggards to catch up, so that eventually, accesses to digital technologies become pervasive The history of communication technologies shows that single technologies are adopted first by the wealthy and then by the middle class and lower income groups. However, this assumption lacks validity because of
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unforeseen changes in technology, society and users' behavior The facts of the digital divide are as follows: 1) The digital divide is real and is documented with hard data 2) There are important social consequences to the digital divide, as the benefits of using computer networking increase, the disadvantages for those not involved seriously with computers and the Internet will increase 3) Without policy directions, the gaps do not sufficiently fix themselves, those who are somewhat behind now with computer network communication are likely to get further behind due to the acceleration of technical development in communication technologies 4) The history of communication technologies shows that something must be done about access, learning and quality of content, historically , communication and power have always been fundamentally interrelated 5) The need for a communication infrastructure is greater now than ever before 6) Access and usage gaps can exist within and across demographic categories
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Conclusion It is certain that access of developing world to ICTs is essential for securing cultural and linguistic diversity, but access alone will perpetuate the domination of the global monoculture of English unless new solutions could be innovated to empower ICTs users to contribute to the whole cycle of knowledge which includes knowledge acquisition, organization, application, and production, consumption among others and this is what has been refereed to as the new perception of digital divide The paper also shows that the structure of new economic world order is obviously moving towards perpetuating the global monoculture and its values. The spread of this culture is supported by the global structure of power, which is currently a unipolar structure. Furthermore, the paper concludes that some Western countries lack plurality, tolerance when they interact with other cultures, especially with relation to the Islamic world More importantly, this work has found that pluralism, cultural and linguistic diversity are rooted in Islam, and that the real understanding of Islamic culture and thought will create common grounds for peaceful coexistence of mankind
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Assignment Find a research in the field of ICTs and cultural diversity, and then analyze its problem and findings Answer Guide: Student searches for a scientific research about ICTs and cultural diversity, and then analyzes its problem and findings trying to answer the following question (Whether the new information and communication technologies (ICTs) help promote an open society based on cultural diversity and thus offer opportunities for a wide range of cultural voices to be heard in the global arena, or facilitate the erosion of cultural and linguistic differences and threaten cultural identity and sovereignty?) Homework Can information and communication technologies (ICTs) help promote global cultural diversity or Western cultural hegemony? Answer Guide: Student presents his (her) opinion to support one of the following views: - (ICTs) help promote global cultural diversity
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- (ICTs) help promote Western cultural hegemony

Essay

Answer the following questions: (1) "The fear of Islam and Muslims is a major factor in the production of the negative Arab image in the West". Discuss this statement. (2) "Images of nations might be seemed to form, fundamentally, through a very complex communication process". Discuss this statement. (3) Define the Western image-makers . (4) Explain the relationship between "public sphere" and "democracy". (5) The ongoing changes in the Egyptian audiovisual sector can be understood from three different perspectives. Discuss this statement
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(6) Why is television far from being a public sphere? (7) Knowledge society is being created through the convergence of a number of industries. Discuss. (8) What are the unique characteristics of " knowledge society" ? (9) Determine qualities of the current communication revolution (10) What are the cornerstones of the generic right to communication? (11) Justify the limited effect of newspapers in setting public agenda. the national

(12) What are the two factors that will help contribute in the future development of mass media in Egypt? (13) Development communication can take place at different levels... Discuss. (14) Differentiate between the two opposite view of ICTs impact on development. (15) "Islam is not a neutral factor in the development process" Discuss. (16) Differentiate between the technical and the communication dimensions of democracy.

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(17) Analyze the relationship between internet potentials and the four components of democracy . (18) "The Illiteracy hampered the democratizing potentials of the Internet". Discuss (19) "Terrorism and violence are the most sensitive issues in the Arab world" Discuss (20) What are the five distinguishing characteristics of terrorism? (21) Determine the seven major categories of terrorism. (22) Define the cultural exception term. (23) Why are governments apparently so keen to revisit their media regulatory frameworks? (24) What are the three factors that have motivated some Arab states such as Egypt to gradually let go of their TV and radio monopolies? (25) Analyze the two competing views on impact of new information and communication technologies on culture. (26) Differentiate between "Clash of Cultures Perspective" and" Global Culture Perspective".

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(27) Discuss the main idea of "The Third Way Perspective". (28) "The prominent approaches of international cultural differences can be discussed under two headings". Discuss. (29) Explain the relationship between Islam and cultural diversity. (30) Differentiate between The broader socio-economic explanation and The macro- economic analysis of the Internet. Proplem Solving : Organize a visit to one of the national press institutions in Egypt and another visit to a private one. Discuss with reporters and the journalists in the two institutions the role of press in shaping the public sphere in Egypt. Proplem Solving : Student writes a final report about his two visits including the following points: - Opinions of journalists about the historical role of press in shaping Egyptian public opinion - The importance of the public sphere to democratic theory and democratic movements
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- The contribution of restricted media in shaping public sphere. Grouping Assignment - Find 5 researches in the field of international communication, and then write a group report about the main ideas of these researches. Answare Guide: - Students search for 5 published researches in the field of international communication, and then write a report including the following points:

- The problems of these researches - The main assumptions - The common methods - The important findings and conclusions assign.1 lect.1 .Discuss related research materials published around Arab image in Western media. Choose only one research and give your opinion on its findings. Answer guide:

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Students have to search for some relevant research materials and discuss its findings with specific emphasis on only one research article. assign.2 lect.2 Write a report about the relationship between public sphere and democracy. Answer guide: Students have to write a detailed report to analyze the link between public sphere and democracy. They have to think about the Egyptian status quo while discussing the abstract ideas. This assignment requires more emphasis on the following concepts: - Civil society - Public sphere - Democracy - Liberty - And freedom of expression assign.3 lect.3 Write a comprehensive report on the following points: - The meaning of academic freedom.
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- Impact of communication revolution on academic freedom. - New rules of universities in the age of information. Answer guide: Students have to go through the following guidelines: - Reading of some relevant research materials. - Summarizing of its findings. assign.4 lect.5 - Writing the main conclusions of such materials separately Write a report on the evolution of development communication theories and discuss the Islamic model for development. Students also have to give indicators why they agree or disagree with this model. Answer guide: Students have to go through the following guidelines: - Gather all ideas that may support the Islamic model of development. - Give focus for what you think is important to deepen the big ideas of this model.

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- Think about and provide opinion on why this model is far from being applied in the current Muslim societies assign.5 lect.7 Write a report on Western and non Western views that explain what is called international terror. How do you understand the role of mass media in maximizing the impact of terror? And what are your suggestions to rationalize medias role in relation to terrorism acts. Answer guide: - Review Western and non Western theories explaining terrorism. - Discuss different roles of media in propagating impact of terrorism acts. - Give your opinion on guiding mass media professionals on how to deal with terrorism acts.

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