Colloids and its uses

A colloid is a substance microscopically dispersed throughout another substance.[1] The dispersed-phase particles have a diameter of between approximately 2 and 500nanometers.[2] Such particles are normally invisible in an optical microscope, though their presence can be confirmed with the use of an ultra microscope or an electron microscope. Homogeneous mixtures with a dispersed phase in this size range may be called colloidal aerosols, colloidal emulsions, colloidal foams, colloidal dispersions, or hydrosols. The dispersed-phase particles or droplets are affected largely by the surface chemistry present in the colloid. Some colloids are translucent because of the Tyndall effect, which is the scattering of light by particles in the colloid. Other colloids may be opaque or have a slight color. Colloidal solutions (also called colloidal suspensions) are the subject of interface and colloid science. This field of study was introduced in 1861 by Scottish scientist Thomas Graham.

Types of colloids
Colloids are usually classified according to the original states of their constituent parts:
Dispersing medium Dispersed phase Solid Solid Solid Liquid Liquid Liquid Gas Gas Solid Liquid Gas Solid Liquid Gas Solid Liquid Name Solid sol Gel Solid foam Sol Emulsion Foam Solid aerosol Aerosol

Kinetic-Molecular Theory
The ideal gas equation pV = nRT
Has been presented as a compilation of empirical observation, i.e. the historically significant Gas Laws, but does The Ideal Gas equation have some deeper, more fundamental meaning? The Kinetic-Molecular Theory ("the theory of moving molecules"; Rudolf Claudius, 1857) 1. Gases consist of large numbers of molecules (or atoms, in the case of the noble gases) that are in continuous, random motion. Usually there is a great distance between each other, so the molecules travel in straight lines between abrupt collisions at the walls and between each other. These collisions randomize the motion of the molecules. Most of the collisions between molecules are binary, in that only two molecules are involved. 2. The volume of the molecules of the gas is negligible compared to the total volume in which the gas is contained. A common bond length between atoms is about 10-10 m or 1 Angstrom. Small molecules are therefore on the order of 10 Angstroms in diameter, or less than 10-24 Liters in Molecular Volume, quite tiny indeed! Remember, however that there can be a great many molecules in the sample of gas, perhaps on the order of a mole, or 6 x 1023. So that when concentrations of molecules exceed about 1 mol/liter, then the approximation that the volume of ALL the molecules in the container is much less than the volume of the container itself, fails. In the case of an ideal gas, we will assume that molecules are point masses, i.e., the volume of a mole of gas molecules (as if they were at rest) is zero, so molecular and container volumes never become comparable. 3. Attractive forces between gas molecules are negligible. We know that if these forces were significant, the molecules would stick together. This happens when it rains and gaseous water molecules stick together to form a liquid. Water vapor is a condensable gas, and this shows us that gas molecules are sticky, but at a high enough temperature they form only a permanent gas,

because their stickiness can be considered negligible. We will assume that in an ideal gas, molecular attractive forces are not just small, but identically zero.

Boyles Law

Boyle's law (sometimes referred to as the BoyleMariotte law) is an experimental gas law which describes how the pressure of a gas tends to decrease as the volume of a gas increases. A modern statement of Boyle's law is: The absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the volume it occupies if the temperature and amount remain unchanged within a closed system.[1][2] which can be written as:

or

where: P is the pressure of the gas V is the volume of the gas k is a constant. The equation states that product of pressure and volume is a constant for a given mass of confined gas as long as the temperature is constant. For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be usefully expressed as follows:

The equation shows that, as volume increases, the pressure of the gas decreases in proportion. Similarly, as volume decreases, the pressure of the gas increases. The law was named after chemist and physicist Robert Boyle, who published the original law in 1662.[3]

Charles Law

(also known as the law of volumes) is an experimental law which describes how gases tend to expand when heated. A modern statement of Charles's law is: The volume of a given mass of an ideal gas is directly proportional to its temperature on the absolute temperature scale (in Kelvin) if pressure and the amount of gas remain constant; that is, the volume of the gas increases or decreases by the same factor as its temperature.[1] this directly proportional relationship can be written as:

or

where: V is the volume of the gas T is the temperature of the gas (measured in Kelvin). k is a constant. This law explains how a gas expands as the temperature increases; conversely, a decrease in temperature will lead to a decrease in volume. For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be written as:

The equation shows that, as absolute temperature increases, the volume of the gas also increases in proportion. The law was named after scientist Jacques Charles, who formulated the original law in his unpublished work from the 1780s.

Gay-Lussac's Law
A third gas law may be derived as a corollary to Boyle's and Charles's laws. Suppose we double the thermodynamic temperature of a sample of gas. According to Charless law, the volume should double. Now, how much pressure would be required at the higher temperature to return the gas to its original volume? According to Boyles law, we would have to double the pressure to halve the volume. Thus, if the volume of gas is to remain the same, doubling the temperature will require doubling the pressure. This law was first stated by the Frenchman Joseph Gay-

Lussac (1778 to 1850). According to Gay-Lussacs law, for a given amount of gas held at constant volume, the pressure is proportional to the absolute temperature. Mathematically,

Where kG is the appropriate proportionality constant. Gay-Lussacs law tells us that it may be dangerous to heat a gas in a closed container. The increased pressure might cause the container to explode.

Avogadro's law
(Sometimes referred to as Avogadro's hypothesis or Avogadro's principle) is an experimental gas law relating volume of a gas to the amount of substance of gas present. A modern statement of Avogadro's law is: For a given mass of an ideal gas, the volume and amount (moles) of the gas are directly proportional if the temperature and pressure are constant. Which can be written as?

Or

Where: V is the volume of the gas N is the amount of substance of the gas (measured in moles). K is a constant. This law explains how, under the same condition of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules. For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be usefully expressed as follows:

The equation shows that, as the number of moles of gas increases, the volume of the gas also increases in proportion. Similarly, if the number of moles of gas is decreased, then the volume also decreases. Thus,

the number of molecules or atoms in a specific volume of ideal gas is independent of their size or the molar mass of the gas. The law is named after Amedeo Avogadro who, in 1811,[1] hypothesized that two given samples of an ideal gas, of the same volume and at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules. As an example, equal volumes of molecular hydrogen and nitrogen contain the same number of molecules when they are at the same temperature and pressure, and observe gas behavior. In practice, real gases show small deviations from the ideal behavior and the law holds only approximately, but are still a useful approximation for scientists.

Grahams law of effusion

Graham's law, known as Graham's law of effusion, was formulated by Scottish physical chemist Thomas Graham in 1848. Graham found experimentally that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of its particles.[1] This formula can be written as:

Where: Rate1 is the rate of effusion of the first gas (volume or number of moles per unit time). Rate2 is the rate of effusion for the second gas. M1 is the molar mass of gas 1 M2 is the molar mass of gas 2. Graham's law states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular weight. Thus, if the molecular weight of one gas is four times that of another, it would diffuse through a porous plug or escape through a small pinhole in a vessel at half the rate of the other (heavier gases diffuse more slowly). A complete theoretical explanation of Graham's law was provided years later by the kinetic theory of gases. Graham's law provides a basis for separating isotopes by diffusion a method that came to play a crucial role in the development of the atomic bomb. Graham's law is most accurate for molecular effusion which involves the movement of one gas at a time through a hole. It is only approximate

for diffusion of one gas in another or in air, as these processes involve the movement of more than one gas.

Daltons Law of gases

In chemistry and physics, Dalton's law (also called Dalton's law of partial pressures) states that the total pressure exerted by the mixture of non-reactive gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of individual gases. This empirical law was observed by John Dalton in 1801 and is related to the ideal gas laws. Mathematically, the pressure of a mixture of gases can be defined as the summation

or Where represent the partial pressure of each component.

It is assumed that the gases do not react with each other

Where is the mole fraction of the i-th component in the total mixture of n components? The relationship below provides a way to determine the volume based concentration of any individual gaseous component

Where

is the concentration of the i-th component expressed in ppm.

Dalton's law is not exactly followed by real gases. Those deviations are considerably large at high pressures. In such conditions, the volume occupied by the molecules can become significant compared to the free space between them. In particular, the short average distances between molecules raise the intensity of intermolecular forces between gas molecules enough to substantially change the pressure exerted by them. Neither of those effects are considered by the ideal gas model.

Ideal gas law

An ideal gas is defined as one in which all collisions between atoms or molecules are perfectly elastic and in which there are no intermolecular attractive forces. One can visualize it as a collection of perfectly hard spheres which collide but which otherwise do not interact with each other. In such a gas, all the internal energy is in the form of

kinetic energy and any change in internal energy is accompanied by a change in temperature. An ideal gas can be characterized by three state variables: absolute pressure (P), volume (V), and absolute temperature (T). The relationship between them may be deduced from kinetic theory and is called the

n = number of moles R = universal gas constant = 8.3145 J/mol K N = number of molecules k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38066 x 10-23 J/K = 8.617385 x 10-5 eV/K k = R/NA NA = Avogadro's number = 6.0221 x 1023 /mol

The ideal gas law can be viewed as arising from the kinetic pressure of gas molecules colliding with the walls of a container in accordance with Newton's laws. But there is also a statistical element in the determination of the average kinetic energy of those molecules. The temperature is taken to be proportional to this average kinetic energy; this invokes the idea of kinetic temperature. One mole of an ideal gas at STP occupies 22.4 liters.

Combined Gas Law:

The pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional to each other, but directly proportional to the temperature of that gas. Mathematically, this can be represented as: Temperature = Volume x Pressure / Constant or Volume = Constant x Temperature / Pressure or Pressure = Constant x Temperature / Volume or Pressure x Volume/Temperature = Constant Substituting in variables, the formula is:

PV/T=K Because the formula is equal to a constant, it is possible to solve for a change in volume, temperature, or pressure using a proportion: PV/T = P1V1/T1

Atomic structures
The text provides a historical perspective of how the internal structure of the atom was discovered. It is certainly one of the most important scientific discoveries of this century, and I recommend that you read through it. However, we will begin our discussion of the atom from the modern day perspective. All atoms are made from three subatomic particles Protons, neutron & electrons. These particles have the following properties: Particle Proton Neutron Electron Charge +1 0 -1 Mass (g) 1.6727 x 10-24 g 1.6750 x 10-24 g 9.110 x 10-28 g Mass (amu) 1.007316 1.008701 0.000549

History of the development of the atomic theory

The earliest Greek philosophers thought that all the different things in the world were made out of a single basic substance. Some thought that water was the fundamental substance and that all other substances were derived from it. Others thought

that air was the basic substance; still others favored fire. But neither water, nor air nor fire was satisfactory. No one substance seemed to have enough different properties to give rise to the enormous variety of substances in the world. According to another view introduced by Empedocles around 450 B.C., there were four basic types of matter- earth, air, fire, and water. All material things were made out of them. He proposed that these four basic materials could mingle and separate and reunite in different proportions. By doing so they could produce the vast variety of familiar objects around us as well as explain the changes in those objects. But the basic four materials, called elements, were supposed to persist through all these changes. This theory was the first appearance of a model of matter explaining all material things as just different arrangements of a few elements. The first atomic theory of matter was introduced by the Greek philosopher Leucippus, born about 500 B.C. and his pupil Democritus. Only scattered fragments of the writings of these two philosophers remain. But their ideas were discussed in considerable detail by the Greek philosophers Aristotle and Epicurus, and later by the Latin poet Lucretius. To these men we owe most of our knowledge of ancient atomism. The theory of the atomists was based on the following assumptions: 1. Matter is eternal - no material thing can come from nothing, nor can any material thing pass into nothing. 2. Material things consist of very small indivisible particles. The word atom meant "uncut table" in Greek. 3. Atoms differ chiefly in their sizes and shapes. 4. Atoms exist in otherwise empty space (the void) which separates them, and this space allows them to move from one place to another. 5. Atoms are continually in motion, although the nature and cause of the motion are not clear. 6. In the course of their motions atoms come together and form combinations which are the material substances we know. When the atoms forming these combinations separate, the substances decay or break up. Thus, the combinations and separations of atoms give rise to the changes which take place in the world. 7. The combinations and separations take place according to natural laws which are not yet clear, but do not require the action of gods or demons or other supernatural powers. In fact, one of the chief aims of the atomists was to liberate people from superstition and fear. With these assumptions, the ancient atomists worked out a consistent story of change, which they sometimes called "coming-to-be" and "passing away". They could not demonstrate

experimentally that their theory was correct - it was simply an explanation derived from assumptions that seemed reasonable to them.

The atomic theory was severely criticized by Aristotle. He argued logically - from his own assumptions - that no vacuum or void could exist. Therefore, the idea of atoms in continual motion must be rejected. He was also probably aware of the fact that in his time belief in atomism was identified with atheism as it stated that gods were unnecessary - not a very healthy view in 450 B.C

Daltons atomic theory.

Democritus first suggested the existence of the atom but it took almost two millennia before the atom was placed on a solid foothold as a fundamental chemical object by John Dalton (1766-1844). Although two centuries old, Dalton's atomic theory remains valid in modern
Dalton's Atomic Theory

1) All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible. 2) All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties 3) Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of atoms. 4) A chemical reaction is arrangement of atoms.

Modern atomic theory is, of course, a little more involved than Dalton's theory but the essence of Dalton's theory remains valid. Today we know that atoms can be destroyed via nuclear reactions but not by chemical reactions. Also, there are different kinds of atoms (differing by their masses) within an element that is known as "isotopes", but isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties. Chemical thought.

Modern atomic theory

In 1808 an English schoolteacher proposed the following explanation of matter. Since then we have learned more about the atom and now have a slightly different theory. All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms. Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass and other properties. Atoms of different elements differ in size, mass and other properties. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number ratios. in chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged.

Isotopes
Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons; the different possible versions of each element are called isotopes. For example, the most common isotope of hydrogen has no neutrons at all; there's also a hydrogen isotope called deuterium, with one neutron, and another, tritium, with two neutrons.

Hydrogen

Deuterium

Tritium

If you want to refer to a certain isotope, you write it like this: AXZ. Here X is the chemical symbol for the element, Z is the atomic number, and A is the number of neutrons and protons combined, called the mass number. For instance, ordinary hydrogen is written 1H1, deuterium is2H1, and tritium is 3H1.

Alkaline earth metals (uses)

, alkaline earth metals any of the six chemical elements that comprise Group 2 (IIa) of the periodic table. The elements are beryllium (Be), magnesium(Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra).

Occurrence, properties, and uses

Prior to the 19th century, substances that were nonmetallic, insoluble in water, and unchanged by fire were known as earths. Those earths, such as lime (calcium oxide), that resembled the alkalies (soda ash and potash) were designated alkaline earths. Alkaline earths were thus distinguished from the alkalies and from other earths, such as alumina and the rare earths. By the early 1800s it ... (100 of 3,073 words)

Boron group (uses)

The boron group is the series of elements in group 13 (IUPAC style) in the periodic table. The boron group consists of boron (B), aluminium (Al), gallium(Ga), indium (In), thallium (Tl), and ununtrium (Uut).
Uses of boron 1) used as a deoxidizer in casting of copper 2) used as control rods in atomic reactors 3) catalytic agent Uses of compounds of boron 1) Borax stiffening of candles making optical and borosilicate glasses

in water softening as a flux in qualitative analysis 2) orthoboric acid in glass industry food preservative eye wash and antiseptic 3) diborane reducing agent catalyst in polymerization reactions

Carbon group
The carbon group is a periodic table group consisting of carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium(Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), and flerovium (Fl). In modern IUPAC notation, it is called Group 14. In the field of semiconductor physics, it is still universally called Group IV. The group was once also known as the tetrels (from Greek tetra, four), stemming from the Roman numeral IV in the group names, or (not coincidentally) from the fact that these elements have four valence electrons (see below). The group is sometimes also referred to as tetragens or crystallogens.

Carbon uses
Heat resistant devices, tools and metal cutters have carbon built in. The metal is also used in cooling systems and machinery. Carbon monoxide is employed as a reduction agent. This is necessary to get compounds and other elements.

As carbon dioxide, it can be found in dry ice, fire extinguishers, carbonated and fizzy drinks. Vegetal carbon is sometimes used as a gas absorbent or bleaching agent. The

same element is utilized as a decorative tool for jewelry. Many inkjet printers employ carbon as ink base. It is applied as a black fume pigment in car rims.

Nitrogen group
The pnictogens[1] /nktdnz/ are the chemical elements in group 15 of the periodic table. This group is also known as the nitrogen family. It consists of the elements nitrogen(N), phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi) and the synthetic elementununpentium (Uup) (unconfirmed). In modern IUPAC notation, it is called Group 15. In CAS and the old IUPAC systems it was called Group VA and Group VB, respectively (pronounced "group five A" and "group five B", "V" for the Roman numeral 5).[2] In the field of semiconductor physics, it is still usually called Group V.[3] The "five" ("V") in the historical names comes from the "pentavalency" of nitrogen, reflected by the stoichiometry of compounds such as N2O5.

Chalcogen group
The chalcogens (/klkdnz/) are the chemical elements in group 16 of the periodic table. This group is also known as the oxygen family or group 16. It consists of the elements oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), and the radioactive element polonium (Po). The synthetic element livermorium (Lv) is predicted to be a chalcogen as well.[1] The word chalcogen is derived from a combination of the Greek word khalks() principally meaning copper (the term was also used for bronze/brass, any metal in the poetic sense, ore or coin),[2][3] and the Latinized Greek word genes, meaning born or produced.[4][

Halogen group
The halogens or halogen elements (/hldn/) are a group in the table consisting of five chemically related elements, fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine(I), and astatine (At). The artificially created element 117 (ununseptium) may also be a halogen. In the modern IUPAC nomenclature, this group is known as group 17.

The group of halogens is the only periodic table group which contains elements in all three familiar states of matter at standard temperature and pressure. All of the halogens form acids when bonded to hydrogen. Most halogens are typically produced from minerals of salts. The middle halogens, that is, chlorine, bromine and iodine, are often used as disinfectants. The halogens are also all toxic.

Noble

gas

The noble gases make a group of chemical elements with similar properties: under standard, they are all odorless, colorless, monatomic gases with very low chemical. The six noble gases that occur naturally are helium (He), neon (Ne),argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and the radioactive radon (Rn). For the first six periods of the periodic table, the noble gases are exactly the members of group 18 of the periodic table. It is possible that due to relativistic effects, the group 14element flerovium exhibits some noble-gas-like properties,[1] instead of the group 18 elementununoctium.[2] The properties of the noble gases can be well explained by modern theories of atomic structure: their outer shell of valence electrons is considered to be "full", giving them little tendency to participate in chemical reactions, and it has been possible to prepare only a few hundred noble gas compounds. The melting and boiling points for a given noble gas are close together, differing by less than 10 C (18 F); that is, they are liquids over only a small temperature range. Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are obtained from air in an air separation unit using the methods of liquefaction of gases and fractional distillation. Helium is sourced from natural gas fields which have high concentrations of helium in the natural gas, using cryogenic gas separation techniques, and radon is usually isolated from the radioactive decay of dissolved radium compounds. Noble gases have several important applications in industries such as lighting, welding, and space exploration. A helium-oxygen breathing gas is often used by deepsea divers at depths of seawater over 55 m (180 ft) to keep the diver from experiencing oxygen, the lethal effect of high-pressure oxygen, and nitrogen narcosis, the distracting narcotic effect of the nitrogen in air beyond this partial-pressure threshold. After the risks caused by the flammability of hydrogen became apparent, it was replaced with helium in blimps and balloons.

Early transition metal

Early transition metals are does starting at the beginning of the transition metals (i.e. Sc) and going through about d5 which would be Mn. These metals are less electron rich as compared to the so-called "late" transition metals and the chemistry of each is somewhat different and definitely unique. Hardness and softness of the each of these groups changes (see Hard Soft Acid Base Theory) as does the stable oxidation states and coordination numbers.

Late transition metal

A transition metal carbine complex is a organ metallic compound featuring a divalent organic ligand. The divalent organic ligand coordinated to the metal center is called a carbine. All transition metals form such complexes. Many methods for synthesizing them and reactions utilizing them have been reported. The term carbene ligand is formalism since many are not derived from carbenes and almost none exhibit the reactivity characteristic of carbenes. Described often as M=CR2, they represent a class of organic ligands intermediate between alkyls (-CR3) and carbynes (CR). They feature in many catalytic reactions in the petrochemical industry and are of increasing interest in fine chemicals. The characterization of (CO) 5Cr (COCH3 (Ph)) in the 1960's is often cited as the starting point of the area,[1] although carbenoid ligands had been previously implicated.

Lanthanides & Actinides

The lanthanide and actinide series make up the inner transition metals. They belong between groups 2 and 3 of the transition metals. The lanthanide series includes elements 58 to 71, which fill their 4f sublevel progressively. The actinides are elements 90 to 103 and fill their 5f sublevel progressively. Actinide series are typical metals and have properties of both the d block and the f block elements, but they are also radioactive. Lanthanides have different chemistry from transition metals because their 4f orbitals are shielded from the atom's environment.

TERMS

lanthanide

Any of the 14 rare earth elements from cerium (or from lanthanum) to lutetium in the periodic table. Because their outermost orbitals are empty, they have very similar chemistry. Below them are the actinides.

lanthanide contraction

The progressive decrease in the radii of atoms of the lanthanide elements as the atomic increases; evident in various physical properties of the elements and their compounds

actinide

Any of the 14 radioactive elements of the periodic table that are positioned under the lanthanides, with which they share similar chemistry
EXAMPLES

Atomic bombs charged with plutonium (actinoid) were used in World War II (Figure 1). Plutonium was a power source for Voyager spacecrafts launched in 1977 and is also used in artificial heart pacemakers.

Atomic Bomb Explosion

Plutonium charge was used in the atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki.