Blast and Impact Resistance of Laminated Glass Structures

Mr P. Hooper, Mr H. Arora and Dr J. P. Dear

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, UK
p.hooper07@imperial.ac.uk
Abstract
Glass fragments produced by explosions pose a signicant risk of injury to those close by. Laminated glass can
help mitigate these risks. Full scale blast testing of laminate windows was performed with charge sizes from 15-500
kg at ranges of 10-30 m. Full-eld deection measurements of the window pane were obtained using high-speed
3D digital image correlation (DIC) along with load measurements at the joint. A high-speed servo-hydraulic machine
was used to replicate the high strain-rates seen under blast loading. Cracked laminated glass was loaded in tension
at varying rates to determine the stress-strain response. Delamination between the interlayer to glass interface was
observed using high-speed photoelasticity. These experiments can provide input data for models of blast response
of laminated beyond the fracture of the glass plies. Assumptions made in current design standards were found to
be not valid in some cases. Interlayers of thickness less than 1.52 mm were found to fail prematurely and should
therefore be avoided in blast resistance designs.
1 Introduction
Buildings with prominent glazed facades make ideal targets for terrorists aiming to maximise human casualties
and perceived damage. Annealed window glass is a brittle material that offers little resistance to the shock waves
produced by explosions and creates sharp fragments that can travel at high velocity if it fractures. Historically, the
majority of injuries from bomb blasts have been from glass fragments[1]. To mitigate this laminated glass is used
to protect building occupants by retaining fragmented glass to a polyvinyl butyral (PVB) interlayer. After the glass
plies fracture, the PVB interlayer between the cracked glass continues to offer resistance to the blast wave. To be
effective the laminated glass needs to be well held to a supporting structure, usually with a structural silicone joint. If
the joint is not strong enough, the pane could detach from the structure and y into the building, injuring occupants.
The work presented in this paper is part of a research project at Imperial College London initiated by Arup Security
Consulting. The aim of this research is improve the understanding of the behaviour of cracked laminated glass and
loading on the joint so that current design standards can be improved, helping structural engineers optimise their
glazing designs for a specic blast threat.
2 Background
Three current standards address the design of glazing to reduce to hazards in a blast, UFC 4-010-01 and ASTM
F2248 in the US and the Glazing Hazard Guide in the UK. The UFC standard prescribes a minimum laminated
glass make-up of a 0.75 mm PVB interlayer between two 3 mm annealed glass layers and a structural silicone
bite depth of 9.5 mm[2]. This guidance is said to be valid for blast loading up to a 33 kPa peak pressure with a
Proceedings of the IMPLAST 2010 Conference
October 12-14 2010 Providence, Rhode Island USA
2010 Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc.
283 kPa-ms impulse and a 40 kPa peak pressure with a 205 kPa-ms impulse[3]. For loadings above these values
the design needs to be validated with blast testing or a detailed analysis. The ASTM F2248 standard allows the
designer to calculate an equivalent 3 s duration wind load for a particular charge weight and standoff[4]. The
calculated equivalent load is then used in conjunction with the ASTM E1300 standard for selecting glass to resist
wind loads[5]. The equivalent wind loads were determined from blast tests and correlate windows that broke safely
with the charge weight and standoff distance used in the test. In this procedure the PVB interlayer is ignored and
the laminated glass is considered as a monolithic pane with the same nominal thickness of glass. Both of these
standards consider the glazing to have failed when the glass plies fracture, neglecting any additional resistance
offered by the PVB interlayer.
The Glazing Hazard Guide[6] adopts an approach that extends beyond the fracture of the glass plies by considering
the laminated pane as a single degree of freedom (SDOF) system consisting of an equivalent load, mass and spring,
as described by Smith[1]. The equivalent load and mass are determined from conversion factors for the particular
dimensions of the glass pane. These were derived assuming that the deected shape is the same as in the static
case. The equivalent spring function is a non-linear function determined from a static analysis of the glass pane
using large deection plate theory. This analysis is performed up to the point where the maximum stress exceeds
the breaking strength for the glass type considered. After this, a similar static analysis is performed on the cracked
glass by treating the PVB interlayer as a membrane. An assumed high strain-rate modulus for the PVB is used to
do this. The response of the SDOF system to a blast load is then analysed using a nite differencing scheme as
described by Biggs[7]. A total 200 mm deection limit is imposed on the analysis, after which it is assumed that the
PVB interlayer would tear. This assumption is based on observations from blast tests on 1.5 m 1.2 m windows
of 7.52 mm laminated glass. The guide compiles results together of common window sizes and a plots the limiting
curves for glass breakage and a 200 mm deection on a pressure-impulse diagram. This allows easy determination
of the window size required to resist a specic blast threat.
Several assumptions have been used in the development of the current design standards, namely the assumption
that the deected shape under blast load is the same as that in the static loading case and that the PVB response is
linear elastic. Both of these are known to be untrue in many situations and the experiments conducted here attempt
to address that.
3 Blast testing
A series of eight open-air blast experiments were performed on a total of 12 laminated glass panes at RAF
Spadeadam, Cumbria, UK. Charges ranging in mass from 15-500 kg (TNT equivalent) were detonated at stand-off
distances from 10-30 m. For each test an explosive charge was detonated in front of a test cubicle housing the
test window(s) and measurements of window deection, edge reaction forces and blast pressure were made. The
charge was positioned symmetrically in front of the cubicle at a standoff distance R, raised on foam blocks to height
h as shown in Figure 1.
Concrolo
losl pad
1
2
Tosl
cubicIo
Tosl
vindov
Clargo Ioam
Figure 1: Side elevation of test arrangement.
(a) High-speed camera setup.
Steel subframe
Silicone joint
Laminated glass
(b) Frame cross-section showing strain gauge pair.
Figure 2: Details of instrumentation.
3.1 Image correlation
High-speed 3D digital image correlation (DIC) was used to track the full rear-surface position of the window at 1 ms
intervals during each blast test. Two synchronised high-speed cameras with a resolution of 10241024 pixels were
mounted inside the test cubicle at a working distance s
w
from the test window and centred on the window centre
point. The camera setup used is shown in Figure 2a. A high-contrast speckle pattern was applied to the rear of
the window using acrylic paint to allow correlation of position between the two cameras. Paint was also applied to
the front of the window to block out light from the explosion. The system was then calibrated using a calibration
grid before the test. After the test the captured images of the deformation were imported into the ARAMIS image
correlation software (produced by GOM mbH) to compute 3D position and strain of the window.
3.2 Edge reaction forces
Pairs of foil strain gauges were bonded to a steel window frame at the midpoint of each frame edge to measure
edge reaction forces. The position of the gauges on the subframe cross-section is shown in Figure 2b. The strain
readings from each gauge can be used to calculate the tension in the cracked laminate, F, at an angle of pull, , at
the joint by considering the subframe as a built-in cantilever beam. Measurements for the angle of pull were made
from analysis of the DIC results to allow the direct calculation of tension in the PVB.
3.3 Results from a 7.52 mm laminated pane
The example results presented here are from a test on a 1.51.2 m laminated pane using a charge weight of 30 kg
(TNT equivalent) at 14 m. This charge weight and range created a peak reected pressure and reected impulse
of 127 kPa and 413 kPa-ms respectively. The laminate used was constructed from two 3 mm annealed glass plies
and a 1.52 mm PVB interlayer. A 20 mm deep single sided structural silicone joint was used the bond the glass to
a steel window frame. Traces of central deection, velocity and acceleration vs time are shown in Figure 3a. The
pane began to move at 19 ms and rapidly accelerated up to a velocity of 29 m/s before failure of the joint at 26
ms. A peak acceleration of approximately 6 km/s
2
was recorded in this rst period. A displacement of 140 mm
was recorded at the time of joint failure. No tearing of the PVB interlayer was observed. The pane deected over
250 mm before the DIC could no longer track it due to excess light entering around the failed joint. After this point
the pane continued to travel inwards at approximately 30 m/s until it impacted a frame protecting the high-speed
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Figure 3: Results from a 30 kg charge at 14 m.
camera equipment. Figure 3b shows the angle of pull at the frame and the the tension in the cracked derived from
the strain gauge readings. It shows the laminate forms a 30

angle with the frame edge at the time of failure and

that tearing of the joint started at approximately 25 ms with an edge load of about 20 kN/m. Tension in the laminate
varied between 20-30 kN per unit width, corresponding to a stress in the PVB of between 13-20 MPa.
Figure 3c shows a cross-sections of displacement taken horizontally across the centre of the window. Each line is
plotted at 2 ms intervals ending with the line of largest deection at 30 ms. The lines clearly show a relatively at
central region deecting into the cubicle and deformed curved regions close to the edges. As the pane deects
further the at central region becomes smaller until the whole prole is curved. This is due to the restraint at the
edges causing transverse waves to propagate inwards towards the centre from each edge. The same effect is
seen in the image sequences presented in Figure 4. The contour lines on the out-of-plane deection plots are
approximately rectangular in shape and are spaced tighter close to the window edges. This indicates that the
deformed areas are concentrated around the window edges and that the centre region of the window is largely
at and undeformed. The maximum principal strain plots show how the strain was concentrated near the edges,
reaching about 8% in the corners and 5-6% near the edges. Maximum strain-rates were also calculated and were
in the order of 15 s
1
.
Under impulsive blast loading the window pane rapidly accelerates and quickly acquires an approximately uniform
velocity eld across its surface. If the blast wave duration is short the subsequent deection occurs almost entirely
due to the momentum of the pane. The restraint at the edge causes a transverse deceleration wave to propagate
inwards from each edge towards the centre. The ratio between the transverse wave speed and the inward velocity
is crucial to the response of the window. A fast inward velocity and slow transverse wave speed will cause a large
undeformed central region, with strain and curvature concentrated near to the edges. Strain-rate in this region will
also be high and could to lead to tearing of the PVB around the edges. A slow inward velocity and fast transverse
wave speed will allow the strain and curvature to develop over a larger area and will be lower in magnitude.
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Figure 4: Image correlation results showing: left - raw images, centre - displacement and right - strain.
4 Tensile testing of cracked laminated glass
Tension in the cracked laminated glass, as observed in the blast tests, was reproduced in the laboratory using a
high-rate servo-hydraulic tensile test machine. Test samples were prepared from 15060 mm laminated glass strips
with 3 mm thick glass plies and PVB interlayer thicknesses ranging from 0.38 mm to 2.28 mm. The glass plies in the
sample were fractured before testing to create fragments that were similar to the crazed glass seen in a blast test.
This was achieved by scoring the glass at regular intervals with a purpose built jig and initiating cracks along the
score line by gently tapping with a hammer. Using this method it was possible to produce a regular and controlled
pattern, enabling the effect of fragment size to be investigated. Figure 5 shows an edge-on view of the cracked
laminate. Under tension the PVB interlayer delaminates from the glass fragments and forms a ligament that bridges
the gap between glass fragments.
Figure 5: Edge-on view of cracked laminated glass under tension.
A force vs extension curve for a cracked glass sample with a 1.52 mm interlayer is shown in Figure 6a. The glass
fragment size in the sample was 10 mm and the test was conducted at 3 m/s, given a nominal strain-rate of 20 s
1
.
It can be seen from the graph that the tension rises quickly to a value of about 24 kN/m as the end of the sample
was displaced. The tension was then relatively constant until the sample tore at a strain of 120%. This sharp rise
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(a) Typical force vs extension graph for a cracked laminate.
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Figure 6: Results of high-rate tension tests on cracked laminated glass with a 1.52 mm PVB interlayer.
Figure 7: Face-on view of delamination in a 1.52 PVB cracked laminate sample at 30 s
1
.
Figure 8: Delamination and tearing of a 0.76 mm PVB interlayer at 2 m/s.
followed by a nominally constant force was typical of most tests. The initial sharp rise is due to the elastic extension
of the PVB bridging cracks in the glass plies. Here, the effective length of the sample is very small, and the strain
in the PVB is concentrated around the cracks, giving local strain-rates that are much higher than the nominal strain-
rate. Delamination of the PVB from the glass changes the length PVB that is able to extend and nominal force
is reached when the force required to progress the delamination is reached. Figure 6b shows the nominal force
reached as the strain-rate is increased. In the blast test shown in Section 3.3 a strain-rate of 15 s
1
was observed.
The nominal force recorded using this test method was between 20-25 kN/m at that strain-rate and agrees well with
the tension values calculated from the blast test.
PVB is birefringent and a colour high-speed camera combined with a polariscope was used to observe the delamin-
ation of the PVB from the glass fragments. Figure 7 shows a cracked laminate sample with a 10 mm fragment
spacing and a 1.52 mm PVB interlayer tested at 30 s
1
. The sequence shows a face-on view of the glass frag-
ments, the progression of delaminated area around the cracks and the area of the fragment that is still bonded
to the PVB. In this test the delamination fronts progressed far enough so that the glass fragments were no longer
bonded to the PVB before the PVB failed. This is clearly not a desirable case in a blast event, defeating one re-
quirement of the interlayer, and therefore the maximum nominal strain reached in any model needs to be limited.
Complete debonding of the was not seen as often in interlayers thinner than 1.52 mm. Figure 8 shows a crack on
a laminate sample with a 0.76 mm PVB interlayer. The sequence is focused on a single crack and shows how the
delamination front does not propagate far into the fragments before the the PVB tears. The reason for this is that the
delamination front propagates slower due to the reduced force exerted by the thinner interlayer for a given strain.
The length of PVB that is able to extend does not increase quickly enough to relieve the build up of strain in the
bridging ligaments. Therefore the PVB reaches its failure strain quickly and tears. In a blast event this would result
in the laminate tearing near the edges and the whole laminate would enter the building as one piece at high velocity.
For this reason PVB interlayers below a thickness of 1.52 mm should be avoided in blast resistant designs.
5 Conclusions
In this paper selected results from a research project into the post-fracture behaviour of laminated glass under
blast loading have been presented. It was shown that some of the assumptions made in current design standards
are not valid in some cases. Specically the deection prole under blast loading can differ signicantly from the
assumed static deection prole. Measurements of the deection prole of a window during a blast test, made using
high-speed digital image correlation, showed that the window was undeformed across the centre with deformation
and strain concentrated near the edges. Maximum principal strain and strain-rate reached approximately 8% and
15 s
1
. Tension values between 20-30 kN/m were measured in the cracked laminate during the blast. High-rate
tension tests on cracked laminates recorded a nominal tension value of 24 kN/m at similar strain rates. It was
shown that thin interlayers can fail a low extensions due to a concentration of strain in the interlayer bridge between
fragments. This was caused by a slow moving delamination front between the PVB and glass fragments. Use of
PVB interlayers below 1.52 mm in thickness should therefore be avoided because of this effect.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) and Arup Security Consulting (Mr
D. Hadden, Mr D. Smith and Mr R. Sukhram) for supporting Mr P. Hooper and Ofce of Naval Research (Dr Y.
Rajapakse) for supporting Mr H. Arora.
References
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[2] Department of Defense. Unied Facilities Criteria: DoD minimum antiterrorism standards for buildings. UFC
4-010-01 (2003).
[3] Norville, H. S. & Conrath, E. J. Blast-resistant glazing design. Journal of Architectural Engineering 12, 129136
(2006).
[4] ASTM. Standard practice for specifying an equivalent 3-second duration design loading for blast resistant glazing
fabricated with laminated glass. F2248-09 (2009).
[5] ASTM. Standard practice for determining load resistance of glass in buildings. E1300-09a (2009).
[6] Security Facilities Executive Special Services Group - Explosion Protection. Glazing hazard guide (RESTRIC-
TED). Cabinet Ofce, London (1997).
[7] Biggs, J. M. Introduction to structural dynamics (McGraw-Hill, 1964).