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Automobile Pollution

Rutw ik Gadg il
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INDEX: Cars and Pollution Sources of Auto Emissions The Combustion Process Exhaust Pollutants Evaporative Emissions How Does Car Pollution Affect the Environment & Ozone Layer? Indian Scenario What Has Been Done to Control Automobile Emissions? WHAT HAS BEEN DONE TO REDUCE AUTOMOBILE POLLUTION GLOBALLY MEDIA ARTICLE BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Automobile Pollution:

Cars and Pollution Emissions from an individual car are generally low, relative to the smokestack image many people associate with air pollution. But in numerous cities across the country, the personal automobile is the single greatest polluter, as emissions from millions of vehicles on the road add up. Driving a private car is probably a typical citizens most polluting daily activity.

Sources of Auto Emissions The power to move a car comes from burning fuel in an engine. Pollution from cars comes from by-products of this combustion process (exhaust) and from evaporation of the fuel itself.

The Combustion Process Gasoline and diesel fuels are mixtures of hydrocarbons, compounds which con- tain hydrogen and carbon atoms. In a perfect engine, oxygen in the air would convert all the hydrogen in the fuel to water and all the carbon in the fuel to carbon dioxide. Nitrogen in the air would remain unaffected. In reality, the combustion process cannot be perfect, and automotive engines emit several types of pollutants. Perfect Combustion FUEL (hydrocarbons) + AIR (oxygen and nitrogen) CARBON DIOXIDE + water + unaffected nitrogen
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Typical Engine Combustion FUEL + AIR UNBURNED HYDROCARBONS + NITROGEN OXIDES + CARBON MONOXIDE + CARBON DIOXIDE + water Exhaust Pollutants HYDROCARBONS Hydrocarbon emissions result when fuel molecules in the engine do not burn or burn only partially. Hydrocarbons react in the presence of nitrogen oxides and sunlight to form ground-level ozone, a major component of smog. Ozone irri- tates the eyes, damages the lungs, and aggravates respiratory problems. It is our most widespread and intractable urban air pollution problem. A number of exhaust hydrocarbons are also toxic, with the potential to cause cancer. NITROGEN OXIDES (NOx) Under the high pressure and temperature conditions in an engine, nitrogen and oxygen atoms in the air react to form various nitrogen oxides, collectively known as NOx. Nitrogen oxides, like hydrocarbons, are precursors to the formation of ozone. They also contribute to the formation of acid rain. CARBON MONOXIDE Carbon monoxide (CO) is a product of incomplete combustion and occurs when carbon in the fuel is partially oxidized rather than fully oxidized to carbon dioxide (CO ). Carbon monoxide reduces the flow of oxygen in the bloodstream and is particularly dangerous to persons with heart disease. CARBON DIOXIDE In recent years, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has started to view carbon dioxide, a product of perfect combustion, as a pollution concern. Carbon dioxide does not directly impair human health, but it is a greenhouse gas that traps the earths heat and contributes to the potential for global warming Evaporative Emissions Hydrocarbon pollutants also escape into the air through fuel evaporation. With todays efficient exhaust emission controls and todays gasoline formulations, evaporative losses can account for a majority of the total hydrocarbon pollution from current model cars on hot days when ozone levels are highest. Evaporative emissions occur several ways: DIURNAL: Gasoline evaporation increases as the temperature rises during the day, heating the fuel tank and venting gasoline vapors. RUNNING LOSSES: The hot engine and exhaust system can vaporize gasoline when the car is running. HOT SOAK: The engine remains hot for a period of time after the car
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is turned off, and gasoline evaporation continues when the car is parked. REFUELING: Gasoline vapors are always present in fuel tanks. These vapors are forced out when the tank is filled with liquid fuel. How Does Car Pollution Affect the Environment & Ozone Layer?

In addition to having negative effects on human health, car pollution is detrimental to the environment. More likely than not, getting a vehicle from point "A" to point "B" involves combustion of a fossil fuel, a process that emits gasses and affects the environment. In December 1970, the U.S. Department of Transportation reported over 89.9 billion vehicle miles traveled, or VMT. That number nearly tripled to over 246.3 trillion VMT in December 2011. Such a sharp incline in traffic volume begs the question: how does car pollution affect the environment and the ozone layer? According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, more than half of the air pollution in the nation is caused by mobile sources, primarily automobiles. Further contributing to the pollution potential of cars is the fact that they are filled with numerous fluids, which can harm the environment in the cases of leakage or improper disposal. Effects on the Environment Vehicle emissions can affect the environment in several ways. Cars emit greenhouse gasses, such as carbon dioxide, which contribute to global warming. Some air pollutants and particulate matter from cars can be deposited on soil and surface waters where they enter the food chain; these substances can affect the reproductive, respiratory, immune and neurological systems of animals. Nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are major contributors to acid rain, which
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changes the pH of waterways and soils and can harm the organisms that rely on these resources. Effects on the Ozone Layer The ozone layer helps to protect life on earth from the suns ultraviolet rays, but human activities have contributed to the accelerated depletion of this protective shield. (See Reference 7) Substances that contribute to ozone depletion usually have high concentrations of chlorine or bromine atoms and include chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, halons, methyl bromide, carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform. Vehicle emissions contain few chlorine- or bromine-heavy substances, and therefore have little effect on ozone depletion. Even though they are not good for human health, hydrocarbons are recognized by the EPA as having no ozone depletion potential. (See Reference 8) Vehicle Fluids Vehicles contain many different fluids, including motor oil, antifreeze, gasoline, air-conditioning refrigerants, and brake, transmission, hydraulic and windshieldwiper fluids. In most cases, these fluids are toxic to humans and animals, and can pollute waterways if they leak from a vehicle or are disposed of incorrectly. Many vehicle fluids are exposed to heat and oxygen while an engine is running, and undergo chemical changes. These fluids also pick up heavy metals from engine wear and tear, making them even more toxic to the environment. (See Reference 10) Most vehicles manufactured before 1994 use CFC-12 as a coolant; CFC-12 is no longer produced in the U.S. because of its detrimental effect on the ozone layer. Alternative refrigerants are available, but some still have an impact on the ozone layer if they escape your cars air-conditioning system. (See Reference 8) Indian Scenario Vehicle emissions are responsible for 70% of the countrys air pollution. The major problem with government efforts to safeguard the environment has been enforcement at the local level, not with a lack of laws. Air pollution from vehicle exhaust and industry is a worsening problem for India. Exhaust from vehicles has increased eight-fold over levels of twenty years ago; industrial pollution has risen four times over the same period. The economy has grown two and a half times over the past two decades but pollution control and civil services have not kept pace. Air quality is worst in big cities like Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, etc. According to the Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers, Indias auto production has doubled from 7 million units in fiscal year 2004 to over 14 million units in year 2010 largely on the back of a buoyant domestic market. Bangalore holds the title of being the asthma capital of the country. Air pollution in the city continues to rise due to vehicular emissions and dust from construction activities, according to the "Environment Report Card of Bangalore 2012". It says the number of vehicles on the city roads have exceeded 3.7 million and there has been a consistent increase in the number vehicles at an average of 8% per year. CHENNAI: Exhaust from vehicles, dust from construction debris, industrial
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waste, burning of municipal and garden waste are all on the rise in the city. So are respiratory diseases, including asthma. At least six of the 10 top causes of death are related to respiratory disease, says Dr D Ranganathan, director (incharge), Institute of Thoracic Medicine. Mumbai: Not only are levels of Suspended Particulate Matter above permissible limits in Mumbai, but the worst pollutant after vehicular emissions has grown at an alarming rate. The levels of Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM), or dust, in Mumbais air have continued to increase over the past three years.

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What Has Been Done to Control Automobile Emissions? The Clean Air Act of 1970 gave EPA broad authority to regulate motor vehicle pollution, and the Agencys emission control policies have become progressively more stringent since the early 1970s. EPA standards dictate how much pollution autos may emit but automakers decide how to achieve the pollution limits. The emission reductions of the 1970s came about because of fundamental improvements in engine design, plus the addition of charcoal canisters to collect hydrocarbon vapors and exhaust gas recirculation valves to reduce nitrogen oxides. The advent of first generation catalytic converters in 1975 significantly re- duced hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. The use of converters pro- vided a huge indirect benefit as well. Because lead inactivates the catalyst, 1975 saw the widespread introduction of unleaded gasoline. This resulted in dramatic reductions in ambient lead levels and alleviated many serious environmental and human health concerns associated with lead pollution. The next major milestone in vehicle emission control technology came in 198081. In response to tighter standards, manufacturers equipped new cars with even more sophisticated emission control systems. These systems generally include a three-way catalyst (which converts carbon monoxide and hydrocar- bons to carbon dioxide and water, and also helps reduce nitrogen oxides to el- emental nitrogen and oxygen), plus an on-board computer and oxygen sensor. This equipment helps optimize the efficiency of the catalytic converter. Vehicle emissions are being further reduced by provisions of the 1990 Clean Air Act. Mobile source provisions include even tighter tailpipe standards, increased durability, improved control of evaporative emissions, and computerized diagnos- tic systems that identify malfunctioning emission controls.

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What Has Emission Control Meant for Air Quality? Efforts by government and industry since 1970 have greatly reduced typical vehicle emissions. In those same years, however, the number of miles we drive has more than doubled. The increase in travel has offset much of the emission control progress. The net result is a modest reduction in each automotive pollutant except lead, for which aggregate emissions have dropped by more than 95 percent. With ozone continuing to present a persistent urban air pollution problem, future ve- hicle emission control programs will emphasize hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide re- ductions. Carbon monoxide control will remain critical in many cities, and limits on vehicle-generated carbon dioxide may become important in the future. WHAT HAS BEEN DONE TO REDUCE AUTOMOBILE POLLUTION GLOBALLY Total Transport Demand Reducing Strategies Urban planning cases Vancouvers urban planning and densification strategy for reducing car use Curitibas urban planning practice that integrates transport planning Transport planning cases Singapores integration of transport and land use planning Beijings integrated road transport system development

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Car use reduction cases Singapores adding of quantity measures to initial reliance on incentive measures alone Beijings substitution of private travel by financing investment for public transit to create disincentives for car use Londons congestion charges Koreas congestion pricing Frances bonus rebates for buyers of new vehicles with low CO2 emissions Singapores area licensing system Sapporos travel feedback programme Seouls car-free days Fukuokas multi-stakeholder initiative in car sharing for reducing CO2 emissions European countries popularization of pedestrian malls for restoring citys early image without cars Public transit cases Bangalores overcoming of perennial losses in running its bus service by a combination of fleet modernization, augmentation of service, revenue mobilization, fare policy and cost minimization measures Ann Arbors bus pass programme to reduce car use Bangkoks van transit service to promote ride sharing for reducing traffic congestion Beijings institutional, technological and financing innovations to overcome the barriers to create its MRTS Jakartas bold start with BRT in reducing car use Bogotas BRT operation funded entirely by fare collection Dar es Salams transition to a BRT system Emissions-free travel mode cases Marikina citys bikeway programme Bangkoks walking street programmes Africa-wide initiative for cycling out of poverty

Emissions Reduction Cleaner fuel cases Mexicos adoption of common sense economic strategy by increasing gasoline price and making CNG the least expensive fuel Vietnams success in switching from leaded to unleaded gasoline Quitos electric trolleybus system based on financing and cost recovery Chinas tradition of learning from others as reflected in adoption of Shanghais alternative fuel vehicles Delhis CNG programme following a Supreme Court mandate

 Thailands switch from leaded to unleaded gasoline Calgarys making its wind-powered commuter train a reality by incorporating private companies Chinas incorporation of fuel-cell initiative in its high-technology development programme Greener vehicle cases a c d Hybrid cars Kenworth hybrid truck b Honda Toyota Japans hybrid technology cars

Tatas Nano Car: concern on trade-off between peoples car image vis--vis energy efficiency Suffolks hybrid only parking for promoting green vehicles Beijings programme to transform vehicles for alternative fuel use Thailands change from two-stroke to four-stroke motorbikes Kathmandus electric three-wheelers to replace diesel vehicles.

Emission control and fuel economy improvement cases EUs switch from largely voluntary commitments to a comprehensive set of measures for CO2 emissions from cars Chinas regulatory system for fuel economy improvements including incentives to lighter vehicle manufacturers Mexico Citys air quality improvement programme using vehicle inspection and maintenance Japans use of green purchasing law for vehicle emission controls Beijings combining of standards, regulations, technology and fiscal incentive measures for vehicle emission controls Shanghais use of vehicle emission control programme involving implementation of EU-1 standards U.S. fuel economy improvement systems novelty Japans following Americas lead in allowing manufacturers to accumulate credits from fuel economy improvements All 54 cases presented in this report have direct and indirect effects on emissions reduction. They are grouped into two broad categories according to the thematic nature of the strategies used: (a) strategies for reduction of total transport demand and (b) strategies for reduction of emissions. The strategies being used to reduce total transport demand fall into five major groups: _ urban planning;

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_ _ _ _

transport planning; car use reduction; public transit; and free/low emissions travel modes.

Strategies for reduction of emissions directly by technological means include: _ vehicle emissions controls and _ cleaner fuel and greener vehicles. The prepared cases were then analysed to determine the dominant policy instruments, tools and measures widely used, as well as the partial use or absence of these measures. The analysis is grouped into three major categories: (i) regulatory/command and control (CAC), (ii) economic/financial and/or (iii) persuasive/information measures. Cases with predominance of regulatory measures Singapores restriction on car purchase (Case A7): quantity measures, i.e., regulatory instruments (RIs) are added to initial reliance on taxation measures, i.e., economic instruments (EIs); Chinas fuel economy improvement (Case A19): mandatory (RI) with economic incentives (EIs) for lighter vehicle manufacturers; Japans vehicle emission controls (Case A32): greener vehicle purchase requirements as per Green Purchasing Law (RI); European Unions vehicle emissions control technology (Case A15): switch from largely voluntary commitments to a comprehensive set of measures to reduce CO2 emissions from cars using a dominance of RIs; Beijings vehicle emissions control programme (Case A36): combines RIs, technology and fiscal incentives (EIs), but standard regulations used prominently; Shanghais vehicle emissions control programme (Case A37): involves implementation of emissions limits equivalent to EU-II standards; Hybrid only parking in Suffolk, New York (Case A45): hybrid vehicle parking only (RI) an indirect incentive to the manufacturers via green purchase incentives to the buyers; and Kawasakis (Japan) traffic signal control for reducing vehicle CO2 emissions (Case A33): traffic signal control (RI) is basically the only tool used for the stated purpose. Cases with predominance of economic/financial measures

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 Londons congestion charge (Case A32): Although road pricing to address congestion was pioneered by Singapore, Londons Mayor Ken Livingstones determined implementation of congestion charges has not only been accepted by London residents, but has drawn global attention as an option to reduce car use in the central city; Congestion pricing in South Korea (Case A3): Although Seoul experienced some positive results with the use of a set of EIs to reduce car use, South Korea is experiencing some difficulty extending this policy country-wide because of the public perception that the congestion charge is double taxation. This vindicates the need for the other two sets of policy instruments regulatory and persuasive/information instruments; Singapores area licensing system (Case A8): ALS is essentially a cordon pricing system designating the central business district as a restricted zone for the purpose of using road pricing to reduce congestion; Frances bonus rebate to purchasers of cars with low CO2 emissions (Case A16): Consumer-directed incentive measures for buyers of new vehicles having low CO2 emissions and penalties for buyers of high emission vehicles. This is a use of EI that indirectly works as an incentive for green vehicle technology innovations; Mexico Citys policy of making the compressed natural gas (CNG) price the least expensive fuel for vehicles (Case A29): World Bank funding allowed Mexico to undertake retrofitting of vehicles to run on CNG. This, combined with a policy of high gasoline prices and low CNG prices, is working well. A similar policy is working effectively in Dhaka, Bangladesh; and Seoul car-free days (Case A21): Unlike other cases of car-free days relying primarily on persuasive or regulatory measures, Seoul has introduced a strong dose of economic/financial incentives to reduce car use. Both private and public sectors have joined hands in providing these incentives. Cases with predominance of persuasive measures Fokuokas car sharing (Case A21): For reducing CO2 emissions, Fukuoka has launched a multi-stakeholder initiative in which a Car Sharing Network (CSN) and an Integrated Circuit (IC) card system are used. Although the working mechanism was based on persuasive measures (PIs), market creation and deriving economic benefits have become this initiatives obvious cobenefits; Sapporos travel feedback programme (TFP): This programme in

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Sapporo demonstrates the power of persuasive measures. After trying several travel demand management measures without success to substantially reduce traffic, TFP was launched in Sapporo. It involved regular meetings with local communities based on their personal/family tracking of vehicle use and feedback in classroom lectures concerning the levels of CO2 emissions as recorded in diaries. The TFP model resulted in significant behavioural change with possible long-term effects, given the availability of alternative models of transport (Case 4); and Bangkoks walking street programmes: To combat the citys image of traffic congestion and its lack of safe walkways, the promotion of a pedestrian- friendly environment for Bangkok started in Silom Road. Starting the programme in a heavily congested street, such as Silom, has been commended, and the programme was extended to several other cities in Thailand. The principal implementation instrument has been community education (PIs). Unfortunately, this measure was not effective enough to sustain the programme, and it has been discontinued. This case (22) reveals that a well-designed traffic policy is essential before restricting any street to pedestrians only. The cases were analysed to determine whether any particular set or all three sets of policy measures (regulatory, economic or persuasive) were used to influence behaviour during the implementation of emissions reduction policies. The underlying hypothesis was that in the absence of using all three sets of measures simultaneously as a policy package, the outcome would be non-optimal at best. The findings of the report were that, in many instances, the start of the programme involved either command and control instruments/regulatory instruments (CAC/RIs) or market-based incentives/economic instruments (MBIs/Els). In some other instances, only suasive/persuasive/Information Instruments (SIs/Pls/Ils) were used. In still others, CAC/RIs was added to the initial use of MBIs/RIs alone as it was in the European Unions (EUs) goal of reducing CO2 emissions to fulfil the requirement to have greenhouse gas emission reduction targets as per the Kyoto protocol (Case A15). Similarly, in the case of Singapores car purchase reduction policy, the programme began by using economic instruments (EIs). Later, quantitative measures (VQS) were added after experiencing limited success with EIs alone (Case A7). Only in a few instances were all three sets used (e.g., in switching from leaded to unleaded gas in Thailand (Case A27) and Vietnam (Case A30). It should be noted that typical incentive measures regulatory, economic or persuasive are not the only means of influencing human behaviour. Cases in urban planning, transport planning or investment in physical infrastructure are good examples of how these measures can also be used effectively to reduce car use. Vancouvers planning and densification strategy (Case A1); Curitibas integration of urban planning and transport planning (Case A9); and pedestrian malls in several European countries (Case A52) all demonstrate how classical methods of urban planning are being used to reduce

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dependence on private cars. Beijings investment in public transit (Case A12); Bogotas funding of a BRT operation (Case A43); Jakartas bold start of bus rapid transit (BRT) (Case A42); and a Global Environment Facility (GEF) grant for a bikeway programme in a Philippine city (Case A4) are some examples of how investment in public/mass transit, walkway/bikeways can change citizens travel habits.

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Emissions fears grow as Indian car sales rise by Athar Parvaiz May 19, 2012

Congestion in Kashmir can mean that traffic jams last for hours at a time in Srinagar city / Athar Parvaiz - Panos London Indian car sales are booming thanks to easy credit and cheap manufacturing. But who is counting the environmental cost? Irshad Ahmad is all set to roll his Chevrolet Beat down the road. Fresh from the showroom in Srinagar, his Chevy will be among the 21,600 new cars expected to hit the road in the Kashmir region of Jammu and Kashmir by the end of the year. Out of a population of 5.6 million, 75,000 people in Indian-administered Kashmir own a car a tiny figure when compared to Europe or the US. But things are changing fast. In Delhi, 1,000 new vehicles are added to the streets daily. Passenger car sales across India jumped 32 per cent in 2009, boosted by easy financing terms. Irshad works in a private telecoms firm on a monthly salary of 19,000 Indian Rs. [about USD $420]. It is not enough to support a family of six and comfortably run a car, but he is prepared to make sacrifices. I sought a car loan from the bank which I will be repaying by easy monthly instalments, he says, I thought it is better to cut down on other expenses if I and my family are to travel hasslefree. Banks loans finance nearly all the cars sold at this Srinagar showroom. We decided to cut down on corporate lending and laid more focus on retail lending. The latter gives us more profit and security, says Eijaz Ahmad, an official from

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Jammu and Kashmir Bank. The bank sanctioned loans of more than half a billion Indian rupees [about UDS $11 million] in the last quarter of 2009. Irshad represents a society where almost everyone has a dream of travelling without wasting time on public transport. He is not bothered that more cars will mean more congestion in Srinagar city where traffic jams already last for hours on end. You know owning a car is a necessity given the pathetic plight of our public transport, he says, while admitting, I have no idea if more cars on the roads pose a threat to the environment. India has more than 85 million vehicles on its roads and the negative impact of the car-boom is slowly coming to the fore, both in terms of congestion and environmental costs. Vehicles released 219 million tonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere in 2005 and experts predict this figure will jump almost seven-fold to 1,470 tonnes by 2035 if car travel remains unchecked. Indias Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) says most of the countrys big cities have violated air quality standards, with airborne particulate matter from harmful gases exceeding World Health Organization guidelines. Last years launch of the Nano, the worlds cheapest car (around US $2,500) by Tata Motors provoked environmentalists. They warned it heralded a nightmare of choking pollution and clogged roads. Drivers blame the government. It is the duty of the government to put a viable alternative in place or expand the roads in order to avoid traffic congestion, says Abdul Hamid who drives from his workplace in Pampore to his home at the weekend. This month regulators introduced new fuel standards, designed to cut sulphur emissions by between around 40 to 50 per cent. Nevertheless India lags around six years behind the US and Europe in enforcing standards for cleaner fuels. Anumita Roy Choudhury of Centre for Science and Environment, who heads the organisations Right to Clean Air campaign, says the real issue is a lack of government support for public transport. She contends that cars are only cheaper because the industry is heavily subsidised. Car companies get big subsidies at the manufacturing stage through cheap land deals, interest-free capital and other concessions. These subsidies help bring down the cost of production and allow the manufacturer to price the car cheap. She contends that public transport gets a step-motherly treatment. Our government penalises buses by taxing them higher than the much-pampered cars. Buses that use less than five per cent of the road space, meet more than 60 per cent of the travel demand, she says. Cars may drive growth and aspirations, but they can never meet the commuting needs of urban India.

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