PART 1

a) Write a history on logarithm. History of Logarithms

Predecessors
The Babylonians sometime in 20001600 BC may have invented the quarter square multiplication algorithm to multiply two numbers using only addition, subtraction and a table of squares. However it could not be used for division without an additional table of reciprocals. Large tables of quarter squares were used to simplify the accurate multiplication of large numbers from 1817 onwards until this was superseded by the use of computers. Michael Stifel published Arithmetica integra in Nuremberg in 1544, which contains a table of integers and powers of 2 that has been considered an early version of a logarithmic table. In the 16th and early 17th centuries an algorithm called prosthaphaeresis was used to approximate multiplication and division. This used the trigonometric identity

or similar to convert the multiplications to additions and table lookups. However logarithms are more straightforward and require less work. It can be shown using complex numbers that this is basically the same technique.

From Napier to Euler

John Napier (15501617), the inventor of logarithms

The method of logarithms was publicly propounded by John Napier in 1614, in a book titled Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio(Description of the Wonderful Rule of Logarithms). Joost Brgi independently invented logarithms but published six years after Napier. Johannes Kepler, who used logarithm tables extensively to compile his Ephemeris and therefore dedicated it to Napier, remarked:

...the accent in calculation led Justus Byrgius [Joost Brgi] on the way to these very logarithms many years before Napier's system appeared; but ...instead of rearing up his child for the public benefit he deserted it in the birth. Johannes Kepler, Rudolphine Tables (1627) By repeated subtractions Napier calculated (1 107)L for L ranging from 1 to 100. The result for L=100 is approximately0.99999 = 1 105. Napier then calculated the products of these numbers with 107(1 105)L for L from 1 to 50, and did similarly with0.9998 (1 105)20 and 0.9 0.99520. These computations, which occupied 20 years, allowed him to give, for any number N from 5 to 10 million, the number L that solves the equation

Napier first called L an "artificial number", but later introduced the word "logarithm" to mean a number that indicates a ratio: (logos) meaning proportion, and (arithmos) meaning number. In modern notation, the relation to natural logarithms is

where the very close approximation corresponds to the observation that

The invention was quickly and widely met with acclaim. The works of Bonaventura Cavalieri (Italy), Edmund Wingate (France), Xue Fengzuo (China), and Johannes Kepler's Chilias logarithmorum (Germany) helped spread the concept further.
In 1647 Grgoire de Saint-Vincent related logarithms to the quadrature of the hyperbola, by pointing out that the area f(t) under the hyperbola from x = 1 to x = t satisfies

The natural logarithm was first described by Nicholas Mercator in his work Logarithmotechnia published in 1668, although the mathematics teacher John Speidell had already in 1619 compiled a table on the natural logarithm. Around 1730, Leonhard Eulerdefined the exponential function and the natural logarithm by

Euler also showed that the two functions are inverse to one another.

b) Find and explain the applications of logarithm in two different fields of study. Explanation of each application should include the following I. The field of study chosen. II. Examples of problem solving related to the field of study Application of Logarithms

1. Psychology
Logarithms occur in several laws describing human perception: Hick's law proposes a logarithmic relation between the time individuals take for choosing an alternative and the number of choices they have. Fitts's law predicts that the time required to rapidly move to a target area is a logarithmic function of the distance to and the size of the target. Inpsychophysics, the WeberFechner law proposes a logarithmic relationship between stimulus and sensation such as the actual vs. the perceived weight of an item a person is carrying. (This "law", however, is less precise than more recent models, such as the Stevens' power law.) Psychological studies found that individuals with little mathematics education tend to estimate quantities logarithmically, that is, they position a number on an unmarked line according to its logarithm, so that 10 is positioned as close to 100 as 100 is to 1000. Increasing education shifts this to a linear estimate (positioning 1000 10x as far away) in some circumstances, while logarithms are used when the numbers to be plotted are difficult to plot linearly.

2. Probability theory and statistics

Three probability density functions (PDF) of random variables with log-normal distributions. The location parameter , which is zero for all three of the PDFs shown, is the mean of the logarithm of the random variable, not the mean of the variable itself.

Distribution of first digits (in %, red bars) in the population of the 237 countries of the world. Black dots indicate the distribution predicted by Benford's law. Logarithms arise in probability theory: the law of large numbers dictates that, for a fair coin, as the number of coin-tosses increases to infinity, the observed proportion of heads approaches one-half. The fluctuations of this proportion about one-half are described by the law of the iterated logarithm. Logarithms also occur in log-normal distributions. When the logarithm of a random variable has a normal distribution, the variable is said to have a log-normal distribution. Log-normal distributions are encountered in many fields, wherever a variable is formed as the product of many independent positive random variables, for example in the study of turbulence. Logarithms are used for maximum-likelihood estimation of parametric statistical models. For such a model, the likelihood functiondepends on at least one parameter that must be estimated. A maximum of the likelihood function occurs at the same parameter-value as a maximum of the logarithm of the likelihood (the " log likelihood"), because the logarithm is an increasing function. The log-likelihood is easier to maximize, especially for the multiplied likelihoods for independent random variables. Benford's law describes the occurrence of digits in many data sets, such as heights of buildings. According to Benford's law, the probability that the first decimal-digit of an item in the data sample is d (from 1 to 9) equals log10(d + 1) log10(d), regardless of the unit of measurement. Thus, about 30% of the data can be expected to have 1 as first digit, 18% start with 2, etc. Auditors examine deviations from Benford's law to detect fraudulent accounting.

PART 2
The volume, V, in cm3, of a solid sphere and its diameter, D, in cm, are related by the equation , where m and n are constants. Find the value of m and n by conducting the activities below. I. II. III. Choose 6 different spheres with diameters between 1cm to 8cm. The diameter of the 6 spheres using a pair of vernier calipers. Find the volume of each sphere using water displacement method. Tabulate the values of diameter, D, in cm and its corresponding volume, V, cm 3.

find the volume of sphere using water displacement menthod.

A method of finding the volume of a sphere with minimal calculations is to use the Water Displacement Method: 1. Fill a beaker or graduated cylinder with enough water to completely immerse the sphere in. 2. Record the baseline initial measurement 3. Drop the sphere in 4. Record final measurement 5. Subtract the initial volume from the final volume ~ this is the volume of the sphere!

Value of diameter,D and Volume Diameter,D ( D1 = 1.0 D2 =2.2 D3 =3.5 D4 =4.8 D5 =6.5 D6 =8.0 Volume, V ( V1= 0.5 V2= 5.5 V3= 23.0 V4= 58.0 V5= 142.0 V6= 268.0

Diameter,D ( D1 = 1.0 D2 =2.2 D3 =3.5 D4 =4.8 D5 =6.5 D6 =8.0

Volume, V ( V1= 0.5 V2= 5.5 V3= 23.0 V4= 58.0 V5= 142.0 V6= 268.0

D1 = 1.0 D3 =3.5

V1= 0.5 V3= 23.0

We can solve by simultaneous method Substitute the values in the equation

We obtain, ----------(1) ----------(2) -----------(3) Substitute (3) into (2)

-----------(4) Substitute (4) into (3)

Therefore,

and

PART 3 3(A)

D 1 2.2 3.5 4.8 6.5 8

v 0.5 5.5 23 58 142 268

300 y = 0.5071x3.0193 250

200 Volume, V

150

100

50

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Diameter, D

3(B)

log D

log V 0 -0.30103 0.342423 0.740363 0.544068 1.361728 0.681241 1.763428 0.812913 2.152288 0.90309 2.428135

2.5

y = 3.0193x - 0.2949

1.5 log V 1 0.5 0 0 -0.5 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Diameter, D

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3c) From the graph, find

3

2.5

y = 3.0193x - 0.2949

1.5 log V 1 0.5 0 0 -0.5 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Diameter, D

1. The value of m and of n, thus express V in terms of D.

log D

(nearest whole number)

log V 0 -0.30103 0.342423 0.740363 0.544068 1.361728 0.681241 1.763428 0.812913 2.152288 0.90309 2.428135

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2. Volume of the sphere when diameter is 5cm Since graph is logV against logD, we need to transfer, D=5cm int0 logD=log5=0.6989
3

2.5

y = 3.0193x - 0.2949

1.5 log V 1 0.5 0 0 -0.5 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Diameter, D

We get

3. The radius of the sphere when the volume is Change to logv=log180=2.25, From the graph, we get

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FURTHER EXPLORATION a)

-------(1) (1)=(2)

------------(2)

-------------------cancel

on both sides

b) Another method to find value of

is using Monte Carlo simulation or Archimedes method of Exhaustion

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REFLECTION

Symbols used in this project using Microsoft word equation insert tool really help me so much here are some of the symbol I use.

300 y = 0.5071x3.0193 250

200 Volume, V

150

100

50

0 0 2 4 Diameter, D 6 8 10

I really learn how to use Microsoft excel to do graph, insert equation and a lot more.

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