On the Discrete-Time Implementation of Resonant Controllers for Active Power Filters

Alejandro G. Yepes, Francisco D. Freijedo, Jesus Doval-Gandoy, Oscar Lopez, Jano Malvar and Pablo Fernandez-Comesa na
Department of Electronic Technology, University of Vigo, ETSEI, Campus Universitario de Vigo, 36200, Spain. Email:{agyepes,fdfrei,jdoval,olopez,janomalvar,pablofercom}@uvigo.es
AbstractCurrent control is crucial in active power lters. The current controller should provide perfect tracking of reference and total rejection of disturbance (grid voltage). The use of resonant controllers has been often proposed as one of the highest performance alternatives for alternating current and voltage control. In this work it is studied the effect of the discretetime implementation of resonant controllers in their performance, specially when tracking high order components. It is proved that some methods cause a displacement of the resonant peaks, so innite gain is not located at the desired frequencies. On the other hand, other options, such as impulse invariant, maintain the resonance at the design location, allowing for a superior performance. It is also studied the effect of zeros distribution on the behavior. A single-phase active power lter laboratory prototype has been built. The theoretical analysis is validated by experimental results, demonstrating the importance of the discrete-time implementation and the superiority of the impulse invariant method.

I. I NTRODUCTION The proliferation of equipment with switching non-linear loads is an important factor responsible for the ac current distribution network pollution and the reactive power demand. These non-linear loads draw non-sinusoidal currents from the utility, causing interference with the near sensitive loads, and limit the utilization of the available electrical supply. The quality of the electrical current thus becomes a signicant concern for the distributors of energy and their customers [1]. Different mitigation solutions have been proposed and used, involving passive lters, active power lters (APFs) and hybrid active-passive lters. Currently, due to the technological advance in digital control techniques, APFs have become an efcient alternative to passive lters [1]. Therefore, there is an increasing interest to develop and use better active ltering solutions [2][8]. One of the key elements of the APF controller is the current controller . Proportional + resonant (PR) current controllers have gained a signicant importance, thanks to their overall good performance. They allow to perfectly track alternating references of arbitrary frequencies, for both single-phase and three-phase applications, such as APFs. An important saving of computational burden and complexity is obtained thanks to their implementation in stationary frames, avoiding the coordinates transformations, and providing zero steady-state error for both positive and negative sequences [9][13].

An essential step in the implementation of a PR digital controller is the discretization. Due to the narrow band and innite gain of the resonant controllers, they are specially sensitive to this process. A slight displacement of the resonant poles causes a signicant loss of performance. Actually, even for small frequency deviations, the effect of the resonant regulator becomes minimal, and the PR controller behaves just as a proportional one [9]. Consequently, discretization methods which are widely employed for general purposes in digital control with satisfactory results, such as the Tustin transformation, may not be suitable for resonant controllers. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to study the effectiveness of the different alternatives of discrete-time implementations for this application. As proved in this paper, many of the existing discretization techniques cause a displacement of the poles. This fact results in a deviation of the frequency at which the innite gain occurs with respect to the expected resonant frequency. This error becomes more signicant as the sampling time and the desired peak frequency increase. In practice, it can be stated that most of those discretization methods result in suitable implementations when tracking 50/60 Hz (fundamental) references and even for low order harmonics. However, they do not perform so well in applications in which signals of higher frequencies should be tracked, such as APFs. The paper is organized as follows: the pole displacement effect in the discretization process depending on the employed method, as well as the inuence of zeros distribution, are analyzed in sections II, III and IV. An APF laboratory prototype has been built to check the theoretical approaches. Details of the APF design are provided in section V. Finally, experimental results of section VI validate the theoretical analysis regarding the effect of discretization on the performance. II. D IGITAL I MPLEMENTATIONS OF R ESONANT C ONTROLLERS A. Implementations Based on the Continuous Transfer Function Discretization A resonant controller, also referred as generalized integrator [11], can be expressed in the s-domain as [9][13]: R(s) = s s2 + 2 o , (1)

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Table I Z-D OMAIN T RANSFER F UNCTIONS O BTAINED D ISCRETIZING R(s) BY D IFFERENT M ETHODS

Discretization method
Zero order hold Forward Euler Backward Euler Trapezoid (Tustin) Trapezoid with pre-warping Zero-pole matching Impulse invariant

Equivalence X (z) = (1 z1 )Z L1 s= s= s= s=
z1 Ts z1 zTs X (s) s

Transfer function Rzoh (z) =

sin(o Ts ) o z 12z1zcos (
1 2 1 2 o Ts )+z 2

z R f (z) = Ts 12z1z+z 2 (2 T 2 +1)

o s

z1 Rb (z) = Ts (2 T 2 +1 1 2 o s 1)2z +z 1z Rt (z) = 2Ts (2 T 2 +4)+z1 (2 2 T 2 8)+z2 (2 T 2 +4)

o s o s o s 2

2 z1 T z+1

o z1 Ts z+1 tan( o 2 )

Rt p (z) =

sin(o Ts ) 2o

1z2 12z1 cos(o Ts )+z2

1 2 o Ts )+z o Ts ) 2

z = esTs X (z) = Z L1 {X (s)}

z Rzpm (z) = Kd 12z1zcos (

Rimp (z) = Ts 12z1 cos(

1z1 cos(

o Ts )+z

x( s )

+ -

1 s 1 s
X

y(s)

Table II D ISCRETE T RANSFER F UNCTIONS FOR THE R ESONANT C ONTROLLER O BTAINED BY E MPLOYING T WO D ISCRETIZED I NTEGRATORS

Z02

Discretization
Forward & Backward Backward & Backward + delay

Transfer function
z z R f &b (z) = Ts 1+z1 ( 2 T 2 2)+z2
o s 1 2

Figure 1. Block diagram of frequency adaptive resonant controller based on two integrators (represented in the continuous domain).

o being the resonant angular frequency in rad/s. fo = o /2 is the resonant frequency in Hz. R(s) has innite gain at fo , which assures perfect tracking for components of that frequency when implemented in closed loop [12]. Different discretization methods have been applied to R(s), leading to the discrete mathematical expressions shown in table I. Ts is the controller sampling period, and fs = 1/Ts is the sampling rate. Starting from the discrete-time transfer function expression, the digital controller is implemented as a difference equation [14]. It should be noticed that zero-pole matching (ZPM) permits a degree of freedom (Kd ) to maintain the gain for a specic frequency. B. Implementations Based on Two Discrete Integrators R(s) can be decomposed in two simple integrators, as shown in Fig. 1 [9]. The parameter 0 appears separately as a simple gain, so it can be modied in real time according to the estimated grid frequency. In fact, the main advantage offered by this implementation is its straightforward adaptation to grid frequency deviations. It has been suggested to discretize the direct integrator using Forward Euler method while the feedback one is discretized using the Backward Euler method [15]. Additional alternatives of discretization for both integrators have been analyzed in [16], applied for advanced Phase Locked Loop (PLL) structures; it was concluded that the only other two feasible possibilities are to use Tustin for both integrators (Rt &t (z)), or to discretize both with Backward Euler, adding a

1z Rb&b (z) = Ts 1+z1 ( 2 T 2 2)+z2

o s

Tustin & Tustin

Rt &t (z)= Rt (z)

Table III G ROUPS OF E XPRESSIONS W ITH I DENTICAL P OLES IN THE Z-D OMAIN .

Group (a) (b) (c) (d ) (e)

Expressions R f (z) Rb (z) Rt (z), Rt &t (z) R f &b (z), Rb&b (z) Rimp (z), Rzoh (z), Rt p (z), Rzpm (z)

one step delay in the feedback line (Rb&b (z)). Table II shows the three convenient discrete-time implementations of Fig. 1. It should be noticed that Rt &t (z) and Rt (z) are equivalent, since the Tustin transformation is based on a variable substitution. However, ZOH and impulse invariant methods applied separately to each integrator do not lead to Rzoh and Rimp , respectively. Indeed, to discretize an integrator with ZOH results in the same as a Forward Euler substitution, while the impulse invariant gives rise to the equivalent to a Backward Euler. III. S TUDY OF THE R ESONANT P OLES D ISPLACEMENT The Z-domain transfer functions, obtained in section II, can be grouped in the sets of table III, since some of them present an identical denominator and, therefore, coinciding poles.

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Fig. 2(a) represents the pole locus of the alternative discrete expressions. It has been proved that damped resonant controllers do not assure perfect tracking, and therefore, they should be discarded if possible [12]; according to the inherent innite gain of the resonant controllers, their poles must be placed in the unit circumference, which corresponds to a zero damping factor. All discretization techniques apart from Forward Euler and Backward Euler lead to undamped poles; the former maps the poles outside of the unit circle, whereas the later moves them toward the origin, causing a damping factor different from zero, so both methods should be avoided. However, there is an additional issue that should be taken into account. Although groups (c), (d ) and (e) achieve innite gain, it can be appreciated that, for an identical fo , their poles are located in different positions of the unit circumference. This fact reveals that there exists a difference between the actual resonant frequency ( fr ) and fo , depending on the employed implementation, as also observed in Fig. 2(b). Consequently, the innite gain may not match the frequency of the controller references, causing steady-state error. It should be also noticed that the poles displacement increases with fo , with the exception of group (e). Some important outcomes from this study should be highlighted:

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

850 Hz 750 Hz 650 Hz 550 Hz 450 Hz 349 Hz

351 Hz 350 Hz

zoom

0
-0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4

350 Hz

250 Hz

150 Hz

50 Hz

450 Hz 550 Hz 650 Hz 750 Hz 850 Hz (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

-0.5

0.8

0.85

0.9

0.95

(a) Pole locus of the discretized resonant controllers, at fs = 10 kHz (fundamental to 17th odd harmonics).
100

(e) (d) (c)

60

40

20

The Tustin transformation, which is a typical choice in digital control, features the most signicant deviation. The error exhibited by the methods based on two discretized integrators becomes signicant even for high sampling frequencies and low order harmonics. For instance, at fs = 10 kHz, group (d ) presents a deviation of +0.7 Hz for the 7th harmonic, which results in enough error to cause a considerable gain loss (Fig. 2(b)). When dealing with higher harmonic orders (h), such as 13 and 17, it raises to 4.6 Hz and 10.4 Hz, respectively, which is unacceptable. Group (e) leads to poles that match the original continuous ones, so the resonant peak always ts the design frequency fo . It is important to remark that implementation methods based on two integrators are not in group (e). Therefore, their frequency adaptation feature is not adequate for high order harmonics unless it is corrected by modifying o . On the other hand, the adaptation of group (e) implementations requires the computation of explicit trigonometric functions [17], which could be considered quite resourceconsuming. IV. I NFLUENCE OF Z EROS D ISTRIBUTION

-20

-40 345

346

347

348

352

353

354

(b) 7th harmonic resonant peak locations for different implementation groups, at fs = 10kHz. Figure 2. Analysis of the obtained resonant frequency by alternative discretetime implementations: some methods cause a signicant displacement from the expected resonant peaks.

Once assured innite gain thanks to a correct position of the poles, another factor to take into account is the zeros inuence. Rimp (z), Rzoh (z), Rt p (z) and Rzpm (z), which belong to group (e), are proved to be the most suitable for an optimum implementation. However, the numerators of these discretetime transfer functions are not the same, and depend on the discretization method.

Fig. 3 compares the frequency response of a resonant controller designed for the 7th harmonic, when different methods are employed. An almost equivalent magnitude behavior is observed. However, the phase versus frequency response differs. This should be bore in mind in order to study the stability of the whole system. It could be said that Rt p (z) is the most accurate when comparing with R(s). However, Rimp (z) can be considered the most advantageous, since it introduces less phase lag in open loop, so it permits a wider phase margin (PM). On the contrary, the phase shift introduced by Rzoh (z) and Rzpm (z) 1 is higher than for the continuous model, so their implementation may lead to instability, especially if using R(s) for the design of the controller and if compensating for high order harmonics is required.
1K d

has been selected so Rzoh (z) = Rzpm (z).

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100 Magnitude (dB)

50

Rcos(z) Rzoh(z)=Rzpm(z) Rtp(z)

Vs

Ls

is

PCC

iL
PROGRAMMABLE AC LOAD

0
-50

VSC

if Lf Rf

-100
-150

Vdc

C
PWM

90

45

Phase (deg)

0
-45

m
PR CURRENT CONTROLLER +

Vs
PLL

iL
HARMONIC DETECTION

-90
-135

Vdc
PI
X

sin(T1 )

-180 1 10 102 Frequency (Hz) 103

if
+

Vdc*
DIGITAL CONTROLLER

i f*

i f 1* + i Lh

Figure 3. Frequency response of group (e) transfer functions for a 7th harmonic resonant controller. The effect of zeros is mainly appreciated in the phase response.

(a) APF lab prototype.

' if
KP Res.1st Res.3rd x x x
Res.15th

+ + +
1/Vdc*

V. T ESTED APF P ROTOTYPE AND C ONTROLLER Fig. 4(a) shows the tested single-phase APF prototype. The APF is an IGBT based voltage source converter (VSC) connected to the point of common coupling (PCC) through the interfacing inductor L f . The equivalent series resistance (R f ) of this inductor has been measured and taken into account in the modeling of the plant. A programmable load (Hocherl & Hackl ZSAC426) is connected in parallel to the APF. This programmable load allows to specify the demanded current harmonic content in the most convenient form. Table IV shows the values of the power circuit components. fsw is the IGBTs switching frequency. A programmable ac source (Chroma 61501) has been employed.
Table IV P OWER C IRCUIT VALUES .

'Z1
(From PLL)

(b) PR current controller (Gc (z)). Figure 4. APF power circuit and controller (dSpace DS1104).

Vs if* +if

Gc(z)

z 1

Vdc

+
Plant Model

Gf ( z )
Gp(z)

if

Parameter Vdc Vs rms C Lf Rf Ls fsw = fs

Value 220 V 110 V 3.3 mF 5 mH 0.5 50 H 10 kHz

Figure 5.

Closed loop model of current controller and the plant.

100

80
60 40 20

The control has been implemented in a prototyping platform (dSpace DS1104). The discrete-time solver has been employed at fs = 10 kHz. The goals of the digital controller are: to compensate for the selected load harmonic currents (iLh ) and to keep constant the dc-link voltage (Vdc ). The proposed controller works as follows: The instantaneous load current (iL ) is detected. The reference of the harmonic currents to compensate (iLh ) are extracted from iL by means of digital signal processing. The method of [18] to identify the fundamental current (iL1 ) has been employed, so iLh = iL iL1 .

0
-20 90 45

0
-45 -90 -135

-180 10

100

1000

Figure 6.

Open loop Bode diagram of current controller and the plant.

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The reference current (i f 1 ), calculated to maintain Vdc , is obtained by means of a PI controller and the in-phase signal from the PLL [19]. The total reference of current for the APF (i f ) is calculated as iLh + i f 1. The PR current regulator (Gc (z)), depicted in Fig. 4(b), assures that i f = i f i f is zero in steady-state.
Figure 7. Fourier spectra of programmed load current iL .

A. Modeling of the Plant and PR Tuning Fig. 5 depicts the current control system including the PR controller and the model of the plant. The discrete-time model of the plant (G p (z)) has been modeled including the computational delay (z1 ) and the PWM converter operation [20], [21]. The PWM converter reference (m) is kept constant over each sampling interval, so the power converter can be assumed to be a zero order hold (ZOH) circuit. Therefore, the lter inductance discrete-time model (G f (z)) should be obtained through the ZOH method [20], [21]: G f (s) = 1 1 eR f Ts /L f 1 ZOH G f (z) = . sLF + RF R f z eR f Ts /L f

(a) Steady-state currents.

(b) Fourier spectra of is .

(2)

The effect of the ZOH circuit is noticeable at high frequencies, since an extra phase lag is introduced in the current control loop, and it should be taken into account when tuning Gc (z). The current controller has been tuned by inspection of the open loop frequency response of the current control loop [11], [22]. Fig. 6 depicts the frequency response obtained after the tuning process. It has been selected a proportional gain of KP = 32, giving rise to a bandwidth of 1 kHz and a phase margin of 34 deg. This phase margin could be considered small for a practical implementation. However, one of the main goals of this work is to show how the different resonant controllers perform for high order harmonics. The PR gains are Kh = 1500 for each harmonic h, allowing an adequate response to small frequency errors [11]. It should be noticed that the resonant peak at the fundamental component provides total disturbance (fundamental component of Vs ) rejection, so a feedforward compensation is not needed [9], [14]. VI. E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS The load current iL has been programmed with uniform harmonic spectrum for odd values between the 3rd and 15th order, as depicted in Fig. 7. In most real applications the low harmonics exhibit higher amplitude, but in this work iL has been chosen in that manner to make possible the comparison. Figs. 8 to 11 illustrate steady-state currents and corresponding Fourier spectra of is for different discrete-time implementations of the PR current controller. As expected from the theoretical analysis provided in section III, the steady-state error caused by the pole displacement of the implementations based on two integrators is considerable and increases with the harmonic order, as shown in Fig. 9. Actually, for high

Figure 8. Steady-state currents and Fourier spectra of is for only proportional current controller, with 1 = 1n = 250 Hz. Ch2 is i f , Ch3 is is and Ch4 is iL .

order harmonics, the is Fourier spectrum achieved by R f &b (z) and Rt &t (z) schemes is more similar to the one provided by a simple proportional controller (Fig. 8(b)), than to the harmonic content achieved by the Rimp (z) scheme (Fig. 11(a)). VII. C ONCLUSIONS An exhaustive analysis of the importance of the discretetime implementations of resonant controllers is contributed in this paper. All the studied methods apart from Forward Euler and Backward Euler achieve innite gain. However, the discretetime implementations based on the Tustin transformation and the ones based on two discrete integrators produce a signicant error due to a resonant poles displacement. This error increases with the harmonic order. Therefore, they are not recommended

(a) Steady-state currents.

(b) Fourier spectra of is .

Figure 9. Steady-state currents and Fourier spectra of is for Rt &t (z) implementation, with 1 = 1n = 250 Hz. Ch2 is i f , Ch3 is is and Ch4 is iL .

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(a) Steady-state currents.

(b) Fourier spectra of is .

Figure 10. Steady-state currents and Fourier spectra of is for R f &b (z) implementation, with 1 = 1n = 250 Hz. Ch2 is i f , Ch3 is is and Ch4 is iL .

(a) Steady-state currents.

(b) Fourier spectra of is .

Figure 11. Steady-state currents and Fourier spectra of is for the Rimp (z) implementation, with 1 = 1n = 250 Hz. Ch2 is i f , Ch3 is is and Ch4 is iL .

for APF applications, unless the error is corrected by adding a variable value to the estimated grid frequency. The discrete transfer function obtained by the impulse invariant method is the most optimal among the remaining possible implementations, since its zeros distribution causes less phase lag for high frequencies. This helps to obtain a wider phase margin. Moreover, it is possible to provide a frequency adaptation feature to any of these high performance implementations, updating in real time the difference equation by means of a PLL. However, in contrast to the alternatives based on two integrators, it requires the implementation of explicit trigonometric functions. Experimental results obtained with an APF laboratory prototype validate the theoretical analysis and the superior performance of the impulse invariant method. R EFERENCES
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