ARISTOTLE (384-322)

SOME LEADING IDEAS THAT HAVE INFLUENCED PSYCHOLOGY

MIND IS ESSENTIALLY EMBODIED: IT CANNOT EXIST WITHOUT A BODY, AND IS IN FACT THE ACTIVITY OF A CERTAIN KIND OF BODY WITH CERTAIN ORGANS. THE MIND IS TO THE WHOLE CREATURE AS SIGHT IS TO THE EYE. A) CONTINUITY OF HUMAN AND ANIMAL: THERE ARE THREE LEVELS OF LIFE FORM, EACH WITH A CHARACTERISTIC FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITY: 1) VEGETATIVE/NUTRITIVE THE CAPACITY TO INGEST MATERIAL FROM THE ENVIRONMENT AND CONVERT IT INTO ONESELF. THIS IS COMMON TO ALL LIVING THINGS INCLUDING HUMANS. 2) ENDOWED WITH SENSES (AESTHETIC) NECESSARY TO CREATURES WHICH HAVE LOCOMOTION AROUND THEIR ENVIRONMENT. THEY REQUIRE SENSORY INPUT TO GUIDE THEIR MOVEMENT. THE MOST BASIC CYBERNETIC PRINCIPLES FOUND IN CREATURES WITH SENSES ARE PLEASURE AND PAIN. 3) ENDOWED WITH CAPACITY TO UNDERSTAND AT A MORE GENERAL AND ABSTRACT LEVEL AND TO PLAN (DIANOIA, LOGOS, PRACTCAL NOESIS) CLEARLY APPARENT IN (MOST) HUMANS. ARISTOTLE ACCEPTS THAT SOME SPECIES OF ANIMALS SOMETIMES DISPLAY THESE CHARACTERISTICS, BUT HE IS RATHER INDECISIVE ABOUT THIS. IT IS THROUGH POSSESSION OF THIS MENTAL CAPACITY THAT HUMANS DESERVE THE DESCRIPTION OF RATIONAL ANIMALS.

B) UNDERSTANDING OUR IDEAS ARE CONSTRUCTED FROM SENSE PERCEPTION: THE 5 SENSES PROVIDE THE MATERIAL FROM WHICH THE COMMOM SENSE (NOT CONSCIOUSNESS ALTHOUGH INACTIVE WHEN WE ARE ASLEEP) CONSTRUCTS IDEAS. IMAGINATION (PHANTASIA) PLAYS A CONSTRUCTIVE ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF OUR IDEAS. A BETTER TRANSLATION THAN IMAGINATION MAY BE PERCEPTUAL JUDGEMENT. MEMORY OPERATES THROUGH ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS (BY SIMILARITY, CONTRAST, OR CONJUNCTION). A CUE WILL LEAD TO THE MEMORY OF IDEAS ASSOCIATED WITH THE CUE. HUMANS HAVE CAPACITY FOR METACOGNITION (SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS AND REFLECTION ON OUR OWN THOUGHT PROCESSES).

C) PLANS AND BEHAVIOUR BEHAVIOUR RESULTS FROM THE INTERACTION OF APPETITE (OREXIS) AND PRACTICAL COGNITION (NOESIS). BEHAVIOUR OF HUMANS AND OTHER ANIMALS IS GOAL DIRECTED. HUMANS ARE ABLE TO PLAN BY THINKING THROUGH THE ROUTE TO THEIR GOALS (MEANS-END INSTRUMENTAL THOUGHT). SOME ANIMALS MAY ALSO DO THIS.

ERRORS OF JUDGEMENT LEAD PEOPLE TO CHOOSE COURSES OF ACTION WHICH ARE SUBOPTIMAL (COGNITIVE ERROR) e.g. EATING THE WRONG DIET. ALTHOUGH DECISIONS ARE MADE THROUGH A TIME-CONSUMING COGNITIVE PROCESS, THEY EVENTUALLY BECOME AUTOMATIC. BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSES DICTATED BY EXPERIENCE MAY THEREFORE BE IMMEDIATE AND EFFORT-FREE (BUT STILL RATIONAL).

D) CHARACTER CHARACTER IS A MATTER OF HEXIS (LATIN TRANSLATION = HABITUS). THIS IS AN OVER-LEARNT PATTERN OF RESPONSE. ONE CANNOT BE SAID TO HAVE ACQUIRED A CHARACTER OF A PARTICULAR KIND UNTIL ONES RESPONSES ARE EFFORT-FREE AND AUTOMATIC (cf. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY).

E) ASPECTS OF INTELLIGENCE PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTELLECTUAL ABILITY ARE NOT THE SAME, ALTHOUGH THEY HAVE CERTAIN FEATURES OF RATIONALITY IN COMMON. THERE ARE VARIETIES OF BOTH PRACTICAL AND INTELLECTUAL ABILITY. (MATHEMATICAL ABILITY DOES NOT DEPEND ON EXPERIENCE OR UNDERSTANDING OF THE WORLD. IT IS OFTEN FOUND IN YOUNG PEOPLE WHO HAVE NO EXPERIENCE AND DO NOT DISPLAY OTHER KINDS OF ABILITY OR UNDERSTANDING.)

F) KNOWLEDGE THERE ARE PRIMARY QUALITIES OF SIZE, SHAPE, DURATION, NUMBER AND MOVEMENT/REST (cf. GALILEO & LOCKE). CATEGORISATION IS BY NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT CONDITIONS (A CENTRAL TENET OF ARISTOTLES SYLLOGISTIC MODEL OF LOGIC). ALL EXPLANATION IS CAUSAL. ARISTOTELIAN CAUSALITY HOWEVER IS NEITHER MECHANICAL NOR CORRELATIONAL. THERE ARE FOUR POSSIBLE KINDS OF CAUSAL EXPLANATION. ALL FOUR MAY BE NECESSARY FOR A FULL CAUSAL EXPLANATION. THEY ARE: 1) EFFICIENT CAUSE (IMMEDIATE INSTIGATING FACTOR WHAT WE NORMALLY MEAN BY CAUSE). 2) FORMAL CAUSE THE SHAPE OR FORM OF A STATUE MAKES IT THE STATUE THAT IT IS. 3) MATERIAL CAUSE THE MATERIAL THE STATUE IS MADE OF (WOOD, MARBLE, BRONZE) ALSO MAKES A DIFFERENCE TO ITS NATURE. 4) FINAL CAUSE (TELOS) GOAL OR END STATE TOWARDS WHICH ANY MOVEMENT, ACTION OR CHANGE IS HEADING (INCLUDING, REGRETTABLY, NON-PURPOSIVE MOVEMENT SUCH AS THE ORBITS OF THE PLANETS).

G) EMOTION A USEFUL INSTANCE OF THE 4 CAUSES SCHEME IN OPERATION OCCURS IN ARISTOTLES DISCUSSION OF EMOTION. HE STATES THAT ANGER CAN BE UNDERSTOOD IN TERMS OF THE PRESENCE OF ALL FOUR CAUSES: 1) EFFICIENT: SLIGHT OR INSULT OR SOME OTHER ACT BY ANOTHER PERSON.

2) FORMAL: THE APPRAISAL OR INTERPRETATION OF THE ACT AS A SLIGHT OR INSULT (cf. ATTRIBUTION THEORY & MODERN APPRAISAL THEORIES OF EMOTION). 3) MATERIAL: PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTION BOILING OF THE BLOOD. 4) GOAL: REVENGE/GET YOUR OWN BACK. THIS IS CLOSE TO APPRAISAL THEORIES OF EMOTION THAT HAVE BEEN INCREASINGLY POPULAR IN PSYCHOLOGY SINCE THE 1960s.

EMOTIONAL DISPLAYS MAY BE CLEANSING (CATHARSIS): 1) RESPOND TO THE OTHERS FEELINGS EMPATHICALLY; 2) VICARIOUS EXPERIENCE OF THE EMOTION (AS IN THE THEATRE) CLEANS POTENTIALLY DISRUPTIVE FEELINGS OUT ONES SYSTEM ; 3) ART IS THEREFORE A VALUABLE SAFETY VALVE AND THERAPY IN THE COMMUNITY. (OPPOSITE VIEW TO PLATO, A CENSORSHIP-FAN; MAJOR IMPACT ON FREUDS IDEAS ABOUT HOW PSYCHOTHERAPY MIGHT WORK TO RELEASE PENT UP AND UNRESOLVED EMOTIONAL CONFLICTS; CONSIDER FREUDS USE OF BOTH THE PLATONIC CONCEPTION OF THE DIVIDED SELF AND ARISTOTLES CONCEPTION OF THE POSSIBILITY OF EMOTIONAL CLEANSING TO CONSTRUCT HIS OWN SYNTHESIS OF THE USE OF EMOTIONAL CATHARSIS IN THE RESOLUTION OF CONFLICT.)

H) EQUITY AND BALANCE EQUITY AND DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE LIE AT THE ROOT OF ALL MORALITY AND MORAL JUDGEMENT (AND AFFECT THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCCESS OF VARIOUS RELATIONSHIPS, SUCH AS FRIENDSHIP). (SEE HANDOUT ON ARISTOTLES THEORIES OF SOCIETY.)

COMMENT
In the Western European Middle Ages the gradual rediscovery of Aristotle's works (many of which are still missing) led to increasing excitement and a belief that his texts contained all worthwhile knowledge. They did not (even in relation to the remainder of the Greek legacy). But they did form a significant portion of the basis from which modern ideas about science and the mind have developed. Aristotle was clearly the first systematic psychologist. His discussions anticipate the majority of the discussions which have vexed modern psychology in its earlier (17th to 19th century) or later scientific forms. This is unsurprising as his ideas were followed, developed or argued against by key figures in the creation of the theoretical bases of this psychology, such as Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Mill and Freud. His recurrent rediscovery by twentieth century philosophers and psychologists has influenced the cognitive psychology of reasoning, decision making and categorisation as well as approaches to emotion and pragmatics. His profound influence on other areas of European thought has also led to a more roundabout influence on psychology. For instance his literary theory was the major influence on classicism (e.g. Racine in the seventeenth century) and its prescriptions about the form, role and function of artistic expression. His conversion into Christian thought by Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) made his naturalistic, materialistic and empiricist vision of nature and humans place in it the basis of the most influential Catholic theology. Aristotles impact on Roman jurisprudence has made his ideas about responsibility, freedom of the will, justice and equity pervasive. Few of the secondary source historians of psychology are able to do him justice. Hergenhan for instance says nothing about his analyses of thinking and decision making (although

this is one of the contributions for which he was most famous, and to which modern logic and psychology have added only recently). The Range of Aristotles Achievements Aristotles texts provide an overview of psychological and social science. He and his students invented most of these sciences in a form which is instantly recognisable today: On the Senses; On Memory; On the Psyche (clearly NOT the soul" in our sense); Rhetoric (on communication, persuasion and emotion); Ethics (on decision-making, error, relationships, types of intelligence, distributive justice, and on free-will and responsibility); Politics (on the principles of social organisation at the supra-individual level); Comparative Constitutions (mostly lost - on the structure, development and function of political systems in different nations - highly empirical); Economics; Categories (about logic and semantics); Formal Logic (Analytics) invented by Aristotle himself - a basis for a claim to major historical (and psychological) importance in itself - the basis for example of all computer languages; Inductive Logic and Scientific Method (Second Analytics) (less original than the Formal Logic, but a clear statement of the problems of induction, the nature of inductive thought processes, and a version of the inductive/scientific position which actually unifies socalled "rationalism" and "empiricism" in a more advanced manner than the major 17th and 18th century thinkers); Poetics (on the structure and memorability of narrative, and again on emotion; (part of this text is lost, the part on humour and laughter). Apart from this being the major text to influence European classicism in literature its emotion theory lay at the root of Freud's assumptions about emotion and the effectiveness of psychoanalytic therapy. Its ideas about narrative have a clear echo in the latest developments of psycholinguistics). In addition to all that Aristotle was the first recorded systematic biologist, classifying different species of plant and animal on the basis of empirical work and a descriptive/functional approach. His corpus also includes major texts on the problems of Physics and The Meta-Physics (in Greek this means Physics, Part II). The last two texts were the ones against which the cosmologists and mechanical physicists of the scientific revolution rebelled. As Aristotle was neither a mathematician nor an active empirical physicist it is unfortunate that he is often cast as the proponent of outmoded and incorrect ideas which were laid to rest by the major revolution in modern European and world history. The success of this revolution and the celebrity of its approach to scientific problems has had a decisive effect on the aspirations of psychological science since the seventeenth century. For example in his Observations on Man (1749) David Hartley asserted that his aim was to produce an empirical psychology to establish the general laws . . from well-attested phenomena, and then to explain and predict the other phenomena by these laws. This is the method recommended and followed by . . Newton. Hartleys methods, unlike Newtons were in fact anecdotal and casual rather than mathematical and experimental. But the assumption that what was right for physics must be right for psychology is an ironic reversal of what we find in Aristotle who asserts that different lines of enquiry require different approaches. Many of the ruling metaphors in Aristotles own work fit biology and the behaviour of organisms but are less satisfactory when extended, as Aristotle did extend them, to the movement and change of inanimate objects such as stars or pendulums. Reducing explanations of inanimate bodies behaviours to correlations or efficient causes has proved helpful in the history of modern science. This success need not imply that reliance on efficient-cause explanations of organisms behaviour will be equally helpful. The "rejection of Aristotle" was seen as a major breakthrough into a new way of thinking; but in reality, as Galileo recognised, the new science was a move from the idea that Aristotle knew about everything to a realisation that other aspects of Greek thought might be more helpful for some branches of science, e.g. the work of Euclid and Archimedes (both later than Aristotle) and the development of empirically based technology and science in Alexandria in the centuries after Aristotles death.