RCs online Since you wont have a paper that you can make marks or underline words/lines on,

, you should substitute that habit with one of quick note-making. This will serve the same purpose that marking would have you will remember key words and thoughts, and since you have the sequence down on paper, you wont have difficulty (scrolling up and down) in identifying the bits you want to re-read. For example, if the following were the first 2 paras of a passage

The emerging new theory of living systems is the theoretical foundation of ecological literacy. Instead of seeing the universe as a machine composed of elementary building blocks, scientists have discovered that the material world is ultimately a network of inseparable patterns of relationships, that the planet as a whole is a living, selfregulating system. The view of the human body as a machine and of the mind as a separate entity is being replaced by one that sees not only the brain but also the neural system, the bodily tissues and even each cell as a living, cognitive system. Evolution is no longer seen as a competitive struggle for existence but rather as a cooperative dance in which creativity and the constant emergence of novelty are the driving forces. This new vision of reality informed by eco-literacy will form the basis of our future technologies, economic systems and social institutions. Either that or there will be no future for humanity. It is obvious that this has profound implications for education in the 21st century. It will require a pedagogy that puts the understanding of life at its very centre, in the experience of learning that overcomes our alienation from the natural world and rekindles a sense of praise, a curriculum that teaches our children the fundamental facts of life: that one species' waste is another species' food; that matter cycles continually through the chain of life; that the energy driving all the ecological cycles flows from the sun; that diversity assures resilience; that life from its beginning of more than 3 billion years ago did not take over the planet by combat but by networking. Quick notes would be something like 1. eco literacy - new theory of liv syst univ not mchn-like but netwk of reltnshp so also humn bod 2. evol not compt but coop depnds on creatvt n novlt idea shd be pt of teachn n learnn fcts supptng this idea In the exam, run through the question lines related to each passage (this will give you a rough idea of the content of the passage, and of the types of questions). Review, prioritise in order of relative comfort, and attempt. Read through the passage picked, quickly but carefully and completely, making notes as suggested. This will get you the (i) organisation of the passage (ii) the key ideas and thought-flow (iii) the central idea (iv) the style and (v) the tone. You may then be able to answer questions on these aspects, if any. For the other questions, you may require careful re-reading the notes you make will help you identify, quickly, the bits that you want to re-read (from a little above to a

little below). Consider meanings, implications (through vocab, grammar and structure), possible assumptions and possible derivations. Most important, dont get stuck on a question. If its taking you too long (say, more than double the time you normally take) move on. Come back to it later if you have the time.
Ways of dealing with passages depending on content and question-types.

The CAT has always presented RC passages from a variety of sources and on different topics. In recent years, CAT RCs have been fairly difficult to read (complex content) and to answer (deceptive questions). For the point of view of reading difficulty, the types of passages that may be encountered are: Where the topic is one with which the reader has some familiarity. This would mean that some of the words and terms used, and some of the ideas expressed, would be easily understood by the reader, who would then find the passage relatively easy to read. Where the content comprises, essentially, of information and details. Even if this is not from a familiar area, a reader may not find such a passage difficult to read, since there may not be many ideas to be grasped or understood. Interpreting statements of information and detail would, however, require a reasonable level of comfort with grammar and vocabulary. Where the topic is unfamiliar, and the writer has been subjective (presented own ideas and opinions). Such passages need careful reading (as discussed in chap.5). The reader needs to pay careful attention to the structure, thought-flow and central idea, and to the writers reasoning (ie. the manner in which the writer has used information and intermediate ideas to support the ideas and opinions expressed). Ways of dealing with the different types of possible questions are: Theme Questions These questions test the students recognition of the central idea, and invariably have general answers, not too detailed or specific. In dealing with these, the students should not refer back to the passage for details; specific details can lead them astray. Similarly, students should be careful about answer choices that too closely resemble the first or last sentence of the passage. Questions on Details These questions test the students recognition of key ideas. If the passage has been read carefully, students will know roughly where to look, should be able to turn back to the passage and scan quickly for the answer, and will usually be able to eliminate two or three choices quickly. Sometimes, however, the question, or the appropriate choice that provides the detail sought, may be in words other than those used in the passage. This, then, tests the students ability to go beyond the mere words and recognize the idea that is sought, or that answers the question. Questions on organisation of the passage These questions test the students ability to analyze the idea-flow. Again, in dealing with these, the students should not refer back to the passage for details. They should also

watch out for disputable answer choices. (Does the author really "prove" his "thesis"? Or does he merely "discuss" some of the associated problems?) Tone Questions Since such questions ask the students to identify the authors tone, style, or overall point of view, these, too, are best answered without looking back at the passage. Students should make a quick mental assessment of the authors tone before looking at the answer choices. Specifically, they should decide whether the authors tone is objective (neutral, unbiased, descriptive, nonpartisan) or subjective (biased, impassioned, partisan, argumentative). They should also attempt to recognize where the authors tone may change as the passage progresses. Inferential Questions These questions do not ask for details or ideas presented in the passage. The students are required to draw conclusions or inferences (logical understanding) from the facts or ideas stated in the passage, as well as from the manner in which the ideas are linked. In dealing with such questions, students should be careful about choices that contain substantial repetitions from the passage. They should make a deduction or inference from the passage, and should therefore consider those choices that say more than the passage says. Usually, if a choice sounds too much like something read in the passage, its probably wrong. Questions on Authors logic and Logical parallels Since these questions test the students ability to understand (and to evaluate) the logic and reasoning of the authors opinions/arguments, and to identify similar opinions/arguments/ situations/processes, students need to read the content carefully and critically (as discussed in chap.5). They would need to identify the information or ideas (premises) that the author has used in putting together and presenting his viewpoint, and the logical flow from these premises to the viewpoint or conclusion. Questions of Interpretation These questions test the students ability to interpret the meaning of a certain word, phrase or sentence in the context of the passage. The appropriate answer may not be in just the exact word, phrase or sentence referred to. The content referred to needs to be considered in the context in which it appears, ie. the preceding and succeeding lines, and punctuation also needs to be taken into reckoning. Students need to be careful about choices that contain substantial repetitions from the passage, since the answers are usually paraphrased content. Odd man questions When faced with such questions, students must remind themselves that the appropriate choice is the most inappropriate answer to the question statement, and should look for correct statements, (ie. those statements supported by the passage) and eliminate them. Questions with Multiple True/False Statements as choices The elimination process is a good way of dealing with these questions. Students should start with the shortest choice and check statements for elimination. When a statement is eliminated, all choices in which that statement appears would also be eliminated.

Sentence correction - When you read the sentence that you have to correct, please ensure that you first divide it into its components - main clauses and subordinate clauses/phrases. Ensure that you spot and correct errors in each component. Look at the placement of the subordinate clauses/phrases and see if that needs correction. Look at the connectives ( relative pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions) to see if they need correction. Then reassemble the sentence and check it against the choices that you have. Practice in this manner will give you the familiarity that will help you combine this process with choice elimination, so that you get quicker at dealing with such questions. Sentence correction questions ask the student to recognize and correct one or more of possibly erroneous grammatical structures, mainly (but not exclusively) of the following types. Agreement This refers to the consistency required among elements within a sentence. There are two areas of agreement: nouns with verbs and with pronouns, and pronouns with verbs. Noun-verb agreement: Singular subjects take singular verbs, whereas plural subjects take plural verbs. For instance - The number of applications has dropped. (It would be incorrect to say: The number of applications have dropped.) Pronoun agreement: A pronoun must agree with the noun or pronoun it refers to in person, number, and gender, and if the subject of a verb, the verb needs to correspond in the singular or plural. For instance - When girls cry, they break your heart. (It would be incorrect to say:When girls cry, she breaks your heart.) Parallelism Just as a mathematical equation needs balance, a sentence, too, when presenting ideas that contain different elements, must have parallel construction so that these elements balance each other. For instance - To listen to someone is to pay attention as you hear them. This SHOULD NOT be written as To listen to some one is paying attention as you hear them. Verb Form Errors with the use of verbs may occur in the absence of agreement or parallelism (discussed above). They may also occur in the use of tenses, use of transitive/intransitive verbs, and use of modal auxiliaries Some examples of the correct uses of tenses He prayed at the temple yesterday. (Simple past) He prays at the temple every day. (Simple present) He will pray at the temple tomorrow. (Simple future) He was praying at the temple (past continuous) when I met him. He is praying at the temple now. (Present continuous) He will be praying at the temple (future continuous) at the same time tomorrow. He had prayed at the temple (past perfect) before it was closed to the public. He has prayed at the temple (present perfect) and is now on his way home. He will have prayed at the temple (future perfect) by the time you meet him tomorrow. He had been praying at the temple (past perfect continuous) for an hour before he was disturbed. He has been praying at the temple (present perfect continuous) for more than an hour now. He will have been praying at the temple (future perfect continuous) for over an hour by 6 pm tomorrow. Some examples of the correct uses of transitive / intransitive verbs He eats apples. He plays tricks. (Transitive, similar to He cuts wood. He hates work.)

He eats heartily. He plays carefully. (Intransitive, similar to He sleeps soundly. He works late.) Some examples of the correct uses of modal auxiliaries He can climb that hill. (Doer's ability) He will climb that hill. (Doer's intent or responsibility undertaken) He shall climb that hill. (Responsibility placed) Comparisons Forms of comparison and comparative terms have precise constructions and applications. Students should ensure that they use them appropriately. For instance The differences between 'fewer' and 'less', 'further' and 'farther'; the need for 'between...and', 'more..than'; and so on. Modifiers Students should be able to recognise whether modifiers are positioned where they clearly relate to the thoughts they are meant to modify. If not positioned clearly, they could cause illogical references, inappropriate comparisons, or distortion in the meanings of statements. For instance - He drove around the village, in a green shirt, looking for a pharmacy. This SHOULD NOT be written as He drove around the village looking for a pharmacy in a green shirt. Grammatical Construction Students must guard against improperly formed constructions such as those indicated below. Fragments are parts of sentences that are disconnected from their main clauses. For instance - He's not wearing his shoes because he has hurt his toe. This SHOULD NOT be written as He's not wearing his shoes. Because he has hurt his toe. Run-on sentences are those in which independent clauses come together without proper connectives or punctuation. For instance She hasn't gone to the office today; she isn't feeling well. This SHOULD NOT be written as She hasn't gone to the office today she isn't feeling well. Diction When answering sentence correction questions, students should pay attention to the conventions followed with the use of words, and should chose those that properly and effectively reflect the intended thought. For instance Among/between. Among is used to refer to relationships involving more than two objects. Between is used to refer to relationships involving only two objects. Therefore: The four thieves divided the loot among themselves. (It would be incorrect to say: The four thieves divided the loot between themselves.) Another example As/like. When we use 'as' to mean in the form of, it's a preposition. In its other use it's a conjunction of manner followed by a verb. 'Like', on the other hand, is generally used as a preposition, and therefore is followed by a noun group. Therefore: He commands respect as a teacher would mean that he is a teacher, while He commands respect like a teacher would mean that he's being compared to a teacher. And another I/me/myself. I would always be the subject of the idea (I hit him); me would always be the object (He hit me); myself is when action carried out by the subject affects the self (I hurt myself). ---- and so on. Logical Predication Students should be able to identify structural errors that render sentences illogical or ambiguous.

For instance - Some believe that Communism was a very relevant idealogy when it was born in the 19th century but has lost considerable ground since the breakup of the U.S.S.R. This SHOULD NOT be written as Some believe that the birth of the ideology of Communism was very relevant in the 19th century but has lost considerable ground since the breakup of the U.S.S.R. Idiom Inappropriate or incorrect use of idiom would indicate unfamiliarity with idiomatic expression (such as idioms, phrasal verbs, prepositional phrases, correlative conjunctions and the like). Though idiomatic expressions are based more on convention or tradition than on conventional grammar rules, they are standard expressions and it is important to use them correctly. For instance - Having rested adequately overnight, the rallyists were able to resume driving at first light. This SHOULD NOT be written as Having rested adequately overnight, the rallyists were able to resume driving when they first saw light. Another example - She lives in that small house on the corner. This SHOULD NOT be written as She lives at that small house by the corner. And another - He advised us to read not only 'Julius Caesar' but 'Macbeth' as well. This SHOULD NOT be written as He not only advised us to read 'Julius Caesar' but 'Macbeth' as well. Rhetorical Construction Students should be able to identify constructions that are wordy, redundant, awkward, imprecise, or unclear, even if apparently free of grammatical errors. For instance - Wordy, redundant constructions - The meeting was cancelled for lack of quorum. This SHOULD NOT be written as The reason the meeting was cancelled was because there was lack of quorum. Another example - Awkward, imprecise, or unclear constructions - When she entered the house, she dropped her briefcase, picked up her baby, and took her out into the sun. This SHOULD NOT be written as When she entered the house, she dropped the briefcase, picked up her baby, and took her to the sun. Once in a while, say, once or twice a week, take one of the larger paragraphs from what you read and treat it as a grammar exercise - examine different aspects of grammar and the role they play in sentence structure - one day look at subjects (whether nouns or noun phrases/clauses), one day at verbs, one day at modifiers, one day at prepositional use, and so on. This will really help, since you'll build familiarity the same way that you do with vocab. Para Formation and Para Completion questions. Both these question types test your ability to identify thought flow, and your familiarity with para structure. Basically, a paragraph is a set of sentences which, together, express an idea or an idea-set. While there are the occasional exceptions, paragraph structure usually follows a certain thought pattern, depending on content and purpose. Content is not too difficult to determine - ask yourself "what is it the author is speaking of in the para, what is the situation being presented?" To determine purpose ask yourself "what is the author's objective in presenting this info or situation?" You'll find, then, that in many paragraphs the sequence in structure is as follows :

1. When the purpose is to explain something - the author would start with a line that presents a general approach to the idea, and progresses from that to a narrower or more specific reference. 2. When the purpose is to raise awareness - the author would first present information and detail that would then bring the issue or problem into focus. 3. When the purpose is to raise anxiety or concern - the author would focus on the issue or problem in a manner that raises the reader's concern, and would then present the feature of the issue that are the reasons for the concern or anxiety. 4. When the purpose is to present solutions - the author would first explain the issue or problem, and then move to the possible rectification or solutions. 5. When the purpose is to surprise, or amaze, or cause wonder - the statement of surprise would be presented first and would be followed by the features of the idea or issue that would explain why the surprise. ....and so on. With this recognition, identifying the opening sentence (sometimes the closing sentence, sometimes the clear link between 2 sentences) becomes possible. Using these and a combination of recognition of thought flow, recognition of grammatical connectives used (pronouns, relative pronouns, demonstrative adjectives, conjunctions, prepositions) and simultaneous evaluation of choices for elimination, you should be able to arrive at the correct formation of the paragraph. Also look for and identify these features in paragraphs (purpose and patterns) when you engage in general reading. This would be good practice. Application of such recognition becomes important for para completion questions too, whether you are trying to spot intermediate sentences, or last sentences. When you are identifying last sentences it is important that you pick that line that effectively brings the thought-flow and the discussion, in the para, to a close (and not a line which continues with the thought-flow but leaves the discussion incomplete). Practice, and the application of these points, should help. You could also look up 'paragraph writing' and 'paragraph structure' in a good high school grammar and composition book. Logical reasoning - The effective steps in the handling of any LR question - recognise the situation, work out the reasoning, and then look at argument structure/evaluation.

Some tips on FIJs In the course of the LR basics class, and through the LR practice exercises and tests, you have gained familiarity with the terms Premises, Assumptions, and Conclusions as components of Arguments. Just to help you recall Premises in an argument are the stated information/ideas that lead to a Conclusion. Assumptions are the unstated information/ideas that also contribute to the Conclusion. Inference means any understanding that can be derived from the Premises. Conclusion refers to the specific idea being presented through the argument, ie. (i) the particular inference (or understanding), or (ii) application of the inference.

There is no doubt that the way ideas are presented, or understood, is usually very subjective, and this is what makes FIJs a tricky question type. However, subjective as they may seem, careful reading and evaluation can help narrow the margins. A) Lets compare what weve just recalled (above) with what we see in FIJs, so as to recognize the connections. - Information and ideas used, by an author, as Premises in an argument are the authors Facts in FIJs (the author presents these as statements that are verifiable). - All Inferences (incl. Conclusions) ie. what the author understands will follow, or can be expected to follow, from the Premises in an argument are the authors Inferences in FIJs. However, such statements present understanding (logical derivation) only, and do not indicate opinion. - When an author makes statements that go beyond presentation of understanding, and offer opinions, these are the authors Judgements in FIJs. Statements indicating opinions, decisions, plans, strategy, judgements, approval/disapproval and so on would fall into this category. B) Please keep in mind, however the FIJ questions in CAT 2006 showed that while the statements in a question set may refer to a particular issue or matter, each statement must be evaluated independently of the others. The exception to this would be if a statement actually makes a reference, plainly or by implication, to any of the other statements for instance, the presence of grammatical connectives could draw attention to other statements. C) While attempting to identify statements as F I or J, you need to pay attention to the focus of the sentence, so that incidental observations and descriptions do not distract you. For example It cant get closer than this A desperate farm worker, standing on the track and waving his towel frantically, managed to help avert a major disaster this morning when, thanks to his signals, the GT express screeched to a halt a mere 6 feet from a spot where the rails had been removed from the tracks. Irrespective of the opinion-like observation at the start of the sentence, and the various adjectives which clearly indicate the writers impression of a close call, the sentence is clearly intended to deliver information and is therefore a fact. Lack of education does not preclude recognition of social responsibility an illiterate farm worker who helped avert a major disaster this morning, at considerable risk to himself, has shown us that. Again, while the start of the sentence may seem like an opinion, the sentence actually serves to present the writers understanding that the uneducated can be socially responsible, based on the information of the mornings incident. This is an inference. Our nation is yet to develop in certain social aspects but, as even rural folk can sometimes demonstrate, sincere concern on the part of the common man is not one of them.

While the words used may not seem to convey strong opinion, it is clear that the writer is expressing approval of the outlook of the common man a personal opinion. This is a judgement. As in other cases, practice helps here as well try applying these methods of evaluation to opinion-based articles that you read in the papers and magazines in the course of your general preparation. You would then be able to recognize certain common aspects in sentence structure that would help you quicken your recognition and evaluation.

Us/Ds Any argument, while it may have its own components that demonstrate a certain logical structure or flow, is usually part of a larger picture. In other words, we can step back from the main argument and view it in a larger context. We would then see that the argument flows from a (logically) prior circumstance (or set of circumstances) which would then be Upstream (ie. the direction from which the logic is derived). We would also see that the argument flows on to a (logically) subsequent circumstance, which would then be Downstream. The larger picture would also contain other circumstances or arguments, the content of which do not correspond to that of our main argument. However, some of these may point in the same direction as our main argument, thereby supporting (not in the premises, but in the understanding arrived at, or the conclusion). These would then be Lateral. Sometimes they would not display any connections, logical or otherwise and would then be Irrelevant. L F C I questions When considering whether a statement can be logically concluded we would need to consider both Inductive and Deductive conclusions. Deductive, being the more definite, are relatively easy to spot Deduction operates by discovering the necessary implications of established truths; that is, established generalizations are applied either to other generalizations or to specific cases in order to discover new conclusions that necessarily follow. In a deductive argument, if the premises are true and if the argument is valid then the conclusion must also be true. The syllogism is a typical way that deductive arguments are structured. Inductive conclusions are to be arrived at with care - Induction forms conclusions that reach beyond the premises (or evidence), beyond the current boundaries of knowledge, thus making inductive conclusions probable rather than certain. At the heart of inductive thinking is the "inductive leap," the stretch of imagination that draws a reasonable inference from the available information. Because inductive conclusions are only probable, they can exist along a range of probability and can be made stronger or weaker.

Inductive arguments can be made in several ways. These include the following: 1. Inductive generalization. This involves forming a generalization based on a collection of evidence. There are two subtypes: a. Sample to Group and b. Evidence to Conclusion. 2. Pattern to Prediction. 3. Correlation to Cause. Here a set of correlations is examined and the conclusion made that one thing causes another. This is to be done with care, however, as one must rule out the possibility of coincidence and the possibility of a cause-effect reversal. 4. General to General. This often involves an argument based on consistency leading to further inferences of consistency. To be done with care since the circumstances must validate the inference, otherwise it would only be a likelihood. 5. General to Particular. Many times a particular conclusion is drawn from a sample (such as statistical data) or from knowledge that is generally true. Again, to be done with care since the circumstances must validate the inference, otherwise it would only be a likelihood. 6. Particular to Particular. - also called analogical induction. Also to be done with care since the circumstances must validate the inference, otherwise it would only be a likelihood. In sum, then, inductive arguments and their conclusions - (i) reach beyond their premises (so, an inductive conclusion is not a mere identification of a premise, it would be more in the nature of a conclusion on the sufficiency, value or weight of a premise), (ii) exist along a range of probability rather than being certain, and (iii) can be strengthened or weakened by new evidence. Sometimes it is difficult to tell whether the facts are representative or sufficient, and this is again why inductive conclusions must remain probable rather than necessary, and why we qualify them with expressions like "tends," "probable," "some," or "generally," and usually avoid such terms as "always," "none," "all," and "never" (which are common in deductive argument).
We can go wrong with inductive conclusions if we :

1. Use too much generalization, 2. Use flimsy or inaccurate evidence, evidence selected in a biased way, too little evidence or incomplete evidence, 3. Use misinterpreted evidence or evidence which has no relation to the conclusion, 4. Overlook a possible exception.
These are the key features to be kept in mind when considering whether the statement can be considered to be in the logical conclusion category. Far-fetched conclusions are just that (going far to fetch) there would be a way of establishing logical connections, but with so many ifs and buts (unwarranted assumptions or conditions) that the connections are logical in theory alone. Statements that contradict the intent of the para are those that point to a viewpoint that is contrary to that demonstrated by the thought-flow and the argument in the stimulus. Irrelevant statements would be those that do not fall into any of the other 3 categories.