Wear 255 (2003) 456465

Mapping sliding wear of steels in aqueous conditions

M.M. Stack , K. Chi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, James Weir Building, 75 Montrose St., Glasgow G1 1XJ, UK

Abstract In studies of sliding wear in dry environments, there have been many attempts at mapping the processes. For steels, the classical wear map has been developed and various other studies have extended the approach to composites, ceramics and coated materials. Despite this work, there have been few attempts to extend the methodology to wet conditions, where the wear process interacts with solutions that are dened by pH and electrochemical potential. The object of this work was to study the sliding wearcorrosion behaviour of steels in a pin-on-disc apparatus in aqueous conditions. The effects of applied load and velocity were evaluated at various electrochemical potentials in carbonate/bicarbonate solution pH 9.8). The results were analysed using weight loss and scanning electron microscopy techniques. Wear mechanisms were identied in the various environments and a method of identifying the wearcorrosion transitions, in aqueous conditions, was proposed in the work. These regimes were superimposed on wearcorrosion maps, where the change in wearcorrosion regime was identied as a function of velocity and electrochemical potential. Possible reasons for the differences in the boundaries of the map at various applied loads are discussed in this paper. 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Sliding wear corrosion; Maps; Wear mechanisms; Aqueous environments

1. Introduction Signicant advances in recent years have been made in the study of tribo-corrosion in aqueous conditions. In particular, there has been much work carried out in the eld of erosioncorrosion by solid particles [15]. Regimes of interaction have been identied, ranging from erosion-dominated where the material loss is predominately from the substrate to corrosion-dominated where the losses are as a result of dissolution or formation of corrosion product [68]. Various methodologies have now been developed for characterising the tribo-corrosion interaction in erosioncorrosion environments, and in particular, in dry conditions [6]. There many schools of thought on the best method of describing such interactions and these have been the subject of a recent review [9]. However, such mechanistic descriptions are important because they enable the construction of a useful engineering tool for application to such environments, i.e. the engineering map.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-141-5483754; fax: +44-141-5525105. E-mail address: m.m.stack@mecheng.strath.ac.uk (M.M. Stack).

Erosion [10] and wear maps [1114] are now part of mainstream tribology but it is worth noting that there are still many territories in this area that remain uncharted by such mapping approaches. In particular, although maps have been constructed for aqueous-corrosion (e.g. Pourbaix diagrams [15]) and erosion in such conditions [7,8], there has been no similar approach to characterising sliding wear in aqueous conditions. This is despite the fact that a map for dry sliding wear of steels (based on experimental results and constructed using analytical tools) [11] has been developed for over a decade. Some recent work by Jiang et al. [16] has provided a basis for construction of a simple map, based on mathematical models of wearaqueouscorrosion in sliding contacts. However, there has been no laboratory work carried out to develop the map from raw data. In this work, the sliding wear behaviour in steels in an aqueous solution of buffered pH (carbonate/bicarbonate) was investigated at a range of velocities and applied loads. The results were used to establish regimes of wearcorrosion. Wearcorrosion maps were constructed as a function of sliding velocity and applied potential and the effects of increasing applied load on the wearcorrosion boundaries are discussed in terms of the competition between the frictional heating effects in the aqueous solutions versus the enhancement of mechanical wear.

0043-1648/03/$ see front matter 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0043-1648(03)00203-5

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2. Experimental description A pin-on-disc apparatus was used in this study (Fig. 1). The asymmetric test rig employed a pin pressed against a rotating ring both making conformal contact when the track rotates. Both the pin and ring were made of carbon steel of composition: 0.21% C, 0.38% Mn, 0.46% Si, 0.005% P and <0.004% S. The pre-weighed ring was xed into a perspex trough acting as the container for the electrolyte (0.5 M NaHCO3 + 0.5 M Na2 CO3 solution prepared using de-ionised water). Importantly, the rear face and edges of the ring, and the cylindrical circumference of the pin, were coated with a lacquer (Lacomit) so as to limit the electrochemically exposed area solely to the abraded track (and also, necessarily, the pin face). The pin holder made it possible to apply variable force using a total weight of either 500 or 1000 g and also to connect the pin as the working electrode. A graphite auxiliary electrode ring was concentric to, but insulated from the pin. The rig was connected to a reference electrode (standard calomel electrode, SCE) by a salt bridge with a capillary placed close to, but not in contact with, the ring. The whole system was software controlled using a GillAC electrochemical interface from ACM Instruments (UK). Following an initial stabilisation period at 1000 mV (SCE) for 120 s, polarisation curves during simultaneous sliding wear were measured from 1000 to +500 mV (SCE) at a sweep rate of 1 mV s1 . Necessarily, in this apparatus, the solution was exposed to air. Thus, the measured

current densities were corrected, at all potentials, for the presence of residual cathodic current by subtraction of the oxygen reduction current at 920 mV (SCE). The polarisation curves shown in this paper are presented after this correction. Prior to this process, the currents at 920 mV were plotted as a function of the square root of the rotation speed; the expected linear relationship conrmed that diffusion controlled kinetics dominated at this potential and that the correction was justied. Although a resistive (iR) drop may also have been present, it was assumed, due to the relatively high conductivity of the 0.5 M electrolyte, that this was minimal and no further corrections to the polarisation data were carried out. Wearcorrosion tests were carried out rotation speeds equivalent to linear velocities at the pin of 0.157, 0.314, 0.471, 0.628 m s1 . The corrosion rates (Kc ) during sliding wearcorrosion were obtained from the current densities at potentials of 600, 400, 200, 0, 200 mV (SCE). Thus, the potential range covered active corrosion (600 and 400 mV), pre-passivation (400 and 200 mV) and passivation (200 to 200 mV), depending on the sliding wear conditions. The total mass losses due to sliding wear and corrosion (Kwc ) at the above potentials after 1 h were obtained from the weight change of the ring; this was measured using a Mettler College 150 electronic balance, with an error of 0.1 mg (it should be noted that for these experiments, the corrosion and wear rates were not separated; the corrosion rate refers to the corrosion of the pin and ring. The total area of the wear track on the ring was 31.42 cm2 ; the area of the pin was 0.5 cm2 . The wear and wearcorrosion

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of experimental apparatus used for the wearcorrosion tests.

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rates refer to the ring only; this was because tests on the pin showed that the wear and wearcorrosion losses were very low). Thus, the mass loss due to sliding wear during wearcorrosion (Kw ) can be obtained from subtraction of Kwc and Kc . The background corrosion rate in the absence of wear (Kco ) was obtained under static conditions. Finally, the background mass losses due to sliding wear in the absence of corrosion (Kwo ) were obtained during cathodic protection at 800 mV (SCE).

3. Results 3.1. Polarisation curves The polarisation curves for wear at 500 and 1000 g loads demonstrate the change in behaviour at various velocities (Fig. 2(a) and (b)). For loads of 500 g (Fig. 2(a)), the steel shows the expected active-to-passive transition between 700 and 500 mV

Fig. 2. Polarisation curves for steel at various sliding speeds and applied loads: (a) 500 g; (b) 1000 g.

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SCE. As the sliding wear rate increases, the maximum current density in the active loop tends to increase while the passive current density also increases. Although the corrosion (zero current) potential values are obscured by the high noise in the data, there is evidence that it tends to become more negative with increasing sliding wear. For 1000 g loads (Fig. 2(b)), the trends are similar to those at 500 g. Thus, the passive current densities increase, and the zero current density potentials become more negative, with increasing rotational velocity. Signicantly, the currents were generally higher at all potentials with the higher load, this being particularly evident in the passive regime. Also, the potential at which the active-to-passive transition occurred was signicantly delayed to more positive values. These effects are presumably due to the considerably more effective removal of the passive lm under the higher load conditions. 3.2. Weight change data If Kwc = Kw + Kc (i)

Table 2 Mass loss data for corrosion, wear and wearcorrosion contributions at 0.314 m s1 and at 500 g load Potential Kwc 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 1.7 1.5 1.1 0.9 1.6 Kco 0.133 0.052 0.045 0.042 0.042 Kc 0.963 0.203 0.244 0.243 0.246 Kc 0.830 0.151 0.200 0.201 0.203 Kwo 1.100 1.100 1.100 1.100 1.100 Kw Kw Kc /Kw 1.305 0.156 0.286 0.370 0.181

0.737 0.363 1.297 0.197 0.856 0.244 0.657 0.443 1.354 0.254

Table 3 Mass loss data for corrosion, wear and wearcorrosion contributions at 0.471 m s1 and at 500 g load Potential 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 Kwc 1.3 3 1.1 0.9 1.1 Kco 0.133 0.052 0.045 0.042 0.042 Kc 0.620 0.224 0.270 0.263 0.263 Kc 0.487 0.172 0.226 0.221 0.220 Kwo 0.400 0.400 0.400 0.400 0.400 Kw 0.680 2.776 0.830 0.637 0.837 Kw 0.280 2.376 0.430 0.237 0.437 Kc /Kw 0.912 0.081 0.326 0.413 0.313

where, Kwc is the total wearcorrosion rate (measured as described above); Kw the total wear rate; Kc is the total corrosion rate. Kw can be written as Kwo + Kw (ii)

Table 4 Mass loss data for corrosion, wear and wearcorrosion contributions at 0.628 m s1 and at 500 g load Potential 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 Kwc 0.9 1.7 0.9 2.2 2.1 Kco 0.137 0.052 0.045 0.043 0.042 Kc 0.588 0.259 0.323 0.314 0.312 Kc 0.455 0.207 0.279 0.272 0.269 Kwo 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 Kw 0.312 1.44 0.577 1.886 1.789 Kw 1.988 0.858 1.723 0.414 0.512 Kc /Kw 1.89 0.180 0.560 0.167 0.174

where Kwo is the wear rate in the absence of corrosion; Kw is the synergistic effect of corrosion on the wear rate. Kc can be written as Kco + Kc

where Kco is the corrosion rate in the absence of wear; Kc is the enhancement of corrosion due to wear, the so-called additive effect. The above analysis is based on an earlier approach used to characterise the various components of the wearcorrosion process. The results for the various contributions to the weight change are given in Tables 18 and Figs. 34. The corrosion rate data, Kc and Kco , were derived using Faradays law, e.g. Q Kc = (iii) ZF Mw it Kc = (iv) ZF

Table 5 Mass loss data for corrosion, wear and wearcorrosion contributions at 0.157 m s1 and at 1000 g load Potential Kwc 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 1.0 1.1 0.7 0.8 1.3 Kco 0.133 0.052 0.045 0.042 0.042 Kc 0.551 0.181 0.214 0.212 0.206 Kc 0.419 0.129 0.169 0.170 0.164 Kwo 1.200 1.200 1.200 1.200 1.200 Kw 0.449 0.919 0.486 0.588 1.094 Kw 0.751 0.281 0.714 0.612 0.106 Kc /Kw 1.229 0.197 0.439 0.361 0.189

Table 1 Mass loss data for corrosion, wear and wearcorrosion contributions at 0.157 m s1 and at 500 g load Potential 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 Kwc 1.1 0.7 0.9 1.2 2.0 Kco 0.133 0.052 0.045 0.043 0.042 Kc 0.587 0.159 0.201 0.198 0.199 Kc 0.454 0.108 0.156 0.156 0.156 Kwo 1 1 1 1 1 Kw 0.514 0.541 0.699 1.001 1.801 Kw 0.487 0.469 0.301 0.002 0.801 Kc /Kw 1.142 0.299 0.288 0.198 0.110

Table 6 Mass loss data for corrosion, wear and wearcorrosion contributions at 0.314 m s1 and at 1000 g load Potential 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 Kwc 1.7 1.5 1.2 2.0 1.5 Kco 0.133 0.052 0.045 0.042 0.042 Kc 0.506 0.197 0.275 0.256 0.258 Kc 0.374 0.146 0.230 0.214 0.216 Kwo 0.700 0.700 0.700 0.700 0.700 Kw 1.194 1.303 0.925 1.744 1.242 Kw 0.494 0.603 0.225 1.044 0.542 Kc /Kw 0.424 0.152 0.297 0.147 0.208

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M.M. Stack, K. Chi / Wear 255 (2003) 456465 Table 8 Mass loss data for corrosion, wear and wearcorrosion contributions at 0.628 m s1 and at 1000 g load Potential Kwc 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 1.7 1.0 1.9 0.7 1.2 Kco 0.133 0.052 0.045 0.042 0.042 Kc 0.738 0.266 0.283 0.277 0.280 Kc 0.606 0.215 0.238 0.235 0.238 Kwo 2.500 2.500 2.500 2.500 2.500 Kw 0.962 0.734 1.617 0.423 0.920 Kw 1.538 1.766 0.883 2.077 1.580 Kc /Kw 0.768 0.363 0.175 0.655 0.305

Table 7 Mass loss data for corrosion, wear and wearcorrosion contributions at 0.471 m s1 and at 1000 g load Potential 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 Kwc 0.9 2.2 1.7 0.8 0.9 Kco 0.900 2.200 1.700 0.800 0.900 Kc 0.133 0.052 0.045 0.042 0.042 Kc 0.738 0.266 0.283 0.277 0.280 Kwo 0.606 0.215 0.238 0.235 0.238 Kw 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 Kw 0.162 1.934 1.417 0.523 0.620 Kc /Kw 0.338 1.434 0.917 0.023 0.120

Fig. 3. Variation of weight change loss due to corrosion, Kc , due to wear, Kw , and due to wearcorrosion, Kwc , with velocity at applied loads of 500 g: (a) 0.6 V; (b) 0.4 V; (c) 0.2 V; (d) 0 V; (e) 0.2 V.

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Fig. 3. (Continued ).

where Q is the charge passed; F the Faradays constant (96494); n the number of electrons involved in corrosion process; i the current density; t the exposure time; Mw is the molecular weight of material The weight loss due to wear in the absence of corrosion, Kwo , was estimated by measuring the weight change in cathodic conditions. The results at the lower load of 500 g (Fig. 3) shows that at 0.6 V (Fig. 3(a)), the corrosion rate, Kc , exhibited a peak at intermediate velocities. There also appeared to be a peak in the wear rate, Kw and Kwc , at intermediate velocities. At higher potentials (Fig. 3(b)) 0.4 V, the corrosion rate was signicantly lower with very little difference between the values of Kw and Kwc , with the peak in these values occurring at intermediate speeds. At higher potentials Fig. 3(c) 0.2 V, the values of Kc were higher than at 0.4 V (Fig. 3(b)). At potentials of 0.2 V (Fig. 3(d)), there was also evidence of a peak in the weight loss as a function of increasing velocity. At higher potentials of 0 and 0.2 V (Fig. 3(e) and (f)), there was an initial reduction in the Kw and Kwc values with increasing velocity, with these values increasing again at the highest rotational speeds, where the corrosion rates were at a maximum. The results at the higher load 1000 g (Fig. 4(a)), show a largely similar pattern to that observed at lower loads, at

potentials of 0.6 V, with a peak in the wear rate recorded as a function of increasing velocity; however in this case the values of Kw and Kwc attained minimum values at intermediate speeds and subsequently increased at higher values. The Kc value was high; it approached the value of Kw at the maximum rotational velocity. At higher potential values, 0.4 V, the characteristic peaks in the values of Kw and Kwc were recorded. At higher values, however (Fig. 4(c)), the peak disappeared and there was a continuous increase in these values with increasing rotational speed. The results at potentials of 0 and 0.2 V (Fig. 4(d) and (e)) showed that peaks in the values of Kw and Kwc as a function of velocity were also recorded; however, at the highest potential the wear rate appeared to attain a minimum value at intermediate velocities; further increases in rotational velocity caused an increase in the recorded weight changes. 3.3. Interactions of corrosion and wear on the steel surface The results show that there was a positive enhancement of corrosion rate due to wear, Kc , at the exposure potentials (Tables 18), for each of the applied loads. This was consistent with the polarisation data (Fig. 2), which showed that increasing the sliding speed shifted the passive current

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Fig. 4. Variation of weight change due to corrosion, Kc , due to wear, Kw , and due to wearcorrosion, Kwc with velocity at applied loads of 1000 g: (a) 0.6 V; (b) 0.4 V; (c) 0.2 V; (d) 0 V; (e) 0.2 V.

densities to higher values. The corrosion enhancement was highest at the active-to-passive transition, 0.6 V. Above this value, where the passive lm formed, the values of Kc were lower. The Kc is the so-called additive effect of wear on corrosion and can be measured in situ from the Faradaic conversion of current density to weight change as described above. The values of Kw , the so-called true synergistic effect, varied as a function of potential, for the conditions tested (Tables 18). This indicated that for tests carried out

at 500 g loads, enhanced corrosion during the wear process, impeded wear at intermediate potentials (Tables 13), and at low applied loads and velocities, i.e. less than 0.471 m s1 . At this velocity, corrosion appeared to enhance wear at the higher potentials, thus indicating that, at least for these conditions, corrosion was not effective in reducing wear. At the higher applied load of 1000 g, the values of Kw were negative at high velocities and at high potentials, i.e. 0.628 m s1 . This was attributed to the formation of a protective tribo-chemical lm in these conditions.

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Fig. 4. (Continued ).

3.4. Scanning electron microscopy of worn surfaces The micrographs (Fig. 5), show typical examples of the worn morphologies at various applied potentials. The results (at loads of 500 g) (Fig. 5(a)) showed that at low potentials of 0.8 V, at 0.314 m s1 , there was extensive plastic deformation on the surface. As the potential was increased to 0.4 V, there was some evidence of oxide akes on the surface consistent with the increase in corrosion at this potentials (Fig. 5(b)). At higher potentials of 0.2 V, the surface was heavily deformed (Fig. 5(c)). The corrosion on the surface appeared to be conned to the deformed surface proud of the wear track; the fact that there appeared to be no increase in corrosion rate compared to that at lower potentials (Fig. 5(b)) was consistent with the polarisation data (Fig. 2), and mass loss results (Table 3). 4. Discussion 4.1. Trends in wearcorrosion data as a function of increasing velocity and applied potential The results showed that the trends in wear rate data as a function of increasing velocity were similar to that in dry conditions, in which the classical peak in the wear rate has

been observed for steels [17]. This peak may be due to the effect of frictional heating, leading to formation of an oxide which provides some protection against wear (Figs. 3 and 4). That this peak changes at higher potentials at the lower load (Fig. 3(c)-(e)) may be indicative of the deleterious effects of aqueous-corrosion on the surface of this normally protective tribo-chemical lm. The results at the higher load of 1000 g (Fig. 4(a) and (b)) at the lower potential values are largely similar to those recorded at 500 g (Fig. 3(a) and (b)) with the classical peak in the wear rate recorded with increasing rotational speed of the pin. The patterns at the higher loads (Fig. 4(c)-(e)) differ to those observed at the lower loads (Fig. 3(c)-(e)). The continuous increase in wear rate with increasing velocity, at 0.2 V (Fig. 4(c)) is not observed at high potentials (Fig. 4(d) and (e)) where the peak in the wearcorrosion rates is again observed. In these conditions (Fig. 4(d)), when the corrosion rates at high velocities, Kc , approach the wear rates, Kw , a reduction in the wearcorrosion rate, Kwc , is recorded. At 0.2 V (Fig. 4(e)), there appears to be range of rotational velocities in which the wearcorrosion rate is at a minimum indicating the ability of the corrosion lm to provide protection against wear; at higher velocities, this lm is removed again due mechanical wear. This indicates that the overall wearcorrosion rate Kwc can be reduced at higher velocities due to the protective nature of the tribo-chemical

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Fig. 5. Scanning electron micrographs of worn surfaces at 500 g loads and at 0.314 m s1 : (a) 0.8 V; (b) 0.4 V; (c) 0.2 V.

lm formed; wear occurring at higher loads tends to promote the development of this layer. Hence, the results indicate that a signicant difference between the wear process in these passivating carbonate/bicarbonate conditions and wear in dry conditions, is the competition between frictional heating and corrosion of the iron oxide lm which provides protection at high velocities. In these conditions, the iron oxide lm appears to loose protection in aqueous conditions at low loads and high velocities and in the highest potential range studied. At high loads and velocities, the lm which may be considerably thicker as indicated by the higher corrosion rates, tends to provide better protection during sliding, albeit in a narrow range of conditions. 4.2. Wearcorrosion regimes and wear maps in aqueous conditions The concept of wearcorrosion regimes can be applied to these conditions to distinguish between wear- and corrosion-dominated conditions.

The regimes can be dened as follows: Kc 0.1 Kw 0.1 < 1< Kc 1 Kw Kc 10 Kw Kc > 10 Kw (wear ) (wear corrosion) (corrosion wear ) (corrosion) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii)

The corrosion process is further sub-divided to indicate dissolution (active corrosion) or passivation (lm formation). The active-to-passive transition at various velocities is estimated from polarisation data (Fig. 2) (however, the corrosion process on the surface may involve processes of dissolution and lm formation, even at constant potential due to the competition between the local oxidation rate due to frictional heating at the sliding contact, and the steady state electrochemical reaction dened by potential and pH). Clearly, the results at 500 g loads (Fig. 6(a)) shows that the

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5. Conclusions (i) A study has been carried out of the sliding wear of steels in a carbonate/bicarbonate solution. (ii) While no direct interfacial temperature measurements were made in these experiments, the results indicate that frictional heating may have played a part in the wearcorrosion mechanism. (iii) Wearcorrosion maps have been constructed based on the results and show the differences in tribo-corrosion regimes as a function of electrochemical potential, applied load and sliding speed. References
[1] Z. Yue, P. Zhou, J. Shi, Some factors inuencing erosioncorrosion performance of materials, in: K.C. Ludema (Ed.), Proceedings of the Conference on Wear of Materials, Pub. ASME, 1987, p. 763. [2] M. Matsumura, Y. Oka, Hiura, M. Yano, The role of the passivating lm in preventing slurry erosioncorrosion of austenitic stainless steel, ISIJ Int. 31(2) (1991) 168. [3] M. Bjordal, E. Bardal, T. Rogne, Erosion and corrosion properties of WC coatings and duplex stainless steel in sand containing synthetic sea water, Wear 186 (2) (1995) 508. [4] Y. Li, G.T. Burstein, I.M. Hutchings, Inuence of environmental composition and electrochemical potential on the slurry erosion of aluminium, Wear 186187 (1995) 515. [5] I. Garcia, D. Drees, J.P. Celis, Corrosionwear of passivating materials in sliding contacts based on a concept of active wear track area, Wear 249 (2001) 452. [6] M.M. Stack, S. Zhou, R.C. Newman, Effects of particle velocity and applied potential on erosion of mild steel in carbonate/bicarbonate slurry, Mater. Sci. Tech. 12 (1996) 26. [7] M.M. Stack, N. Corlett, S. Zhou, A methodology for the construction of the erosioncorrosion map in aqueous environments, Wear 203204 (1997) 474. [8] M.M. Stack, S. Zhou, R.C. Newman, Identication of transitions in erosioncorrosion regimes in aqueous environments, Wear 186187 (1995) 523. [9] M.M. Stack, S. Lekatos, F.H. Stott, Erosioncorrosion regimes: number, nomenclature and justication, Tribol. Int. 28 (7) (1995) 445. [10] I.M. Hutchings, Ductile-brittle transitions and wear maps for the erosion and abrasion of brittle materials, J. Phys. D: App. Phys. 25 (1992) A121A221. [11] S.C. Lim, M.F. Ashby, Wear mechanism maps, Acta. Metall. 35 (1) (1987) 1. [12] S.M. Hsu, Y.S. Yang, R.G. Munro, Quantitative wear maps as a visualization of wear mechanism transitions in ceramic materials, Wear 134 (1989) 1. [13] T.H.C. Childs, The sliding wear mechanisms of metals, mainly steels, Tribol. Int. 13 (1980) 285. [14] K. Adachi, K. Kato, N. Chen, Wear map of ceramics, Wear 203 (1987) 291. [15] M. Pourbaix, Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions, Section 2, NACE, Houston, 1974. [16] J. Jiang, M.M. Stack, A. Neville, Modelling the tribo-corrosion interaction in aqueous sliding conditions, Tribol. Int. (2002). [17] W. Hirst, J.K. Lancaster, The inuence of speed on metallic wear, Proc. R. Soc. London A259 (1960) 228. [18] J.F. Archard, Contact and rubbing of at surfaces, J. Appl. Phys. 24 (1953) 98.

Fig. 6. Velocity-potential wearcorrosion maps for steel at various applied loads: (a) 500 g; (b) 1000 g.

dissolution-wear-dominated regime occurs at low potentials. As the potential is increased, wear-passivation commences to dominate, due to the transition from active-to-passive corrosion behaviour (Fig. 2). The fact that there is a transition between wear-dissolution to dissolution-wear, and subsequently to wear-dissolution behaviour as a function of increasing velocity, at low potentials, is due to the distinctive effect of velocity in sliding wear. The predominance of the wear-dissolution regime at intermediate velocities is probably due to enhancement of mechanical damage on the surface as a function of increasing velocity. That the dissolution-wear regime extends to higher velocities is due to tribo-chemical effects as a result of increased frictional heating at such speeds leading to an enhanced role of the corrosion process. At 1000 g (Fig. 6(b)), the shift of the dissolution-wear regime on the map to higher velocities compared with that observed at 500 g (Fig. 6(a)), at low potentials, is probably due to the enhancement of mechanical wear. It is interesting that the dissolution-wear regime dominates the map to higher potential values, compared with the results at 500 g loads (Fig. 5(a)). This is probably due to the higher rates of frictional heating at the higher loads (such ash temperatures may increase signicantly as a result of increasing load and this is well established in the literature [18]). This and the above observations indicate that in aqueous environments, the extent of tribo-corrosion on the surface is signicant. Further work will be to investigate the wearcorrosion behaviour at other loads and pH values in order to understand more fully the characteristics of such sliding wearcorrosion maps in aqueous environments.