Lectures 18 and 19

Groundwater
Dr. K. Vijaya Kumar School of Earth Sciences SRTM University, Nanded 431 606 Maharashtra, INDIA (E-mail: vijay_kumar92@hotmail.com)

Groundwater
Water resources Geologic Agent

Hydrogeology Defined
Water

Earth

Earth materials
Rock Sediment (Soil) Fluids (Water) Form, Transform and Distribute (redistribute) Earth materials Water is a primary agent of many (all?) geologic processes

Geologic processes

Hydrogeology Defined

Water-Earth Interactions

Interactions go both ways GeologyGroundwater

Geology controls flow and availability of groundwater because Groundwater flows through the pore spaces and/or fractures

Groundwater geologic processes.

Hydrogeology Defined
Water Earth Interactions

Geology controls groundwater flow

Permeable pathways are controlled by distributions of geological materials.
E.g., Artesian (confined) aquifer

Hydrogeology Defined
Water Earth Interactions

Geology controls groundwater flow

Permeable pathways are controlled by distributions of geological materials. Groundwater availability is controlled by geology.

Hydrogeology Defined
Water Earth Interactions

Geology controls groundwater flow

Permeable pathways are controlled by distributions of geological materials. Groundwater availability is controlled by geology. Subsurface contaminant transport in is controlled by geology.

Hydrogeology Defined
Water Earth Interactions

Groundwater controls geologic processes Igneous Rocks: Groundwater controls water content of magmas. Metamorphic Rocks: Metasomatism (change in composition) is controlled by superheated pore fluids. Volcanism: Geysers are an example of volcanic activity interacting with groundwater.

Hydrogeology Defined
Water Earth Interactions

Groundwater controls geologic processes Landforms: Valley development and karst topography are examples of groundwater geomorphology. Landslides: Groundwater controls slope failure. Earthquakes: Fluids control fracturing, fault movement, lubrication and pressures.

Hydrogeology Sub-disciplines
Water resource evaluation
What controls how much groundwater is stored and can be safely extracted? What controls where groundwater comes from and where it flows? What controls natural water quality: natural interactions with geological materials control the chemistry of groundwater? How can we protect groundwater recharge areas and groundwater reservoirs from contamination and depletion?

Hydrogeology Sub-disciplines
Contaminant Hydrogeology
Anthropogenic effects: degradation of water quality due to human influences (contamination) How fast are dissolved contaminants carried by groundwater? Transport pathways of contaminants: Where are sources of contamination impacting the groundwater, where are the going and what are the destinations? Remediation (clean-up) of contaminants dissolved in the groundwater.

Ground Water Zones

Degree of saturation defines different soil water zones

Soil and Groundwater Zones

Unsaturated Zone/zone of aeration: Atmospheric

pressure is more than fluid pressure

Capillary Fringe: Water is

pulled above the water table by capillary suction Water Table: where fluid pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure
Saturated Zone:

Where all pores are completely filled with water. Phreatic Zone: Saturated zone below the water table

 Ground water and the Water cycle

Infiltration Infiltration capacity Overland flow Ground water recharge GW flow GW discharge

Bedrock Hydrogeology
Hydraulic Conductivity of bedrock is controlled by

Size of fracture openings Spacing of fractures Interconnectedness of fractures

Porosity and Permeability

Porosity: Percent of volume that is void space.
Sediment: Determined by how tightly packed and how clean (silt and clay), (usually between 20 and 40%)

30% 5%

Rock: Determined by size and number of fractures (most often very low, <5%)

1%

Porosity and Permeability

Permeability: Ease with which water will flow through a porous material
Sediment: Proportional to sediment size
GravelExcellent SandGood SiltModerate ClayPoor
Excellent

Rock: Proportional to fracture size and number. Can be good to excellent

Poor

Porosity and Permeability

Permeability is not proportional to porosity.
30% 5%

1%

Porosity (stores) and Permeability (transmits) k Define specific yield and specific retention of the Groundwater

Sediments granular rocks from detrital material matrix flow Primary porosity (and dual) Fine grained and Coarse grained eg: shale, sandstone high low k low low k high high k low high k Crystalline rocks fractures Secondary porosity with water only in the fractures fracture flow Fracture density controls yield eg: granite, basalt

Porosity, specific yield and specific retention

Darcys Law
Answers the fundamental questions of hydrogeology. What controls:
How much groundwater flows? How fast groundwater flows? Where groundwater flows?

Darcys Law
Henry Darcys Experiment (Dijon, France 1856)
Darcy investigated ground water flow under controlled conditions. Darcys law states that the flow of water through a porous medium is proportional to hydraulic gradient or coefficient of permeability k which is characteristic of porous media.

Darcys Law

The Water Table

Water table: the surface separating the vadose zone from the saturated zone. Measured using water level in well

Ground-Water Flow
Precipitation Infiltration Ground-water recharge Ground-water flow Ground-water discharge to
Springs Streams and Wells

Ground-Water Flow
Velocity is proportional to
Permeability Slope of the water table
Fast (e.g., cm per day)

Inversely Proportional to
porosity
Slow (e.g., mm per day)

Natural Water Table Fluctuations

Infiltration
Recharges ground water Raises water table Provides water to springs, streams and wells

Reduction of infiltration causes water table to drop

Natural Water Table Fluctuations

Reduction of infiltration causes water table to drop
Wells go dry Springs go dry Discharge of rivers drops

Artificial causes
Pavement Drainage

Effects of Pumping Wells

Pumping wells
Accelerates flow near well May reverse groundwater flow Causes water table drawdown Forms a cone of depression

Effects of Pumping Wells

Pumping wells
Accelerate flow Reverse flow Cause water table drawdown Form cones of depression
Gaining Stream

Water Table Drawdown Cone of Dry Spring Depression Gaining Stream Low well Low river

Low well

Pumping well

Effects of Pumping Wells

Dry well

Continued watertable drawdown

Losing Stream

Dry well

May dry up springs and wells May reverse flow of rivers (and may contaminate aquifer) May dry up rivers and wetlands

Dry well Dry river

Ground-Water/ Surface-Water Interactions

Gaining streams
Humid regions Wet season

Loosing streams
Humid regions, smaller streams, dry season Arid regions

Dry stream bed

Groundwater Recharge / Discharge

Interaction between groundwater and surface water

Types of Water bearing bodies

Different types of Water-bearing properties

Aquifer: Aquifer is defined as a rock body that is capable of holding ground water supplies by virtue of its high porosity and permeability. The aquifer yields water when tapped at good velocity and volume and for longer periods. Gravels, limestone and coarse sandstone make good aquifers. If the velocity of the ground water flow is low due to relatively smaller pore size and relatively less permeability, they are called as Aquitards. Aquiclude: Aquiclude is a rock body which may be porous enough to hold some quantity of water but due to low permeability does not allow good flow of water through it. A rock with a low specific yield and high specific retention. Shale and clays are good examples of aquiclude. Aquifuge: Aquifuge an absolutely impermeable rock through which there is little possibility of movement of water, even at slower velocities due to very little porosity. Plutonic igneous rocks are primarily ideal aquifuges; however presence of secondary porosity (joints, faults, fractures etc.) makes them aquiferous.

Confined Aquifers

Unconfined Aquifers

Groundwater Flow in Confined and Unconfined Aquifers

Aquifer types:
unconfined (free surface), water-table aquifer or phreatic aquifer. Specific yield. Perched aquifer confined (under pressure) aquifers are bounded by impervious or semipervious layers. Storage coefficient. Artesian aquifer

Ground-Water Contamination
Dissolved contamination travels with ground water flow Contamination can be transported to water supply aquifers down flow Pumping will draw contamination into water supply

Sources of Groundwater Contamination

Sources of Groundwater Pollution

Ground-Water Contamination
Leaking Gasoline
Floats on water table Dissolves in ground water Transported by ground water Contaminates shallow aquifers

Ground-Water Contamination
Dense solvents
E.g., dry cleaning fluid (TCE) Sinks past water table Flows down the slope of an impermeable layer Contaminates deeper portions of aquifers

Ground-Water Contamination
Effects of pumping
Accelerates ground water flow toward well Captures contamination within cone of depression May reverse ground water flow
Can draw contamination up hill Will cause saltwater intrusion

Ground Water Action

Ground water chemically weathers bedrock
E.g., slightly acidic ground water dissolves limestone Caves are formed Permeability is increased Caves drain Speleothems form

Ground Water Action

Karst Topography
Caves Sink holes Karst valleys Disappearing streams Giant springs

Ground Water Action

Stalactites Stalagmites

Ground Water Mining

World Groundwater Resources

Indian Groundwater Regimes

Indian Groundwater Regimes

Some definitions

In summary
Groundwater occurs as a result of specific geological conditions in combination with specific hydrological conditions. Aquifers exhibit porosity the capacity to store water. Aquifers exhibit permeability the capacity to transmit water Groundwater flows down the hydraulic gradient from high head to low head (m). Flow occurs as seepage / matrix flow or fracture flow or both. Groundwater flows from recharge areas to discharge areas. Aquifers may be unconfined or confined open to atmospheric pressure or sealed by an overlying impermeable layer. Groundwater chemistry changes naturally due to rock-water interactions in the aquifers. Groundwater management requires reliable aquifer characterization.