Peruvian Historians Today: Historical Setting Author(s): Fred Bronner Source: The Americas, Vol. 43, No. 3 (Jan.

, 1987), pp. 245-277 Published by: Academy of American Franciscan History Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1006764 . Accessed: 02/05/2011 17:00
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PERUVIAN HISTORIANSTODAY
HISTORICAL SETTING

he prosperous state of Peruvian historiography partlyreflectsthe

parlous condition of Peruvianhistorians.With full professors'takehome pay just over 200 dollars a month at Lima's Pontificia Universidad Cat6lica rather less at the University of San Marcos, and with prices not that much lower than in industrialized countries, scholars scrounge for additional support. Moonlighting as a cabby is risky though definitely known among academicians;high schools offer extra hours to about a fifth of San Marcos' lecturers;and the Cat6lica historiansstaff the university's general studies programfor freshmenand sophomores. But the most attractivesolution lies in promotingprojects for foundations. That is one way for history to be written. The writers and researchersare often young, industriousheads of families whose Horatio Alger life styles may belie a radicaloutlook. For some historiansClio not only affords a parsimoniousmeal ticket but also a key to progress. None of this is novel. The historian'scrafthas rarelyprovedprofitablein Peru; and its salvational potential has been extolled by Jose de la RivaAguero as early as 1910. Following the 1919 UniversityReform a durable, declass- and thus middleclass-generation of historians sprang up, led by colonialist Raul Porrasand "republican"Jorge Bassadre. Both financed their writing from governmentservice and family funds, and both had but brief brushes with politics. In 1945 the founding membersof the Sociedad Peruanade Historiastood for even lesser public involvement. They were productsof the Universityof San Marcos, sedate professionalsand perdurable.Ella DunbarTemple still lectures at her stormy alma mater, GuillermoLohmannVillena-the giant of the group-has capped his life-long researchand unceasing publication by heading the National Archive, while in their on-going studies Gustavo Pons Muzzo and Alberto Tauro (a near-founder) eternalizeconflicts of the 1890's. Even retiredCarlos Daniel Valcaircel,who has been strickenfrom 245

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the list over a peccadillo, still teaches in provincial Ica while acting as culturalconsultant. Maria Rostworowski de Diez Canseco belongs to the generation but surely not the group of the Sociedad de Historia. Back in 1953 she published a biography of the Inca Pachacutec. She thus entered the field of ethnohistorylong before the term became popular. Currentlyher expertise is in demand on a variety of projects. The work of the Sociedad group is sound and staid like the Lima they grew up in. And, like the city itself, it seems submergedby waves of newcomers. In 1945 the Peruviancapital had but recently grown beyond half a million; in 1981 it was ten times more populous and full of squalor. Meanwhile the two universities- San Marcos and the Cat61lica-were supplemented by some ten more, their numberdependingon definition. In the 1960's began a truly new age of self-made immigrants, and it included the academicians. A surge of revolutionaryexpectations, derived from Cuba, was dashed with the collapse of the home-bredguerrilla.Thereafterthe radicalizedscholarsturnedfrom revolutionto research.Each of the Jose social sciences was harnessedto remakePeru. In 1964 anthropologist Matos Mar founded the Institutode Estudios Peruanos, aiming to explore Peru's problems so as to discover possible solutions. In 1965 political scientist Helan Jaworsky and sociologist Federico Valverde founded DESCO to combine theoretical investigation with outspokenly Leftist community organization.In 1966 An~balQuijanoproclaimed"The Tasks of the Sociologist." And early in 1968 political scientist Julio Cotler, who has recently replaced Matos at IEP, launchedhis outspokenanalysis of "internaldomination in Peru." Last came the turn of history. Pablo Macera's June 1968 vignette on history as science and ideology looks today like a remote drop in an ocean of scholarly activity. But at the time of its publicationit seemed a manifesto heraldingthe enthronementof history as the saving discipline-politically aware, socially relevant, and cooperatively managed. Macera's call appeared, moreover, on the eve of another false dawn. Few academicians escaped the siren call of the militaryrevolutionin Octoberof 1968. The military reciprocatedafter a fashion. Their development programs gave rise to several institutes- which would laterproliferateindependently -and to SINAMOS, the catch-all super-organization. These, togetherwith
new universities, became havens of employment, even if they did not profit historians nearly so much as other social scientists.

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Unexpectedly, though, Peruvianhistoriographybenefited from agrarian reform when recordsof the nationalizedcompanies were massed in a separate archive. Soon the Archivo Agrario (or del Fuero Agrario) swarmed with youthful investigators, leaving the National Archive rather empty. Then in his twenties, LimehioanthropologistHumbertoRodriguez Pastor devotedly directedthe Archivo Agrariofrom 1971 to 1980. This archivefed the data for the studies of Manuel Burga with Wilson Reategui on the southern wool trade, Victor Caballero on haciendas near Pasco, Gerardo R6nique on Junin ranching, and of HumbertoRodriguez himself on nineteenth-centuryChinese immigrants. On the negative side, the military struck against the Ph.D. Why should underdevelopedPeru produce unemployablespecialists? So reasoning, the government concentrated the power to grant degrees in a novel agency which was not in fact established. An initial term of grace benefited some doctorantswhile others pursuedtheir studies abroad. But the measurealso produceda sizeable crop of ABT's, plus the new licenciados, a title obtainable by examination one year after the B.A. At the Cat61lica, moreover, bachelors' theses were upgraded to a doctoral level. At this writing the licenciatura has joined the three older degrees, giving establishedscholars added protectionfrom ambitiousnewcomers. The most revolutionaryinnovation concerned salaries. It actually preceded military rule but did not, alas, endure. Startingin the 1960s, academic pay rose steeply, first at the new Universidaddel Centroin Huancayo and the renewed Universidad de Guamanga at Ayacucho, then at San Marcos and elsewhere. With full professorsearningup to a thousanddollars a month, professionalism became economically feasible. By 1974, however, the military regime began turningthe clock back to cope with recession and inflation. The issue of government support to universities involves excruciating questions of social justice. At this writing such questions are indeed academic because academicremuneration remainslargely theoretical.Like the country at large, the community of historianscarries on with "a parallel economy" of shifty, shady scurryingfor improbableniches. Untitled authors of significantbooks enviously behold establishedprofessorswho have but researcharticles to their credit. For their part, the professorsdespairof finding successors who will involve themselves in university affairs. The struggle for survival among historiansthus threatensthe extinction of the whole species. But in Peru this species has never enjoyed a separate or independentbeing.

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TODAY PERUVIANHISTORIANS GROUPS, GRADUATESAND LEADERSOF THE CATOLICA

Today the two main training centers have reversed roles. San Marcos' unkempt, slogan-daubedblocks of concrete look up to the gardensand pavilions of the Cat61lica. Here studentshardlymeddle with policy, and office hours are kept by instructors.At San Marcosnone have offices and few still advise doctoralcandidates:the conscientiousManuelBurgacomes to mind. Of the Cat6Not unexpectedly San Marcos graduatesseek out the Cat61lica. some seventy major in history, lica's nearly ten thousandundergraduates, and one survey shows over half wish to become professional. Twenty-six have had a thesis accepted between 1975 and 1982 (half of these colonialist). graduateshave the option of advanced studies at the Instituto Cat61lica Riva-Agiiero. Located at Jose de la Riva Agilero's down-townfamily manserves essentially as a library and sion, this former site of the Cat61lica meeting center. It also sends out worthy studentsabroadon two-year scholarships. Of its Seville doctorantes, FernandoIwasaki has a forthcoming article on colonial petty tradersin the Latin-Americanist Jahrbuch; Pedro Guibovich works the inquisition;and Teodoro Hampe Martinezstudies La Gasca. His inArmandoNieto V61ez, S.J., 54-year-old,heads the Riva-Agiuero. from then at the run from law to tellectual trajectoryhas history Cat61ica, and priesthoodin 1964. Prophilosophy at Madridto theology at Frankfurt fessor Nieto has published studies on fidelismo around 1810, on the Peruvian navy, and is currentlywriting a naval history of the Warof the Pacific. He also continues teaching theology and history, especially philosophy of history, at both the institute and the university. His own syncretic philos"within the limits of the ophy admits the widest latitudeof interpretations, licit." other historianscan be roughly sorted into three generaThe Cat61lica's tions and two faculties. The History Department belongs to Humanitiesand houses the old, pre-1960 generation of conservatives: Jose Antonio del Busto Duthurburu,Jose Agustin de la Puente Candamo, and Pedro Rodriguez Crespo. All are in their late fifties or early sixties, and their most meticulous work is scatteredin articles on genealogy (del Busto), the early independent period (de la Puente) or colonial trade (Rodriguez). The Marxists of the 1960's make their home in the Social Sciences Faculty,
above all Heraclio Bonilla, 42, and Alberto Flores Galindo, 36. For the youngest contingent, which dismisses ideology and dotes on methodology, we return to Humanities to find such by-the-hour teachers as Scarlett

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and Luis O'Phelan and EfrainTrelles. With MiriamSalas, CarlosContreras Miguel Glave, they illustratethe youthful graduate'sbreaks. At 34, Scarlett O'Phelan Godoy has already made a name for herself. This lime~iaspent five years in London studying her country's eighteenthcenturyrebellions as one of Eric Hobsbawm'slast doctoralcandidates.Her economist-husband'sstint at Cologne afforded Scarlett the publication of her book and of a majorarticle in the Jahrbuch;on top of previous articles and chapters. She makes thirty-five dollars a month for twelve weekly hours of instruction. The modern suburban cottage of the GieseckeO'Phelans and their baby daughter will be vacated in the 1986 spring quarterwhile Scarlettlectures at the University of Chicago. Her coeval, MiriamSalas de Coloma, has not been so fortunate.In 1976 she completed, the published a thesis on colonial obrajes, along with a numberof relatedarticlesand papers(includingone for the 1983 meeting of Americanists at Manchester). Her non-academic work is a household necessity but her afternoonsare spent mostly at the National Archive. A child of Ayacucho, EfrainTrelles, 32, completedLima's Germanhigh school and a Cat61lica BA, topping it with a thesis on a conquistador.It was in 1983 and seems printed worthyof a Ph.D. But as a doctoralcandidateat Trelles fell afoul of faculty turnovers-instead of a Texas, Fulbrighter computerizedstudy of colonial Indianshe broughtback an Americanwife. Nancy, Efrain and cat share a furnishedflat. Still, Trelles grapples on all fronts. As a scholarhe has just co-authoredwith MagnusM6rnera machine analysis of rebel and loyal villages during the Tupac Amaru rising. As a teacher he gives the Cat61lica four hours a week for underfourteenmonthly dollars. But he supportshimself fairly throughhis prep academyfor college candidates. At 30, Luis Miguel Glave has been throughthe mill and is startinganew. Seven years ago he had his bachelorsin sociology but left incompletethatin Inhistory: "formal and traditionalist," he found it then at the Cat61lica. stead he snapped up a post with the Dominicans' new research-action Centrode EstudiosRuralesAndinos "Bartolomdde las Casas". Thatexperience revived the historian in him. Glave studied the archives of Spain, Peru and Bolivia; and two years ago he publisheda socio-economic history of Ollantaytombonear Cuzco, co-authoredwith Maria Isabel Remy and printedby the Centro. Today Glave is separatedfrom both the centro and Maria Isabel. Penniless, teaching seventy-student classes eight hours a
week for the Universidad de Lima's fourteen monthly dollars, he has also started working part-time for the Instituto de Estudios Peruanos. Yet he

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keeps publishing articles and has read papers at recent congresses in Lima and Bogota; and is simultaneouslyworking on the four history degrees of bachiller, licenciado, magister, doctor. "But not abroadas I want to share the country's hard times." Though but 28, colonialist Carlos Contrerashas already published his book on Huancavelicaand studied shipping and muleteering.He has cooperated with Bonilla and Pease, at Quito's CLACSO and Lima's INDEHA (about to be considered). The above divisional lines blurall too readily. Flores and O'Phelandiffer less by age than by the venues of their doctorates(respectively French and English), Juan C. Crespo-the Humanities' 38-year-old course programmer-rather sympathizes with "the old Conservatives," whereas his 47-year-old colleague, JavierTord Nicolini, takes his stand on the far Left. Not readily classified are two foreign-born Jesuits in their mid-forties. AnthropologistManuel Marzal is a fully PeruvianizedSpaniardwith major monographson religious syncretism. He has combined social pastoralwork with social research;and he rules over a permanentluncheon table of colcafeteria. The AmericanexpatriateJeffrey Klaiber leagues at the Cat61lica's in Christian -"a working Peru"-thinks the Left is really Catholic, along of with the rest the country. More subtly syncretic, the 45-year-old Franklin Pease has alreadydirectedthe dissertationsof many a younger instructor. The prolific Pease and the controversialBonilla loom tall among the Cat6lica's historians. Both exude an up-datedprofessionalismwhile differing in nearly everything else. Heraclio Bonilla was born in Lima forty-yearsago of workerimmigrants from the mines aroundJauja. He earnedhis bachelorsand doctorateat San Marcos in 1966 and 1967, and a Paris troisidme cycle in 1977. His advanced dissertations rely on British consular reports from the Public Records Office. Informed by a Marxist dependismo, they became the widely cited works on the Guano Age. Two years ago Bonilla founded the HISLA-Revista Lantinoamericanade Historia Econ6mica y Social-has contributedto otherjournals, and the CambridgeHistory of Latin America. He is currentlysupervising a Peruvianistreview of "the seventeenth-century crisis," and is single-handedly organizing the June 1986 CLACSO historical conference in Lima. Then, too, he has gained notoriety through revisionist essays on Independenceand the War of the Pacific. An IEP man
from that institute's 1964 inception, Bonilla has taught at San Marcos and since 1970 mainly at the Cat61ica. But he is hard to locate at any of these, working mostly at home, across the Rimac River.

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ChristineHunnefeldt, 35, is a San Marcos BA and a Bonn Ph.D. (1982) with articles, papers and IEP projects to her credit. She is a full-time contracted economics teacher at the Cat61lica. A foreign foundationbacks her investigation of Lima families duringthe early independenceperiod. FranklinPease, a limerioson of an admiral,trainedat the Cat61lica under Maria Rostworowski, John Rowe and John Murra,receiving his doctorate in 1967. His three ethno-historicalbooks have appearedbetween 1973 and a la 1978, when he won the Howard F. Cline prize for Del Tawantinsuyu historia del Peri. Another work on socio-cultureprocesses from the Incas to the Tupac rebellion is forthcoming. In addition, Pease has published some seventy articles and chapters, has edited the journalsHumanidades, Historia y Cultura, and for nearly a decade his own Hist6rica. He has moreover directedthe National History Museum, the Cat61lica's course and for the two Peru's National publicationprograms,and, past years, Library. Two years Franklin'sjunior, MarianaMould de Pease is no strangerto history. She has translatedfrom Prescott to Lockhart, has been assistant director of Lima's Fulbright office, and is running the Peruvian student programsfor the Universities of Indianaand California. She has also published in Hist6rica.
THE SAN MARCOS SCENE

San Marcos suffers from state poverty and student politics. The pitiful pay, decreed for public universitieson a countrywidebasis, offers no compensation for Lima's cost of living. Only the grades tend to be indexed under studentpressure. In yet another reversal, the Cat61lica has become pluralistic while San Marcos has turned "confessional": Ella DunbarTemple may well be its lone non-Marxistrelic. But she is also the most steadfastteacher, bravely facing the unwashed hordes. From these have since emerged nearly all the San Marcos historians. Even Pablo Macera, their acknowledgedgrand-oldman, startedout as a Temple student-rebel,though he was probablymore influenced by Porras. To a man, sanmartinoswork away from their tumultuous Ciudad Universitaria,and some have teamed up with partnersfrom the Cat6lica. of Lima and her Alone, Miguel Maticorena sat out the transformation academe. He spent nineteen years at Seville's Archivo de Indias, becoming an oracle on Peruvian documents, and publishing in the Anuario and Estudios. In 1971 he took up teaching at San Marcos where he also obtained his first academic degrees (1974/76). He has co-edited the Tupac Amaru

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bicentennialcollection, and he constantlycontributespress items on Tupac, the discoveries, and on his native Piura-the re-writingof whose history remains his dream. A sexagenarian bachelor, he lives in a book-laden, smoke-filled room, accessible only to the hardiesthuaquero(thief of antiquities). Maticorenais himself the most accessible of colleagues. He knows them and has apparentlyassisted them all. Lima-bornPablo Macerabelongs to San Marcosbut he has carvedout an autonomouskingdom at his Seminariode HistoriaRural Andina. From its rickety colonial offices in Lima's Chinatownpours a steady flow of mimeographed statistics and studies, including bibliographies, folk pharmacopeias, market analyses and tithe records, the latter supportingFernando Ponce's fresh-off-the-stencilsstudy of Peruvianlandownership.Such is the cooperativeoutputof young advancedstudentswho receive neithercash nor course credits-only the trainingof historians. Macera's own monographs have been anthologized in four volumes in 1977; and he has since turned out high school textbooks. His work is at once methodologicallysound and radically-often wittily-contentious, so that at age 57 Macerastill reigns as historiography'sLeftist pundit. Rather different has been the career of Waldemar Espinoza Soriano. Aged 45, marriedand fatherof three, as well as a prolific scholar, Espinoza insists on his authenticconnection to the sierra. How can Andean history come from Lima libraries, he wonders, or from "committed" colleagues who petition in defense of Polish workers ratherthan Indianpeasants?He himself had moved from Cajamarcato Lima at 13 and was a San Marcos history bachelor before his eighteenth birthday. His great teachers were Porras in history and Luis E. Valcarcel in anthropology.They inspiredhis graduatework at Seville's Archivo de Indiaswhere he laboredfour years on colonial curacas. In 1962 the new San Marcos Ph.D. began lecturing and publishing at Huancayo's Universidad del Centro. Of his eighty monovalley, the graphshe prizes foremost the 1974 ethnohistoryof a Cajamarca 1973 Destrucci6n del imperio de los incas (on chieftain rivalries) and his 1967 study of polygyny. In the past two years he has initiateda synthesis of Andean marketingand finance before and after the conquest. Thoroughly researched,his work has been criticized by colleagues for its excessive adherence to documents. But at San Marcos, where he has been teaching for ten years, his studentsrespect his commitmentto objectivity. Also aged 45, Luis Millones representsat once the seeking of the 1960s and the professionalismof the 1980s. An inbredson of Lima, he has wandered widely to study anthropologyand history, completinghis doctorateat the Cat61ica.He has edited a chronicle, has writtenon shamanism,religious

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syncretism and on peasant historicalpageants. He is now concentratingon his interdisciplinaryAndean myths project, together with Maria Rostworowski and a team of Argentine-trained psychiatrists.His outputis none too voluminous but full of ideas and well-funded from abroad. Manuel Burga, 43, takes pride in traininggraduatesfor doctoral work. This often betakes them to the Cat61lica, the employer of Burga's 36-yearold collaborator,Alberto ("Tito") Flores Galindo. Their careerscoincide, except that Callao-bornTito obtained his 1972 bachelors at the Cat61ica, while Burga who comes from north-coastalPacasmayo, completed his BA at San Marcos in 1969. Both their theses have been printed, Flores' only last year. After graduating both tried for a Paris troisidme cycle which Flores won within a year, Burga only in 1982. In Paris the two became friends and startedwork on their common book. Publishedin 1979, Apogeo y crisis de la repaiblicaaristocrdtica has been something of a best seller with a fourth printingin the offing. Finally, the two are currentlyworking on anothercommon project:tracinghistorical-prophetic peasantmyths and class and ethnic risings. tying their evolution to recurrent Carlos Lazo Garcia, 39, may be the lone San Marcos historianto teach by the hour. The oldest of a Lima shoemaker'ssix children, Lazo entered San Marcos in 1966 at 16 but soon joined ultra-Leftcircles at Cuzco. Between 1967 and 1972 he was back in Lima, earninggood money by writing law dissertations, and only completing his bachillerato and licenciatura in 1975/76. Today he is married, has four children but no doctorate. "I am interestedin producinghistory, not degrees." Which is why he teaches so little. As partner of the Cat61lica'sJavier Tord he runs the Biblioteca Peruanade Historia, Economia y Sociedad, a publishinghouse with fifteen titles but few profits. "My childrensuffer and my conscience hurts." Lazo complements daytime archival research, his calculatorever at hand, with nighttimewriting. A self-styled historiadormarginado,he feels alone in his documented, computerized work on colonial society and economics. His third book, a history of Lima's mint, is ready for printing. He accuses his colleagues of a timidity that leads to mediocrity.To become extricatedfrom its "sixteenth-centurymentality," Peru needs more historians.While Lazo expounded his cultural Marxism, his teaching time melted away and his students dispersed. "I have learnedmuch from Lazo," states JavierTord Nicolini. The two have cooperatedon substantial,original sections of the Mejia Baca history of Peru, and they agree on ideology and methods. But 47-year-old-marriedwith a prisonrecord plus-two Tord does not look the partof a revolutionary under Velasco's military regime. He admits he is "that rare bird," a

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of History, and his natty Marxistfull professorin the Cat61lica's Department appearanceand regularhabits reflect a willful escape from disorder. (They remindone of AlbertoTaurowhose middle class ways go handin handwith his orthodoxpartyline.) Tord's bourgeoisantecedentsare impeccablealong with his Cat61icaBA and doctorate(1957/61). Yet Javier Tord lists as his early exemplars Macera in Lima and Pierre Vilar in Paris (where he won troisidme cycle in 1968). He takes pride in graduating "the most" specialists in agrarianand social history. Because (as he sees it) Peru is still work of more historianswith essentially feudal, it requiresthe emancipatory scientific training, cooperativehabits, and a commitmentto civic action. Aged 40, Wilfredo Kapsoli Escuderareturnsus to San Marcos to complete the roll of its teachers. He is also something of a litmus: red and unread to one set, pure and perseveringto the other. "My generationwas self-educated," he admits. Kapsoli was 15 when he left Pomabambain the Quechua-speakingAncash mountains to graduate seven years later from San Marcos with a BA in education (1967). He then turned to history, obtaining the San Marcos bachelordegree and doctoratein 1969 and 1971. He was most influencedby Macera, MarxistArcheologistEmilio Choy Ma, and Carlos Aranfbar(who forsook history for education). A full professor, Kapsoli teaches three courses in twelve weekly hours, earns 140 dollars a month. Classes are huge, communicationwith individualstudentsarduous. As a researcherhe has a knack for locating little-knownarchivesto produce limited-editionbooklets on peasant risings, slave revolts, miners and early indigenistas. By rescuing forgottenmovementshe strives for an alternative past just as the Izquierda Unida seeks an alternative future. His earlier as a historicalsource studies have been anthologized, his work on literature is in press. A remarriedwidower and father of four, Kapsoli struggles to find time for his family while working at all hours.
THE INSTITUTOS AND THE HISTORIAN

"There are 200 of them in Lima alone." The oft-repeatedfigure refersto foundations promoting improvement with related research. In Lima an becomes an institutojust as a car becomes a cab: by puttingup a apartment of public registrationis rathertimeThe only additionalrequirement sign. consuming than costly. True, the outgoing Belaunde government would also have them licensed by the Foreign Affairs Minister. But the institutos chose to disobey "Decree 007" and the new Apristaregime disregardsit. The 134 Lima institutesand 101 provincialones have joined the Asociacidn Nacional de Centros which acts as their Chamberof Commerce. Counting non-joinersthere may be 200 in Lima.

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The rash began underthe militarywho foundedthe institutesto stimulate inertiaincreasedtheir numberand popularparticipation,while bureaucratic insuredtheirprevailinglocation in the capital. In late 1975 official sponsorship began to wither but the slack was taken up by capitalistsand churches and the institutos became truly private. Then in 1980 the governmentrevived a national council of investigation, renamed Consejo Nacional de Ciencias y Technologia or CONCYTECin 1981. In additionthe military's centralizingInstitutoNacional de Culturalingers on as a publisher;its reactivation will be the task of its new head, HistorianFernandoSilva Santisteban. CONCYTEC's social science section is run by Luis Muelle who leaves much of the action to Area Specialist Humberto Rodriguez. (He is the former head of the Archivo Agrario, living on a pared salary and cabbying on the side to support his second wife and second pair of children.) CONCYTEC's budget exceeds thirty million dollars but its grants to social scientists are down from five to three with none to historians. Yet CONCYTEChas sponsoredthe November 1984 Congreso Nacional de Investigaci6n Hist6rica which was attended by many of the younger historians. CONCYTEC and the individualcentros emphasize communitydevelopment and all around "capacitation." The need to study these communities opens opportunitiesto anthropologists, sociologists, economists but only rarely to historians. Some few have managedto worm their way in. Then, like any other Lima squatter,they legitimized the invasion-persuading the institute to pursue a project. The more research-orientedIEP and DESCO anticipatedthe vogue of institutes. But they, too, share the problem of financing. Until a decade ago the IEP (Institutode EstudiosPeruanos) actually subsisted largely from publications. These continue at a pace of six to eight a year. But rising pulp costs have undone Peru's competitive edge. Today two-thirdsof IEP's budget derives from a mix of United States, Canadian and German foundations. Investigadores earn from 150 to 400 dollars a month. Interdisciplinary from its 1964 inception, IEP boasts a group of outstanding historians. Maria Rostworowski, a vigorous septuagenerian without a high school diploma, has recently summarizedher views of Andean power structuresand she steadily advances her history of the Incas. There is also 42-year-old Jiirgen Golte's youthful romance with Andean

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cultures led him from Germanyto a San Marcos anthropologymasters in 1968 and a 1972 doctorate from Berlin's Freie Universitit. His studies range from Andean organizationalpatternsto the economic motives of Tupamaristasto his currentproject on how Andean migrantsadapt in Lima. of the 1982 CommisHeraclio Bonilla we have met already.As coordinator sion of Economic History Studies he has assembled a youthful team of his own, whose membershave also found their way into IEP:ChristineHunnefeldt, Jose D6ustua, EfrainTrelles, and Luis Miguel Glave. Their multiple projectsfocus on the nineteenthcentury. Like DirectorJulio Cotler, most of these researchersusually work away from the center, and only MariaRostworowski minds the IEP shop with her steady typing. DESCO, on the other hand, teams with young activists. Foundedin 1965 and renamed Centro de Estudios y Promoci6n del Desarrollo, it is "a center for development and capacitation at the service of the popular cause." Identifying with the IzquierdaUnida, the Marxistparty which has won Lima's municipalelections, DESCO has long been directedby Henry Pease, Lima's fiery vice-mayor (and a brotherof historianFranklinPease). Some of DESCO's funding derives from publicationsbut most of it comes from the Dutch Catholic CEBEMOand other churchorganizationsin Germany. The Ford-backed Asociaci6n Peruana para el Fomento de las Ciencias Sociales also funnels research grants through DESCO, or else DESCO receives the grantsof individualswho are alreadyits staffers. Such is the case of Nelson Manrique.At 37, Huancayo-bornManrique earns 275 dollars a month at DESCO. He also teaches by the hour at the governmentalAcademia Diplomatica where the monthly per-hourpay is two dollars-twice what the Cat6lica offers. In 1971 Manriquecompleted his bachelors in sociology at the UniversidadAgrariaon Lima's outskirts and in 1976 he startedon his mastersat the Cat61ica.Therehe fell underthe spell of historiansFlores Galindo and Visitor Ruggiero Romano. His 1979 masters (printedin 1981) centered on the Indian guerrillasduring the War of the Pacific. It was the war's centennialand Bonilla had just published a sally about Indian class consciousness and national indifference. Manrique he lecturedwidely thunderedagainst that. As a new-foundpatriot-historian, and also landed the DESCO job. On it he has completed a history of the Colca Valley near Arequipa;and has been authorizedto returnto his original MA project on internalmarketsin the sierra. Manrique also belongs to the Instituto de Historia Andina, along with MagdalenaChocano, Jos6 Drustua, Luis Miguel Glave, ScarlettO'Phelan, Institutois a and HumbertoRodriguez-among others. Alas, this particular as a gathserve it does But no no of a case wish, money, projects. pious

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ering, a tertulia of concerned and promising scholars. A similar fate has befallen the InstitutoNacional de Estudios TupacAmaru, even though it is headed by C. D. Valcarcel, has Miguel Maticorenafor secretary,and was created by public law on August 29, 1984. So far it has done little and for the same reasons as the Andean History Institute. On the other hand, INDEHA-Instituto Demografia Hist6rica Andinaexemplifies an institute in the making. It reconstitutes colonial families from parishregistersunderthe guidanceof Connecticut-based N. D. Cook. Data is transferreddirectly to the Yale Data Bank, and Professor Cook hopes to obtain some funding for his Lima collaboratorsand a scholarship or two for trainingin the United States. EfrainTrelles acts as treasurer but most staffers work for free. Three-Victor Peralta, Ivan Hinojosa and Lilian Calmet-are Cat6lica BA's in their twenties with theses to write; Jose G6mez, just over 30, is a sociology MA from the University of Lambayeque; and, with her Texas masters in library sciences, 30-year-old Nance van Deusen de Trelles feeds the computeralong with her household. There are several other demographicresearchcenters, such as Alberto Varillas' InstitutoAplicado a los EstudiosDemogrdficosy Sociales, but history is not their main concern. Equally present-minded, the IAA-Instituto de Apoyo Agrario-has neverthelessbecome a home and a publisherfor a numberof veteransof the Archivo Agrario, foremost among them HumbertoRodriguez Pastor. The IAA also offers its infrastructure of office space, phones, mimeographing -but no money-to the team of Manuel Burga and Alberto Flores Galindo. Outside Lima, researchsupporthas been providedmainly by two church institutes. The IPA-Instituto de Pastoral Andina--has been active in the sierra since 1964, guided for much of the time by ManuelMarzal. Therehe edited Allpanchis whose past issues remain indispensable for the Peruvianist. When Jesuit Marzal returnedto his scholarly pursuits, the Dominicans steppedinto the breachwith their Centrode EstudiosRuralesAndinos "Bartolom"de las Casas," founded at Cusco in May of 1974. This truly "amphibian" institute publishes invaluable historical monographs while promotingtechnical educationin Spanishand Quechua. Like its patron,the "Las Casas" sometimes seems teeteringon the edge of liberationtheology. Improvementratherthan investigationprevails among these privateinstitutions. The ANC (Asociacirn Nacional de Centros) lists a Comisidn de Solidaridad Cristiana but not the Oficina de Asuntos Culturalesof the in-

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vestment corporationCOFIDE. Yet the latteris sponsoringthe publication of importanthistorical sources, such as Heinrich Witt's Lima diary which covers much of the nineteenthcenturyand whose editor is Pablo Macera. Investigation rather than improvement concerns FOMCIENCIAS(another institute unlisted by the ANC). More precisely, this Asociaci6n Peruana para el Fomento de las Ciencias Sociales tries to promote research and, throughits seminars, "the mechanismof collective reflection." Operational since 1981 and backed by Ford and two Canadian foundations, FOMCIENCIASoffers five to ten-thousand-dollar one-year scholarshipsto young researchersin fields ranging from agricultureto psychoanalysis. It "sells science" to the general public but its primaryaim remainsservice to the communityof scholars:FOMCIENCIAS has alreadyexpendeda quarter million dollars on some sixty projects. 44-year-old Executive Secretary Luis Sober6n was brimmingwith efficient enthusiasmas he rattledhis facts and figures, but he could not recall any historian-becadoexcepting Nelson Manrique. Luis Millones, however, has edited the first issues of FOMCIENCIAS'periodical Informativo, a thin bulletin invaluable for its up-dated review of ongoing research, including provincial and foreignbased; and Wilfredo Kapsoli has reviewed there Peru's historiographic trends.
DA CAPO:TRENDS,ISSUES,ACHIEVEMENTS

Some things never seem to change. Behind the outpouringof engage historians, continues the steady production of members of the Sociedad Peruana de Historia, founded in 1945. Moreover, the youngest scholars returnto the Sociedad's stolid, purely professionalcommitment;and some youngsters even replace dying members or the old, official Academia Nacional de Historia, founded in 1905. F61ixDenegri Luna, 66, is its presidingpatriarch.His home houses one of the great librarieson the past of Peru and of her Andean r eighbors. The serious young historianhas every chance to gain admissionto his sanctuary of decorous informalityand infinite charm. In his youth, recalls don F61ix, he stronglyfelt the historicalvocation. But Rafael Loredopersuadedhim to follow his example by first becoming a lawyer and enteringbusiness. Now Denegri can savor history. And the same path was taken by his relative, Carlos D6ustua Pimentel of the Cat61lica. There, however, well-to-do Jose
de la Puente Candamo ignored many an unpaid salary and even supported his alma mater. Must the work of historians, then, still depend on elitist patrons?

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How untruethis is of Peru's historicalfraternity I have alreadyattempted to show. But I also wish to argue that, however unlike they may be in their philosophies and procedures,nearly all Peruvianhistorians-even Denegri Luna and, say, Lazo Garcia- sharea common commitmentto theirnation. Nationalism characterizes the most militantly Marxist or Indianist scholars. Citizen Macera, a tireless censor in his letters to newspapereditors, has pointed out the way to a socially and nationallyrelevanthistory. Lazo Garciaand Tord Nicolini expose past facts and figures to improvethe polity's mentalite. The Burga-Floresteam explores peasantmyths, and explodes urbanmystifications, so as to promotenation-building.As citizens, Quijano and Bonilla have collaboratedon the defunctSociedad y Politica, an independent Marxist journal which spoke to workers but appealed to intellectuals. Its editors disdain colleagues who look for Indiansratherthan structures,but, in its dependismo, theirjournal was distinctlynationalistic. WaldemarEspinoza defends living Andeansfrom abstractideologies. As a citizen he supports"the authentic journals" IndianidadandMundoindio. As a scholar he resents the penchantof anthropologists and ethnohistorians for keeping their Indianstraditional to subserveresearch("just as the Spaniards kept them as a labor reserve"). The Indian wants modem amenities and he, too, craves incorporation into the nationalbody politic. In his inauguralspeech at the Academia, FranklinPease repliedindirectly to the accusations of both Bonilla and Espinoza. Until recently Andean culturehad hardlybeen understoodin its vast dissimilarity,complexity, and its continued presence. Without accepting lo andino Peruvianhistory will remaintruncated-and thereforeless national. Here Pease seems to be folall of whom lowing the line of his conservativecolleagues of the Cat61lica, advocate cultural integration (even as did Jose de la Riva Aguiero).But Pease goes beyond them in his reevaluationof lo andino. 'Not far enough,' according to Juan Jose Vega who celebratesTupac Amaru's rising, or Edmundo Guill6n (rectorof Lima's RicardoPalma University)who still fights the conquistadors.They typify the ultra-nationalists. Most historiansthus agree on some nationalpurposewhile distinguishing between their craft and civic action. Simply stated, history must be useful and professional, and it must be professional in order to be useful. The relation between these two aspects is arguable. At the IEP research itself constitutesa meliorativepraxis while DESCO and most otherinstitutesconsider researchancillaryto praxis. But these nuancesonly serve to underline a general agreementon the academician'ssocio-political tasks. Alone, some of the newest professionals quietly dissent. O'Phelan,

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Salas, Trelles, and the youngsters of INDEHA seen bent on pure science, and keener on attending conferences abroadthan on politicking at home. Their elders' patriotic radicalism had not prevented them from chasing grants and plural lectureships. Now the young followers see themselves in the role of underdog. As scholars they believe that ideological preconceptions can but obscure objective perceptions. And one of them has pointed out to me that the very masses are abandoningold shiboleths, so that, from the simplest to the most sophisticated, Peruvians generally follow "that great de-ideologizer Alan Garcia." PerhapsMarxism, Indianismand all the other commitments have only been a generationalphenomenonwhich already begins to recede. This recession stands out at the Cat61lica. In conclusion, Peruvian historians favor two over-all directions ("schools" would be too strong a word). Their respective achievements have been cataloguedin a recent articleand book, both of which are already dated. In his 1979 Aproximaci6nBibliogrdfica, Pease insists on interdisciplinaryAndeanism, while in his 1980 "Nuevo perfil de la historia" Bonilla extols a non-dogmaticMarxism which sounds ratherlike Anglo-American positivism. Cliometrics stands out on the positivist-Marxist side. A cliometric craving animates Bonilla, Carlos Contreras,Luis Miguel Glave, Trelles, and Tord-cum-Lazo.But Peruvianhistory has also been quantifiedby economists, political scientists and sociologists such as Baltasar Caravedo, Julio Cotler, Anibal Quijano, and ErnestoYepes. The interdisciplinary approachis most markedby the closeness of history and anthropology, a trend initiated six decades ago by Luis E. Valcaircel. He has particularlypromoted the indigenist concern so dominant in both and documentationof the Inprofessions; and the prevailing understanding dian backgroundowes much to the work of John V. Murra.In archeology Valcarcel's "totalizing vision" has proved a half-way station between the roots-seeking Julio Tello and the Marxian schemata of Luis Guillermo Lumbreras.Federico KauffmannDoig objects to this "totalizing" but gleefully accepts the interestit has aroused. In truth, "everybody" seems to be writing his kind of Andean history. The grand comprehensive schemes belong to Maria Rostworowski, FranklinPease, and WaldemarEspinoza; Tupac Amaru and other Andean patriotsand rebels are grist for the mills of CarlosDaniel Valcircel, Miguel Maticorena, ScarlettO'Phelan, EfrainTrelles, Nelson Manrique,and Wilfredo Kapsoli; Rostworowski and Jiirgen Golte delve into the organizational logic of Andean society; while Luis Millones, and the Burga-Flores team

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wrinkle, linguist probe the logic of its myths. In anotherinterdisciplinary Alfredo Torero has traced the development of indigenous tongues, while Alberto Escobarhas probedtextual pitfalls and the entireproblemof Peru's multilinguism. With the disciplines so closely connected, youthful scholars frequently shift orientations. Two of Trelles' Cat61lica companions, Guillermo Cock and Jose Luis Renique, have moved away from history, the one to anthropology and archeology, the other to sociology. The move to history has given the profession Luis Miguel Glave and Nelson Manrique,beside the older Huertas, Kapsoli and Millones. The historians' last major stock taking-and brickbatting-took place within the defunctLa Revista in 1980/81. Peruvianhistoriography"finally began to reach a minimal level of seriousness," opined Bonilla in his inventory. This list was faulted by three respondents. According to Pease, Bonilla had overlooked Rostworowski and other Andeanists; according to Burga and Flores Galindo he had slighted Macerawhile doting on foreign authors. In his rejoinder, Bonilla dismissed such provincial 'xenomyopia' and saw no heuristic value in Andeanism. "We produce historiographic raw material," Bonilla once told me, giving vent to a widely-shared obsession with technical up-datednessand world-widerecognition. The latterneed not be doubted. Bonilla has himself written for the CambridgeHistory of Latin America while the most recent archeological anthologies from Japan comprise essays by EnriqueMayer, Maria Rostworowski and FranklinPease. Conversely, more and more foreign scholars publish in Hist6rica, HISLA, and other Peruvianjournals. Foreign foundations increasingly supportPeruvianresearch, and the Guggenheim alone has awarded grants to Rostworowski, Macera, Pease, Bonilla and Espinoza. Methodologically, both the ethnohistoriansand the cliometricianskeep up with their colleagues, often through two-way travel. Even the latest shifts from a statistician's positivism to a humanist's insights are making their inroads, re-enhancingthe older, mentalities-oriented writings (such as Macera's). varied, Peruvian historiographyhas left far behind the Extraordinarily histoire evenementielle of Ruben Vargas Ugarte or even Jorge Basadre. It abounds in forms and figures. It explodes in conflicting approximations.It lacks substantiveconsensus because so much has been accomplished that the unfinished tasks stand out all the more glaringly. Its fitting monument might be the 1980 multivolumehistory, edited by Mejia Baca, so uneven,

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so dated, yet so substantial in its manifold contributions. Along with the San Marcos dean-Washington poet-and Delgado, Peruvian historians "grope for the eyes of dead ancestors." Their tactile sensibility has never been keener. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
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1986? Transici6n y crisis en la agricultura cusqueria 1900-1980. Cuzco: Centrode Estudios RuralesAndinos "Bartolom6de las Casas." Teodoro Martinez, Hampe 1983/84 "Los miembrosde ntimerode la Academia Nacional de Historia(Instituto Hist6rico del Peri) 1905-1984," Revista Hist6rica, 34:281-353. 1985 "Un virreyp6stumodel Peri: el conde de Corufia,"Hist6rica, 9:11-13. HuertasVallejos, Lorenzo 1981 La Religi6n en una Sociedad Rural andina (siglo XVII). Ayacucho:Universidadde San Crist6balde Huamanga. 1984 Tierras, diezmos y tributosdel obispado de Trujillo(Colonia = Repiblica). Lima: Seminariode HistoriaRuralAndina. HuertasVallejos, Lorenzo, and Nadia CarneroAlbarran 1983 Diezmos de Arequipa 1780-1853. Lima: Seminario de Historia Rural Andina. 1983 Diezmos del Cuzco 1777-1853. Lima: Seminario de Historia Rural Andina. Hunefeldt, Christine 1978 "Los indios y la Constituci6nde 1812," Allpanchis, XI:11/12:33-58 1982 Lucha por la tierra y protesta indigena. Las comunidades indigenas entre Colonia y Republica. Bonn: Estudios Americanistas de Bonn. Seminarfiir V61lkerkunde. 1983 "Comunidad, curas y comuneros hacia fines del periodo colonial: ovejas y pastores indomadosdel Peru',"HISLA,11:3-31. 1984 "Esclavitud y Familia en el Peruen el Siglo XIX," Revista del Archivo General de la Naci6n, 7:147-62. Kapsoli E., Wilfredo 1975 Sublevaciones de esclavos en el Peri, siglo XVIII. Lima: Universidad Ricardo Palma. 1975 Los movimientoscampesinos en Cerro de Pasco: 1880-1963. Universidad Nacional del Centro. Las luchas obreras en el Perui. Lima: Delva. 1976 movimientos Los 1977 campesinos en el Peru: 1879-1965. Lima: Delva. 1980 "Los movimientos popularesen el Peri." In J. Mejia Baca, ed., Historia del Perui, 12:117-218. 1980 El pensamiento de la Asociaci6n Pro-Indigena. Cuzco: Centro de Estudios Rurales "Bartolom6de las Casas." 1983 Ensayos de nueva historia. Lima: FranciscoGonzales. 1984 Ayllus del Sol. Anarquismoy utopia andina. Lima: Tarea, Asociaci6n de Publicaciones Educativas. 1984 "Las tendencias actuales de la historia peruana," Informativo (FOMCIENCIAS),3:17-20. 1986? Literaturae Historia del Peru. Lima: Lumen. Kapsoli, Wilfredo, and Wilson Reaitegui 1972 El campesinado peruano 1919-1930. Lima: Seminario De Historia Rural Andina.

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Quiroz Chueca, Francisco; Quiroz Ch., Gerardo,et al. Witt, Heinrich Medina, Mailaga Alejandro, and Eusebio Quiroz Paz Soldin 1981 "La Rebeli6n de Tupac Amaru en Arequipa." In L. Durand Fl6rez, ed., La revoluci6n de los TupacAmaru, 221-51. Manrique,Nelson 1981 Campesinadoy naci6n: las guerrillas indigenas en la guerra con Chile. Lima: ITAL Perti-Centro de Investigaci6ny Capacitaci6n. 1983 "Los arrieros de la sierra central, 1780-1930," Allpanchis, XVIII: 21:27-46. Marzal, Manuel M. 1977 Estudios sobre religi6n campesina. Lima: Pontificia UniversidadCat6lica. 1983 La transformaci6n religiosa peruana. Lima: Pontificia UniversidadCat6lica. 1985 El sincretismo iberoamericano:un estudio comparativosobre los quechuas (Cuzco), los mayas (Chiapas) y los africanos (Bahia). Lima: Pontificia UniversidadCat61lica. Masuda, Shozo, Author and Ed. 1984 Contribuciones a estudios de los Andes Centrales. Universidad de Tokyo. Masuda, Shozo, Izumi Shimada, and Craig Morriss, Eds. 1985 Andean Ecology and Civilization. University of Tokyo. MaticorenaEstrada,Miguel 1955 "Cieza de Le6n en Sevilla y su muerteen 1554," Anuario de Estudios Americanos, 12:615-24. 1958 "Jose Baquijanoy Carrillo, reformistaperuano del siglo XVIII," Estudios Americanos, XV:76-77:53-60. La Florida," Anuario de 1966 "Sobre las 'D6cadas' de Antonio de Herrera: Estudios Americanos, 24:29-62. 1981 "Cuerpo politico y restituci6n en Tupac Amaru," Colecci6n Documental del Bicentenario de la Revoluci6n Emancipadora de Tupac Amaru, 3:3-11. 1982 "La fundaci6nde San Miguel en 1532," Programa-catdlogode la Exposici6n, Piura, Archivo Generalde la Nacion. Matos Mar, Jose en la 1985 Desborde popular y crisis del estado. El nuevo rostro del Peru" decada de 1980. 2 ed. (1984). Lima: Institutode Estudios Peruanos. Matos Mar, Jose, Augusto SalazarBondy, Alberto Escobar, Jorge Bravo Bresani, and Julio Cotler 1968 Peru Problema. 5 Ensayos. Lima: Moncloa. Matos Mar, Jose, William F. Whyte, Julio Cotler, LawrenceK. Williams, J. Oscar Alers, FernandoFuenzalidaV. and Giorgio Alberti

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"Un intento de calibrarlas actitudeshacia la rebeli6n en el Cuzco durante la acci6n de Tupac Amaru." In M. M6rnerand E. Trelles, Dos ensayos analiticos sobre la rebeli6n de Tupac Amaru en el Cuzco. Stockholm: Instituteof Latin AmericanStudies. Mould de Pease, Mariana 1981 "EphraimSquier y su visi6n del Perui."Thesis at Cat61lica. 1985 "La historia del Peruien traducci6n:un comentarioa las primerasversiones en espafiol de la obra de William H. Prescott," Hist6rica, 9:1:15-34. Nieto Velez, Armando 1960 Contribuci6na la historia delfidelismo en el Perti (1808-1810). Lima: InstitutoRiva Agiiero. 1971 La iglesia en la independencia.2 v. Lima: Comisi6n Nacional del Sesquicentenariode la Independenciadel Peru. 1980 "La iglesia cat61icaen el Perui." In J. Mejia Baca, ed., Historia del Perd, 11:419-601. O'Phelan Godoy, Scarlett 1977 "Cuzco 1777: El movimiento Maras," Hist6rica, 1:1:113-28. 1978 "El sur andino a fines del siglo XVIII: cacique 6 corregidor," Allpanchis, 11/12:17-32. 1981 "La Rebeli6n de Tupac Amaru: Organizaci6n interna, dirigencia y alianzas." In L. Durand Florez, ed., La revoluci6n de los Tupac Amaru, 89-123. 1982 "Elementos 6tnicos y de poder en el movimiento Tupacamarista, 1780-81," Nova Americana, 5:79-101. 1983 "Las reformas fiscales borb6nicay su impacto en la sociedad colonial del Bajo y el Alto Perui,"Historia y Cultura, 16:113-28. 1984 "Hacia una tipologifay un enfoque alternativode las revueltas y rebeliones del Peruicolonial (siglo XVIII)," Jahrbuchfar Geschichte von Staat. Wirtschaftund GesellschaftLateinamerikas,21:127-53. Peru and Upper Peru. 1985 Rebellions and Revolts in Eighteenth-Century Cologne-Vienna:B6hlau. Ortiz Rescaniere, Alejandro Lima:Retablode 1973 De Adaneva a Inkarri(Una visi6n indigena del Peru"). Papel. 1980 Huarochiri, 400 arios despues. Lima: Pontificia UniversidadCat61lica. Ossio, Juan M. 1980 "La estructurasocial de las comunidadesandinas." In J. Mejia Baca, ed., Historia del Peri, 3:203-377. Ossio, Juan, Ed. 1973 Ideologia mesidinicadel mundoandino. Lima: Ignacio PradoPastor. Pacheco Velez, C6sar 1976 Las ideas politicas de Viscard6y Guzman.Lima:PontificiaUniversidad Cat6lica.

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Pareja, Piedad 1978 Anarquismoy sindicalismo en el Peru. Lima: Rikchay. Pease G. Y., Franklin 1973 El dios creador andino. Lima: Mosca Azul. 1977 Los (ltimos incas del Cuzco. 3 ed. (1972). Lima: P. L. Villanueva. 1978 Del Tawantinsuyua la historia del Perut. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos. 1979 Peru*:una aproximaci6n bibliogrdfica. Mexico: Centro de Estudios Econ6micos del Tercer Mundo. 1981 "La historiograffade los elegidos," Revista, 5:58-59. 1981 "Historia andina: hacia una historia del Perut," Revista Hist6rica, 31:197-212 (Discurso de incorporaci6na la AcademiaNacional de Historia). 1984 "Conciencia e identidad andinas: las rebeliones indigenas del siglo XVIII," Cahiers des AmeriquesLatines, 29-30:41-60. 1984 "Cases and Variations of Verticality in the Southern Andes." In S. Masuda, 141-60. 1985 "Antecendentesmesiinicos del alzamientode los ThupaAmaro." In El ejfrcito: protagonista principal en la independenciadel Pert (Lima) 129-54. Bruno Podesta, 1978 "Revistas peruanasde este siglo." In Francisco Mir6 Quesada et al., eds. Historia problema y promesa, 2:263-71. Podesta, Bruno, Ed. 1978 Ciencias sociales en el Peru: Un balance critico. Lima: Centro de Investigaciones de la Universidaddel Pacifico. Polvarini Gortari,Alicia 1975 "Perti econ6mico y social entre dos siglos y Mexico del Porfiriato." Thesis at Cat6lica. Ponce, FernandoA., 1978 "Poblaci6n y familia en una zona rural de Arequiparepublicana." In Francisco Mir6 Quesada, et al., eds. Historia: problema y promesa, 1:473-89. 1985 Tierra y desigualdad. Lima: Seminariode HistoriaRuralAndina. Ponce, Fernando,and Eusebio Quiroz Paz-Soldain 1978 "Observaciones criticas a la informaci6n demogrifico-hist6rica de Arequipa, 1549-1820," LatinAmericanResearchReview, 13:2:170-81. Puente Candamo, Jose Agustin de la 1971 Notas sobre la causa de la independenciadel Peru. 3 ed. Lima: P. L. Villanueva. Quijano Obreg6n, Anfbal 1966 "Imaigen y tareas del soci6logo en la sociedad peruana," Letras, 74-75:134-172. 1977 Imperialismo y "Marginalidad" en America Latina. Lima: Mosca Azul.

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