Planetary system

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An artist's concept of a planetary system A planetary system is a set of gravitationally bound non-stellar objects in orbit around a star or star system. Generally speaking, planetary systems describe systems with one or more planets, although such systems may also consist of bodies such as dwarf planets, asteroids, natural satellites, meteoroids, comets and planetesimals[1][2] as well as discernable features including circumstellar disks. The Sun together with its planetary system, which includes Earth, is known as the Solar System.[3][4] The interchangeable terms extrasolar system and exoplanetary system are sometimes used in reference to other planetary systems. Individually they may be referred to as system prefixed by the name of the star or star system that it orbits or sometimes simply the name of the star system. Before the 16th century and Copernican heliocentrism, human knowledge of planetary systems was limited to heliocentrism and our own planetary system (the Solar System). Despite the discovery and exploration of the Solar System and centuries of conjecture, it remained this way until the first confirmed detection of extrasolar planets during the 1990s. The 21st century has become a golden era of planetary system discovery with findings occurring at a rapid rate. As of 2012, 665 such systems have been confirmed including 126 which contain two or more planets.[5] Hundreds more systems are unconfirmed. In terms of total confirmed planets, the Solar System with 8 remains the largest planetary system, however HD 10180 has a total of 7 confirmed planets and a total of 2 unconfirmed planets which would bring the total to 9[6] and is currently the largest known exoplanetary system. A wide range of planetary systems have been discovered, with a variety of different orbital arrangements around different types of stars.

The closest confirmed system is Gliese 832 at 14.8 light years (ly) with one confirmed planet. The closest multi-planet system is Gliese 876 at 15.3 ly with four planets. The closest unconfirmed planetary system are Alpha Centauri at 4.7 ly with a planet of Earth mass. While knowledge of the nature of planetary systems including our own has increased considerably, much is unknown of their origin and evolution and current theories of their formation and evolution are relatively new to the field of Planetary science. Of particular interest to astrobiology is the habitable zone of planetary systems, believed to be the region with the most potential to develop and sustain extraterrestrial life.

Contents

1 History o 1.1 Heliocentrism o 1.2 Discovery of the Solar System o 1.3 Speculation on extrasolar planetary systems o 1.4 Detection of exoplanets 2 Origin and evolution 3 Types and attributes o 3.1 Multiplanet systems o 3.2 Orbital properties 3.2.1 Habitable zone o 3.3 Main-sequence systems 3.3.1 Red dwarf systems o 3.4 Brown dwarf systems o 3.5 Sub-brown dwarf (Rogue) systems o 3.6 Pulsar systems o 3.7 Multi-star systems o 3.8 Transiting systems 4 See also 5 References

History
Heliocentrism
Historically, heliocentrism (that the sun was the centre of the universe) was opposed to geocentrism, which placed the Earth at the center of the universe. The notion of a heliocentric solar system, with the Sun at the center, is possibly first suggested in the Vedic literature of ancient India, which often refer to the Sun as the "centre of spheres". Some interpret Aryabhatta's writings in ryabhaya as implicitly heliocentric.

The idea was first proposed in western philosophy and Greek astronomy as early as the 3rd century BC by Aristarchus of Samos,[7] but had received no support from most other ancient astronomers.

Discovery of the Solar System

Main article: Discovery and exploration of the Solar System

Heliocentric model of the solar system in Copernicus' manuscript De revolutionibus orbium coelestium by Nicolaus Copernicus and published in 1543 was the first mathematically predictive heliocentric model of a planetary system. 17th-century successors Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, and Isaac Newton developed an understanding of physics which led to the gradual acceptance of the idea that the Earth moves round the Sun and that the planets are governed by the same physical laws that governed the Earth.

Speculation on extrasolar planetary systems

In the 16th century the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, an early supporter of the Copernican theory that the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, put forward the view that the fixed stars are similar to the Sun and are likewise accompanied by planets. He was burned at the stake for his ideas by the Roman Inquisition.[8] In the 18th century the same possibility was mentioned by Isaac Newton in the "General Scholium" that concludes his Principia. Making a comparison to the Sun's planets, he wrote "And if the fixed stars are the centers of similar systems, they will all be constructed according to a similar design and subject to the dominion of One."[9] His theories gained traction through the 19th and 20th centuries despite a lack of supporting evidence. Long before their confirmation by astronomers, conjecture on the nature of planetary

systems had been a focus of Search for extraterrestrial intelligence and has been a prevalent theme in fiction, particularly science fiction.

Detection of exoplanets
The first confirmed detection of a planetary system was in 1992, with the discovery of several terrestrial-mass planets orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257+12. The first confirmed detection of planetary system of a main-sequence star was made in 1995, when a giant planet, 51 Pegasi b, was found in a four-day orbit around the nearby G-type star 51 Pegasi. The frequency of detections has increased since then, particularly through advancements in methods of detecting extrasolar planets and dedicated planet finding programs such as the Kepler mission.

Origin and evolution

An artist's concept of a protoplanetary disk Early theories of planetary systems were based on knowledge of the formation and evolution of the Solar System. Planetary systems are generally believed to form as part of the same process which results in star formation. Some early theories involved another star passing extremely close to the star, drawing material out from it which then coalesced to form the planets. However, the probability of such a near collision is now known to be far too low to make this a viable model. Accepted theories today argue that a protoplanetary disk forms by gravitational collapse of a molecular cloud and then evolves into a planetary system by collisions and gravitational capture.[10] Some planetary systems may form differently, however. Planets orbiting pulsarsstars which emit periodic bursts of electromagnetic radiationhave been discovered by the slight variations they cause in the timing of these bursts. Pulsars are formed in violent supernova explosions, and a normal planetary system could not possibly survive such a blastplanets would either evaporate, be pushed off of their orbits by the masses of gas from the exploding star, or the sudden loss of most of the mass of the central star would see them escape the gravitational hold of the star. One theory is that existing stellar companions were almost entirely evaporated by the supernova blast, leaving behind planet-sized bodies. Alternatively, planets may somehow form in the accretion disk surrounding pulsars.[11]

The formation of planetary systems has also been found to be linked to stellar classification. Stars are composed mainly of the light elements hydrogen and helium. They also contain a small proportion of heavier elements such as iron, and this fraction is referred to as a star's metallicity. Stars of higher metallicity are much more likely to form and retain planetary systems, and the planets within them have tend to be more massive than those of lower-metallicity stars. It has also been shown that stars with planets are more likely to be deficient in lithium.[12] Recent observations by the Spitzer Space Telescope indicate that planetary formation does not occur around other stars in the vicinity of an O class star due to the photoevaporation effect.[13] Models of the Solar System point to material being ejected during the formation and early evolution as the system stabilised. Similar interactions are thought to be common to many planetary systems. The orbits of large bodies are being established, they may migrate and cause planetary body collisions. Others may be sufficiently perturbed to be ejected completely from the system. These ejected bodies are known as rogue planets and may retain their natural satellites. Systems such as these in interstellar space, known as planetars may orbit the galaxy directly and although difficult to detect are now thought to be extremely common.

Types and attributes

Planetary systems (as per article definition of at least two planets) organized by spectral type of host star. With the increasing discovery of planetary systems, astronomers have begun to classify them by type. In particular, as certain types of stars are now known for producing specific types of planetary systems, they are classified by the spectral type of the host star. Main-sequence stars like the Sun (spectral type G or K), for example, have represented the majority of planetary system discoveries. Additionally, they are often classified by the size and types of planets and their orbital configuration. Hot Jupiter systems with a gas giant very close in to the star are one of the most common found so far and Hot Neptune type systems have also been found. Theories, such as scattering, have been proposed for the formation of large planets close in to their parent stars.[14] Dusty disks with a wide ring of dust and comets are another common type of system.[15] Protoplanetary disks, still in the process of forming have also been discovered. At present, few

systems have been found to analogues of our own with terrestrial planets close in to the parent star. More commonly, systems consisting of multiple Super-Earths have been detected. [16]

Multiplanet systems

Arrangement of the planets and dwarf planets of the Solar System shown to scale in comparison to the Sun, the largest known multiplanet system. Relative distances are not to scale. Main article: List of multiplanetary systems 126 systems (including the Solar System) are now known to consist of two or more planets. In terms of total confirmed planets, the Solar System with 8, remains the largest planetary system, however HD 10180 with 7 confirmed planets and a further 2 unconfirmed planets, is the largest exoplanet system found so far. 55 Cancri was for some time the largest known system.[17] Some systems, such as HD 10180 and Gliese 581 contain multiple unconfirmed planets pushing the total expected number of planets to be discovered in their systems higher.

Orbital properties
Unlike the Solar System, which has coplanar and circular orbits, many of the known planetary systems display much higher orbital eccentricity[18] and some consist of planets in dramatic elliptical orbits while some consist of planets on inconsistent orbital inclination.[19] An example of such a system is 16 Cygni. Although no planets in the Solar System are completely tidally locked, planets with regular orbits in close to their primary stars are thought to typically experience tidal locking. Some systems also appear to display orbital resonances. Gliese 876, for example has a 3-body Laplace resonance.[20][21] Kepler-9 has two planets in mean motion resonance, the first transiting planets discovered with such a resonance. Habitable zone

An example of a system to predict the location of the habitable zone around types of stars Main article: Habitable zone The habitable zone is the region in the planetary system where an Earth-like planet (or moon) could maintain liquid water on its surface and potentially therefore, life. The distance of this zone from the parent star can vary greatly from system to system. The lack of surface water on Mars, Venus, the Moon, and Ceres, which according to some estimates lie within the habitable zone of the Solar System, does not exclude the possibility of extraterrestrial surface life in the Solar System but makes it highly unlikely. However the abundance of Life on Earth makes the habitable zones of exoplanetary systems of particular interest to exobiologists and the Search for extraterrestrial intelligence. Gliese 581 was the first exoplanetary system found with Super-Earths in the habitable zone. HD 37124 has multiple known planets in the zone. Systems with gas giants have more commonly discovered in the habitable zone, though they could possibly harbour Earth-like natural satellites.

Main-sequence systems

Artists conception of Upsilon Andromedae A, the first discovered extrasolar main-sequence planetary system, showing 2 of its 4 known planets The Solar System was the first planetary system known around a main-sequence star. As such, main-sequence systems are of particular interest to science due to the prospect of finding true analogs to the Solar System, along with true Earth analogs and therefore possibly Earth-like complex or even intelligent life. The first main-sequence exoplanetary system found was Upsilon Andromedae in April 1999. Since then, several further systems have been discovered. Many have been found to bear

similarities to our own, for example the first terrestrial planets of comparable size to Earth (in the Kepler-20 system) and planets close to Earth sized but much larger (Super-Earths) have even been located in habitable zones in the HD 85512 and Kepler 22 systems. Discoveries to date indicate that our Solar System's arrangement of all the terrestrial planets arranged closest to the sun and the giant planets further out is unlikely to be the general rule.[22] This challenges well established theories of their formation and evolution suggesting that early migration of giant planets could causes wide variations in the arrangement of main-sequence systems. In 2012, the nearest main-sequence star to Earth, Alpha Centauri A was found to have an Earthsized planet in orbit around it.[23] Red dwarf systems

This artist's concept illustrates a young, red dwarf star surrounded by three planets. See also: Habitability of red dwarf systems Red dwarf systems orbit red dwarfs, stars which may represent 70% to more than 90% of the stars in the galaxy. The Gliese 876 was the first such system discovered in 1998. Most planets of these systems are thought to be tidally locked. This and high stellar variation are postulated to be major impediments to planetary habitability. Gliese 581 is another well known red dwarf system which is speculated to have multiple planets within the habitable zone.

Brown dwarf systems

Infrared image of 2M1207 (blueish) and 2M1207b (reddish). The two objects are separated by less than one arc second in Earth's sky. Image taken using the ESO's 8.2m Yepun VLT. Brown dwarf planetary system orbit brown dwarfs. 2M1207, the first planetary system to be imaged, was also the first such system discovered. Some brown dwarf planetary systems, such as 2M1207, GQ Lupi are thought to have formed by cloud collapse rather than accretion and so may possess sub-brown dwarf companions rather than planets. Disks around brown dwarfs have been found to have many of the same features as disks around stars; therefore, it is expected that there will be accretion-formed planets around brown dwarfs.[24] Given the small mass of brown dwarf disks, most planets will be terrestrial planets rather than gas giants.[25] It is now believed that many brown dwarfs may have planets and also, possibly, a shortly lived habitable zone. Most planets of these systems are thought to be tidally locked.

Sub-brown dwarf (Rogue) systems

Rogue systems are systems that are no longer gravitationally bound to any star and that therefore orbit the galaxy directly. Some astronomers have estimated that there may be twice as many Jupiter-sized rogue planets as there are stars. Isolated planetary-mass objects which were not ejected from a star's orbit, may have formed in a similar way to stars. The IAU has proposed that those objects be called sub-brown dwarfs. It is theorised that objects ejected from a planetary system could retain a system of satellites. Cha 110913-773444 is an example of a rogue system with a protoplanetary disk speculated to contain as many as 4 satellites. It is unknown whether it is ejected planet, or formed on its own.

Pulsar systems
See also: Pulsar planet

An artist's conception of PSR B1257+12's system of planets

Pulsar systems orbit pulsars, or rapidly rotating neutron stars. PSR B1257+12 was not only the first pulsar exoplanetary system but also the first planetary system discovered. PSR B1620-26 is also confirmed, however many other pulsar systems remain unconfirmed. The formation of pulsar systems is still the subject of research. It is thought that planets form from the debris of companion stars.

Multi-star systems
See also: Circumbinary planet

An artist's impression of the binary star system HD 98800 B, which is surrounded by a disc that may be in the process of forming planets. HD 98800 B is itself a member of a quadruple star system. Multiple star systems, including binary stars are abundant in the Milky Way Galaxy and as such the possibility of them possessing planetary systems was long theorised and debated. ChineseAmerican astrophysicist Su-Shu Huang dampened expectations of planets forming or remaining in such systems in his 1959 paper "Life-Supporting Regions in the Vicinity of Binary Systems" claiming that due to orbital instability planets and in particular habitable planets would likely be rare.[26] That they were even possible was not even known until the discovery of PSR B1620-26 in 1993, which was not only the first binary system (and multistar system) found with a planet but the first found with a planet (PSR B1620-26 b) orbiting around both stars (i.e. in circumbinary orbit, a circumbinary planet) and the oldest known extrasolar planet. 16 Cygni was the first confirmed triple star planetary system found however the planet orbits just one of the stars 16 Cygni B. More recently the Kepler-16 system was found to have a circumbinary planet within its habitable zone.[27] NN Serpentis and HW Virginis are other notable multi-planet multi-star systems. This type of planetary system are particular interest due to Alpha Centauri A being the closest main-sequence star to Earth but also a binary (Alpha Centauri AB) contained within a triple star system. In 2012 Alpha Centauri B was found to have an Earth-sized planet in orbit around it[23], increasing expectations of more terrestrial planet discoveries in this and similar systems.

The notion of planets around multi-star systems has captured imaginations in popular culture particularly by fictional systems in film such as the twin sun scene on Tatooine in the Star Wars and Pandora, a moon in the Alpha Centauri system in the Fictional universe of Avatar.

Transiting systems

Artist's conception of a simultaneous transit of three planets before Kepler-11 observed by NASA's Kepler spacecraft on Aug. 26, 2010. Transiting planetary systems are those with multiple planets in orbital planes along the line of sight between their star and Earth. The transit method is one of the most successful Earth-centric observation methods. The Kepler mission was designed to discover systems of this type and has found numerous candidate systems. Kepler 11 is a prominent example of a transiting system in which multiple simultaneous planetary transits have been observed. Transiting systems can be studied to not only discover planets, but through Astronomical spectroscopy and Transit timing effects accurately analyse the properties of the systems including the detection of extraterrestrial atmospheres, dust or asteroid belts and possibly natural satellites.

See also
Star portal

List of planetary systems List of exoplanetary host stars

References
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4. ^ p. 420, A Dictionary of Astronomy, Ian Ridpath, Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-860513-7. 5. ^ Schneider, Jean. Interactive Extra-solar Planets Catalog, The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia, January 14, 2012. Retrieved 2012-01-15. 6. ^ USA Today. April 6, 2012. http://content.usatoday.com/communities/sciencefair/post/2012/04/hd-10180-recordsetting-solar-system-spotted/1#.T4DuANnHGC4. 7. ^ Dreyer (1953), pp.13548); Linton (2004), pp.389). The work of Aristarchus's in which he proposed his heliocentric system has not survived. We only know of it now from a brief passage in Archimedes's The Sand Reckoner. 8. ^ "Cosmos" in The New Encyclopdia Britannica (15th edition, Chicago, 1991) 16:787:2a. "For his advocacy of an infinity of suns and earths, he was burned at the stake in 1600." 9. ^ Newton, Isaac; I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman (1999 [1713]). The Principia: A New Translation and Guide. University of California Press. p. 940. ISBN 0-520-20217-1. 10. ^ planetary systems, formation of, David Darling, entry in The Internet Encyclopedia of Science, accessed on line September 23, 2007. 11. ^ . Bibcode 1993ASPC...36..149P. 12. ^ G. Israelian et al. (2009). "Enhanced lithium depletion in Sun-like stars with orbiting planets". Nature 462 (7270): 189191. arXiv:0911.4198. Bibcode 2009Natur.462..189I. doi:10.1038/nature08483. PMID 19907489. 13. ^ Planets Prefer Safe Neighborhoods 14. ^ Stuart J. Weidenschilling & Francesco Marzari (1996). "Gravitational scattering as a possible origin for giant planets at small stellar distances". Nature 384 (6610): 619621. Bibcode 1996Natur.384..619W. doi:10.1038/384619a0. PMID 8967949. 15. ^ http://www.roe.ac.uk/roe/support/pr/rsexhibition/typesofsolarsystem.pdf 16. ^ Types and Attributes at Astro Washington.com. 17. ^ Wired News (2002-06-13). "Found: Solar System Like Our Own". 18. ^ Dvorak R,Pilat-Lohinger E,Bois E,Schwarz R,Funk B,Beichman C,Danchi W,Eiroa C,Fridlund M,Henning T,Herbst T,Kaltenegger L,Lammer H,Lger A,Liseau R,Lunine J,Paresce F,Penny A,Quirrenbach A,Rttgering H,Selsis F,Schneider J,Stam D,Tinetti G,White G. "Dynamical habitability of planetary systems" Institute for Astronomy, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria. January 2010 19. ^ "NASA Out of Whack Planetary System Offers Clues to a Disturbed Past". Nasa.gov. 2010-05-25. Retrieved 2012-08-17. 20. ^ Marcy, Geoffrey W.; Butler, R. Paul; Fischer, Debra; Vogt, Steven S.; Lissauer, Jack J.; Rivera, Eugenio J. (2001). "A Pair of Resonant Planets Orbiting GJ 876". The Astrophysical Journal 556 (1): 296301. Bibcode 2001ApJ...556..296M. doi:10.1086/321552. 21. ^ Rivera, Eugenio J.; Laughlin, Gregory; Butler, R. Paul; Vogt, Steven S.; Haghighipour, Nader; Meschiari, Stefano (June 2010). "The Lick-Carnegie Exoplanet Survey: A Uranus-mass Fourth Planet for GJ 876 in an Extrasolar Laplace Configuration". arXiv:1006.4244v1 [astro-ph.EP]. 22. ^ Johnson, Michele NASA Discovers First Earth-size Planets Beyond Our Solar System Kepler-20's oddball planet assortment challenges models of planet formation nasa.gov

23. ^ a b Dumusque, X.; Pepe, F.; Lovis, C.; Sgransan, D.; Sahlmann, J.; Benz, W.; Bouchy, F.; Mayor, M.; Queloz, D.; Santos, N.; Udry, S. (17 October 2012). "An Earth mass planet orbiting Alpha Centauri B". Nature 490. doi:10.1038/nature11572. Retrieved 17 October 2012. 24. ^ The onset of planet formation in brown dwarf disks, Dniel Apai, Ilaria Pascucci, Jeroen Bouwman, Antonella Natta, Thomas Henning, Cornelis P. Dullemond 25. ^ Tidal evolution of planets around brown dwarfs, E. Bolmont, S. N. Raymond, and J. Leconte, 2011 26. ^ Su-Shu Huang. Life-Supporting Regions in the Vicinity of Binary System. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, Vol. 72, No. 425, p.106 27. ^ Harwood, William (2011-09-15). "NASA spots first planet in binary star system | The Space Shot CNET News". News.cnet.com. Retrieved 2012-08-17. [show]

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