Chapter 4 Single Particle Dynamics

The motion of charged particles in assumed electric and magnetic eld can provide insight into many important physical properties of plasmas. While it does not provide the full plasma dynamics it can provide clues on the collective behavior.

4.1 Gyro Motion

Lorentz force equation:
 

In the absence of a magnetic eld the equation reduces to   Assuming a constant and uniform magnetic eld, the scalar product with energy " $#&% ! 0 ')( 1

yields the conservation of (4.1)

 To solve the equations of motion let us consider a magnetic eld of 32547698 Denoting the direction perpendicular to @ with A the components of the equations of motion are # 6 0 CB 2 DBE 4&6

with the solution

#GF #GX # 6d

SVU   W  # BIHQPR T S U W  # BIR`Yba cV #&e

(4.2)

46

CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PARTICLE DYNAMICS

B with # % # F %  # X % and the trajectory

47

@ @
For # 6

# B R Y a TS U  W  SVU # B Q H P R cSVU W  SVU #&e

(4.3)

0 the trajectories are circles in which the particles gyrate with a frequency of SVU 2 8

(4.4)

B
Figure 4.1: Helical ion trajectory in a uniform magnetic eld. lines with the same gyro-frequency. The location of With a nite velocity in @ the trajectories are helical  the center of the particle gyro motion @ is called the guiding center of the particle motion. The gyro-radius for the particle motion is # B $# B U (4.5) SVU 8 2

The angle of the particle trajectory with the magnetic eld is called pitch angle # B a # e

   

(4.6)

4.2 Particle Drifts

The discussion of the particle motion in the prior section is highly idealized because it assumes a uniform magnetic eld, no other forces, and time independence for the magnetic eld. The motion changes with these effects included.

4.2.1 Electric Force Drift

e 4&6  F 4 F . Let us rst consider the presence of a uniform and time independent electric eld This requires to consider the full Lorentz force equations. The motion parallel to the magnetic eld can be separated from the perpendicular motion and describes a simple acceleration along the magnetic eld. # 6 e (4.7)

"!

CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PARTICLE DYNAMICS

The equations for the perpendicular motion are CB B 

48

 

(4.8)

We can solve this equation either by explicit integration or nding a useful transformation in which the  B perpendicular electric eld vanishes. Substituting with a time constant component the equation of motion becomes B      
   0 reduces the equation for Choosing the velocity such that electric force. Using the Lorentz transformation we obtain this velocity to be   2 %

   

to the case with no

(4.9)

Ion

Electron

Figure 4.2: Illustration of the

 

drift.

  drift does not feel the Thus a particle which drifts across the magnetic eld with this so-called perpendicular electric eld. The drift is independent of the particle charge because it represents the B transformation into the frame where the perpendicular electric eld 0 . The above result can be generalized by substituting with a general constant force term . The resulting particle drift exposed a this constant force is   (4.10) 2 %



 

4.2.2 Polarization Drift

 Taking the cross-product of the Lorentz equation with 2 % yields      DB 2 % % 2  For uniform elds and averaging the above equation over a gyro period we obtain the drift velocity as B  SVU (4.11) 2



CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PARTICLE DYNAMICS

  The rst term is the already known eld and called the polarization drift.

49

drift and the second is caused by a slow change of the electric B SVU (4.12) 2

Here slow means a change on a time scale much larger than the gyro period. Note that the time derivative in can be caused by a temporal change of the electric eld or by a spatial variation of the electric eld B  ! over the gyro scale. In that case . The corresponding correction for the electric drift is second order and becomes    U% % (4.13) 2 %

 

4.2.3 Magnetic Gradient Drift

In an inhomogeneous magnetic eld with a magnetic gradient the gyro radius is a function of the location in the magnetic eld. The result is the so-called magnetic gradient drift. Expanding the magnetic eld at the location of the guiding center    ! 

Substituting this expansion in the Lorentz force equation yields       ! 7

U    Splitting the velocity into the gyro and a drift motion term and assuming that the drift velocity is much smaller than the gyro velocity       U   ! 7   

  where we have subtracted the gyro motion of the Lorentz equation and neglected in the last term of the equation. Averaging over a gyro period gets rid of the time derivative on the left side. Taking the  2 % yields cross product with

  U 4&6 one can substitute and where   denotes the average over the gyro period. Assuming with the solution for the simple gyro motion "!  U 2  2 U one can substitute and with the solution for the simple gyro motion. Only the average along is nonzero and in it general form the drift becomes $#&B %  %   ' 2 (4.14) 2$#

 % U

  !  

 

 2

The gradient drift is perpendicular to the magnetic eld and perpendicular to the gradient of the eld.

CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PARTICLE DYNAMICS

B
Ion

50

Electron

Figure 4.3: Illustration of the magnetic gradient drift.

4.2.4 Magnetic Curvature Drift

A particle which moves along a curved magnetic eld line experiences a centrifugal force on its guiding center. This force is $# %e %

where denotes the radius of curvature vector. With a local coordinate system  4 where s is the line element along the eld 4 2 and 4 % and noting that 4 % line we can rewrite the curvature term as "     2 (4.15) % 2 ( 2 2 %

B rc e2 e1

 !  We can neglect the last term because of the cross product with in the drift equation. With the curvature force is ! 7 $# %e   % 2      ! 7 % '   Note also that 2 . In the absence of currents the curvature

Figure 4.4: Illustration of the curvature radius.

force becomes

$# %e 2

The resulting drift velocity is



$# %e  2

 

! 7

(4.16)

CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PARTICLE DYNAMICS

or in the absence of electric currents

51

$# %e  2 #

(4.17)

4.2.5 Summary of Particle Drifts

 YbH Y   a P H  




 P

 YbR   Y Pa 
#" 

%   2    %
2

(4.18) (4.19) (4.20)

!  

! 

  $
 Y
a

 

B 2 % $#&%e    2 $#&B%   ' 2 #

(4.21) (4.22)

0) 21  Most drifts are associated with an electric current which is given by & %(' . )  1` B 7@ @ 3547698 8 4  ' ' % C 2 ) #&) %  1 # 1 % e eED     ' A5B # 8 B   ! 7 % ) # )% B 2   1 # 1% B  @  % F 8    ' %(' 2 ' 2 #

(4.23) (4.24) (4.25)

These drifts have been determined by model electric and magnetic elds. Thus they describe test particle motion if the electric and magnetic elds were in fact as assumed. However, it should be reminded that the currents due to the drifts alter the elds. If these changes are small compared to the background eld it is justied to apply the drift model. The derived particle drifts do not contain any collective behavior. For this reason it is a nontrivial aspect to compare particle and uid plasma drifts. We will return to this issue in a later chapter.

4.3 Adiabatic Invariants

For periodic motion with a period smaller than changes of the overall system the action integral

G)

&HPI

)c )

(4.26)

is a constant of motion and an adiabatic invariant.

CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PARTICLE DYNAMICS

52

4.3.1 Magnetic Moment, First Adiabatic Invariant

In the absence of electric elds the parallel equation of motion is # e e 2 2

(4.27)

with the magnetic moment

The parallel equation of motion also implies

$#&B % ' 2

2
2

B 8

(4.28)

Conservation of energy

e 

B 0 2

Substituting the magnetic moment

2  2

Which demonstrates that the magnetic moment is an invariant of the particle motion.   In the presence of an electric eld and of a corresponding change the magnetic moment is still conserved as long as the changes of the magnetic eld are slow compared to the gyro U% 2 is motion. Note that the ux encircled by the gyro motion ' $% # B % (4.29) % 2 % 2 %

and therefore also conserved. Magnetic Mirror With the pitch angle moment becomes

for the particle trajectory relative to the magnetic eld orientation the magnetic $#&% R`Y a % (4.30) ' 2

and in the absence of parallel electric elds (such that the energy is conserved) the pitch angle at two different location in the magnetic eld must satisfy R Ya % 2 % % (4.31) R Ya % 2

 

This provides the information of the change of the pitch angle along the entire eld line if it is known in one location. In particular we ca compute the condition for which the pitch angle becomes 0 , i.e., the

CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PARTICLE DYNAMICS

53

Mirror point

Figure 4.5: Illustration of magnetic mirror motion. condition for which a particle is reected in the magnetic eld. Assuming the eld strength 2 point where a particle is mirrored we obtain anywhere on the eld line
R Ya

at the

2 2

(4.32)

In other words at a given location particle with a pitch angle smaller than particle with a larger pitch angle are mirrored.

will be transmitted whereas

The is important for many laboratory and space plasmas. Particles are conned in a magnetic mirror by this mirror force. particle with a smaller pitch angle are lost from the magnetic eld such that the distribution function miss this portion of phase space which is called the loss cone. The same principle governs the magnetosphere. Ions and electrons which penetrate into the lower ionosphere can undergo collisions with the neutrals and thereby are lost from the magnetospheric population. Adiabatic Heating Drift motion can bring particles into regions of the magnetosphere with a larger magnetic eld strength. The conservation of the magnetic moment implies

% 2

2 %

 
B

(4.33)

Thus particles can gain perpendicular energy (without a change of the parallel energy) by adiabatic motion. The process is similar to so-called betatron acceleration.

4.3.2 Second (Longitudinal) Adiabatic Invariant

The mirror motion implies a second quasi-periodic motion for a particle in a dipole S eld , i.e., the motion from one mirror point to the opposite and back with a bounce frequency of . For congurational S changes on a time scale the corresponding action integral

$# e

(4.34)

is a longitudinal invariant of the particle motion.

CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PARTICLE DYNAMICS

54

e the invariant is G ' 6 #& e with 6 being the length of the In terms of an average parallel velocity # entire eld line between the mirror points. The square of this invariant implies for the parallel energy

% e

6%
%

6%

(4.35)

Therefore as the length of the eld line between mirror points changes, so does the parallel energy which is basic for so-called Fermi acceleration. Exercise: Demonstrate that the momentum of an ideally reecting ball which bounces between two 4 where is the distance walls which approach each other with a velocity u, satises I e ' between the walls and I e is the momentum normal to the wall surface. Thus the Adiabatic invariants provide insight into the change of anisotropy distribution function. 6  % 2 % %% 6%  2

e for a

 

(4.36)

4.3.3 Third (Drift) Adiabatic Invariant

The third adiabatic invariant is the magnetic ux encircled by the (periodic) drift path of a particle.


H

# 

Similar to the other invariants it requires slow congurational changes quency of the drift motion.


S

where

S


(4.37)

the fre-

4.3.4 Violation of Adiabatic Invariants

Adiabatic invariants require that temporal changes of a conguration is slow compared to the period associated with the invariant. The relation SVU S S  (4.38)
S  establishes a hierarchy of temporal scales. Congurational changes with destroy the third S   invariant while the rst two are still conserved. Changes of order  destroy the second and the third invariant and leave only the rst invariant conserved. If changes occur on the gyro period scale all invariants are destroyed.

The same line of arguments can be made for spatial gradients because the particle motion is subject to the electromagnetic elds and spatial gradients can act similarly to temporal changes for the particle motion. There is also a hierarchy of spatial scales which limit the inhomogeneity of the eld, for instance, gradients on the scale of the gyro radius will destroy the rst adiabatic invariant.