Dr.

Ahmed AbdelAbdel-Naby
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines Mech. Eng. Dept. Faculty of Engineering Alexandria Univ.
email: hydrocareeg@hotmail.com

Table of Contents
Chapter One:
Fluid Properties

Density Viscosity Vapor pressure

##Governing equations
Continuity equation Bernoullis equation Energy per unit weight Friction Head Losses Minor Losses Loss coefficients for pipe components

Chapter Two:
Classification of pumps

Flow, head and power coefficients Understanding the System Head Curves Variants in Pumping Systems

Pump terminology System Characteristics and Pump Head Total dynamic head Power Pump Performance curves Net positive suction head (NPSH) Affinity laws Effect of fluid viscosity

Chapter Three:
Centrifugal Pump Construction

Classification Casings Radial Thrust Impellers Impeller Mechanical Types Wearing Rings Axial Thrust Axial Thrust in Multi-Stage Pumps Shafts and Shaft Sleeves Mechanical Seals

Chapter Four:
Centrifugal Pump Performance

Characteristic Curves (Pump Theory) Real & Ideal Fluid Performance parameters (Affinity Laws) Specific Speed Modifications to Impeller and Casing Reduction of Cavitation Damage Pump Selection Priming Capacity Regulation Parallel and series Operation Operation at Other than Normal Capacity Pump Cavitation: Pump Cavitation Concept of Cavitation Mechanism of Cavitation General Symptoms of Cavitation

Chapter Five:
##

Installation and Operation:

Installation

Foundations Alignment Grouting

##

Piping:
Suction Piping

Discharge Piping Piping Strains Expansion Joints

##

Operation:
Pre-Operational Checks

Starting and Stopping Procedures The pump in operation Diagnosing pump and Seal Problems in Field Pump Preventive maintenance

Chapter Six:
Maintenance Daily observation of pump operation Semi-annual inspection Annual Inspection Spare and repair parts Diagnosis of Pump Problems Centrifugal Pump Hydraulic performance Diagnostics Cavitation Suction and Discharge Recirculation Axial Thrust Radial Thrust

Chapter Seven (Applications)

Pumps in Petroleum Industry Refinery Pumps Construction Performance Materials Drives Pipeline Pumps Construction Performance Materials Special services: Water-flood Reactor Feed Pumps Pumping of Viscous Liquid

Chapter Eight Positive-Displacement Pumps

Vane Pumps

Gear Pumps Piston pumps Radial piston pumps Axial piston pumps Screw Pumps Pump Efficiencies Performance Trouble shooting

Chapter One

Fluid Properties
Density(): Density( it is the mass per unit volume = mass/volume = M/v (Kg/m3) for water ( (w = 1000 kg/m3) at 4o c

Specific Weight( Weight(): defined as Weigh per unit volume = weight/ volume = W/V ( N/m3 ) =g for water ( ( w = 9800 N/m3 ) Specific Gravity (S.G.): defined as the ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of water at some specified temperature S.G. = f / w Viscosity (): Fluid ability to resist motion

du = dy

Dynamic viscosity , ,, in: N.s/ m2 or Pa.s or Kg/m.s or poise ( dyne.s/cm2 ) Kinematic viscosity , , in: m2/s or stokes or centicenti-stokes

v=/

Vapor Pressure ( Pvap ): It is the pressure at which liquid starts to evaporate at working temperature. Pour Point It is the temperature at which the fluid (petroleum product or crude) seems to be freeze.

Governing equations of compressible & incompressible flow

1.

Continuity equation.

G = AV = Q

Where G is the mass flow rate Q is the volume flow rate or discharge

Q = AV

For steady flow:

G1= G2
Q1 = Q2

1 A1V1 = 2 A2V2
A1V1 = A2V2

V =Q/ A

2. Bernoulli's Equation.
E = P/ P/g + Z + V2/2g Where:
E=Total energy/unit weight Z= Potential energy/unit weight P/ P/g= pressure energy/ unit weight v2/2g = kinetic energy/unit weight

For ideal fluid: E1 =E2

2 + + z p / V / 2g 1 1 1

= z + p / + V 2 / 2g
2 2 2

For real fluid: E1 = E2 + losses

2 + + z p / V / 2g 1 1 1

= z + p / + V 2 / 2g + h
2 2 2 L

Losses in pipes

Major loss ( Friction loss)

Minor loss ( Eddy loss )

I-FRICTION LOSS Due to friction ( along the pipe-straight pipes ) i- Friction between fluid layers
( laminar flow )

ii- Friction between fluid and pipe

walls ( turbulent flow )

Reynolds number ( RN ) RN = vd/ vd/

RN < 2000 RN > 4000 2000 < RN < 4000 Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow Transition Flow

DARCY EQUATION The completely general functional relation w= fn (V, D, , , e) where: The wall shear stress w The mean velocity V, Pipe diameter D, Fluid density , Fluid viscosity , Pipe roughness e or

LV L Q hf = f = f 2 D 2g D 2 gA
f = 64 64/R /RN for Laminar flow f from Moddy Chart for Tur. flow

IIII-Minor Losses
Due to change in velocity vector (at certain section)

i- change in velocity magnitude ( due to area change ) ii ii- change in velocity direction ( bends) iii iii- change in velocity magnitude & direction ( see examples )

i-

change in velocity magnitude ( due to area change )

Sudden enlargement hL1-2 =kL ( v1-v2)2/2g

Gradual enlargement 2/2g hL1 =k v L1-2 L 1

Sudden contraction
2/2g hL1 =k v L1-2 L 2

Entrance flow conditions and loss coefficient

(a) Reentrant, KL= 0.8, (b) sharpsharp-edged, KL= 0.5, (c) Slightly rounded, KL=0.2 (d) wellwell-rounded, KL= 0.04

Flow pattern and pressure distribution for a sharpsharp-edged entrance

Exit flow conditions and loss coefficient (a) Reentrant, KL= 1.0, (b) sharp sharp-edged, KL= 1.0 (c) Slightly rounded, KL= 1.0 (d) well-rounded, KL= 1.0

ii ii- change in velocity direction ( bends ) hLb =kb v2/2g kb depends on R,D, R,D,

Loss in valves hLv =kv v2/2g kv depends on valve type valve opening

Valve Types:
(a) Globe valve, (b) Gate valve, (c) swing check valve, (d) Stop check valve.

Valve opening:

Loss Coefficients for Pipe Components a hL = KL V2/2g

Pipelines

Transmission Lines For Petroleum Engineering

Transmission Lines Petroleum Engineering

Petroleum Engineering

Transmission Lines

Transmission Lines

Transmission Lines

Transmission Lines
Side boom

Transmission Lines
Side boom

Transmission Lines

Industrial Applications

Valves

Valves

Gate Valves

Check Valves

Butter Fly Valve

Piping & Valves

Pumps
Definition. Applications. Types. Selection.

Definition
Pump is a hydraulic machine used to convert mechanical power into hydraulic power

I/P
( Mech. Energy )

O/P
( Hyd. Energy )

Hyd. Power = P x Q = x Q x Hm where: P Q Hm is the pump pressure is he pump flow rate liquid specific weight is the pump head

Pump applications
Lifting pump. Circulating pump. Boosting pump.

Lifting Pump
Hst ( +ve )

+ ve

P
suction (s)

- ve delivery (d)

Circulating Pump
Hst ( 0 )

Boosting Pump

Hst ( -ve )

Piping System Calculations:

 Static suction head (hs.s): The static suction

head is the difference in elevation between the wet well liquid level and the datum elevation of the pump impeller. If the wet well liquid level is below the pump datum, so hs is negative. discharge head is the difference in elevation between the discharge liquid level and the pump datum elevation. the difference in elevation between the water level in the wet well and the water level at discharge (hd -hs).

Static discharge head (hs.d): The static

Total static head (Hst): The total static head is

 Friction head loss (hfs, hfd): This is the head

of fluid that must be supplied to overcome the frictional loss in the pipe.

Velocity head (v2/2g): The velocity head is

the kinetic energy in the liquid being pumped at a point in the system.

Total energy line (T.E.L.): Shows the energy

distribution along the piping system.

Hydraulic gradient line ( H.G.L.): Shows the

pressure distribution along he piping system.

 Manometric suction head (Hm.s):

The suction gauge reading is expressed in meters measured at the suction nozzle of the pump and referenced to the pump datum elevation.

Manometric discharge head (Hm.d,): The discharge

gauge reading is expressed in meters measured at the discharge nozzle of the pump and referenced to the centerline of the pump impeller. It is also the distance to the hydraulic grade line and pressure reference.

Manometric head (Hm): This is the increase of

pressure head, expressed in meters generated by the pump (Hm.d-Hm.s).

 Hm.s = Hs.s hls - vs2/2g Hm.d = Hs.d +hld Hm = Hm.d - Hm.s Hm = (Hs.d +hld ) ( Hs.s hls - vs2/2g ) Hm = (Hs.d - Hs.s ) + (hld + hls ) + vs2/2g Hm = Hs.t + hlt + vs2/2g

Piping system curve:

Hm = Hs.t + hlt + vs2/2g Hm = Hs.t + KQ2

Power
Output Power The power output of a pump is the energy delivered by the pump to
the fluid.

In SI units,

P = Q Hm/c
is the specific weight of the fluid in N/m3,

Where P is the water power in kW,

Q is the flowrate in m3/s, Hm is the total dynamic head in m, C is the unit constant ( 1000 )

Input Power
Pump performance is measured in terms of the flow
rate that a pump can discharge against a given head at a given efficiency.

The pump capacity depends on the design, and

design information of the pump manufacturer in a series of curves for a given pump. output (water kilowatts [kW] or water horsepower [hp]) to the power input to the pump shaft.

Pump efficiency, , is the ratio of the useful power

The brake power (bkW) or the shaft power that

must be supplied by the drive is,
Psh= QHm/C

Pump efficiency
Pump efficiency is defined as the ratio between the
output power and input power which is usually range from 20 to 85 85% %.

Pump efficiency increases with the size of the

pump.

Energy losses in a pump are:

Volumetric, Mechanical, and Hydraulic

 Volumetric losses are those of leakage

through the small clearances between wearing rings in the pump casing and the rotating element.

Mechanical losses are caused by mechanical

friction in the stuffing boxes and bearings, by internal disc friction, and by fluid shear.

Frictional and eddy losses within the flow

passages account for the hydraulic losses.

Pump Types

Positive Pumps Roto-dynamic Pumps 1. Centrifugal pump 2. Propeller pump Reciprocating P.P. 1. Piston Pump 2. Diaphragm Pump Rotary P.P. 1. Gear Pump 2. Screw Pump 3. Vane Pump 4. Parallel cylinder piston pump Non-Mech. Pumps 1. Jet pump 2. Air lift pump

1- RotoRoto-dynamic Pressure Pumps

Pumps are divided into three groups:
RadialRadial-flow pumps Mixed-flow pumps Axial-flow or propeller pumps.

These classifications are derived from

the manner in which the fluid moves through the pump (see Fig.).

(a) Radial flow, Vertical (c) Radial flow, Horizontal

(b) Mixed flow (d) Axial flow

Centrifugal pump (end suction)

Centrifugal pump

Axial Flow Pump

Pump Performance Curves

The performance of a centrifugal pump can

be shown graphically on characteristic curves. A typical characteristic curve shows the: Total dynamic head, Brake horsepower, Efficiency, and Net Positive Suction head All plotted over the capacity range of the pump ( Q ).

Understanding the Pipe system curve

Positive static head

Zero static head, all friction

Negative (Gravity) head

Most lift Little friction head

Importance of Pipe system curve

Every pump manufacturer would like to recommend
the perfect pump for any application.

To do this he would like the contracting company to

provide him with an accurate system curve that would describe the capacity and head needed for various operating conditions.

Once he has the system curve, he can plot his pump

curves on top of the system curve and hopefully select something that will come close to the line needs.

 Without this system curve, neither one of

them have much of a chance of coming up with the right pump.

To create a system curve we plot the desired

capacities against the required head over the total operating range of the pump.

VARIANTS IN PUMPING SYSTEMS

In practice, conditions in a system vary as a result of either
controllable or uncontrollable changes.

Examples of either controllable or uncontrollable system

changes in: Valve opening in the pump discharge or bypass line, Suction or discharge liquid level level, , Pressures at these levels, Aging of pipes, Process, Number of pumps pumping into common header, Size, length, or number of pipes

 These changes in system conditions:

Alter the shape of the systemsystem-head curve and, in turn, Affect pump flow.

Variable Static Head

In a system where a pump is taking

suction from one reservoir and filling another, the capacity of a centrifugal pump will decrease with an increase in static head.

 If it is desired to maintain a constant

pump flow for different static head conditions, the pump speed can be varied to adjust for an increase or decrease in the total system head.

Variable System Resistance

A valve or valves in the discharge line of a centrifugal pump alter the
variable frictional head portion of the total systemsystem-head curve and consequently the pump flow.

For example, the use of a discharge valve to change the system head for
the purpose of varying pump flow during a shop performance test.

The maximum flow is obtained with a completely open valve, and the
only resistance to flow is the friction in the piping, fittings, and flow meter.

A closed valve results in:

# # The pumps operating at shutoff conditions and Produces maximum head. Any flow between maximum and shutoff can be obtained by proper adjustment of the valve opening.

 It is important to select a pump that will

have Its best efficiency within the operating range of the system

And preferably at the condition at

which the pump will operate most often.

Cavitation
When the pressure of the liquid is reduced to a value
equal to or below its vapor pressure the liquid begins to boil and small vapor bubbles or pockets begin to form.

As these vapor bubbles move along the impeller vanes

to a higher pressure area above the vapor pressure, they rapidly collapse.

The collapse is so rapid that it may be heard as a

noise, as if you were pumping gravel.

 In high suction energy pumps, the collapses are

generally high enough to cause pockets of fatigue failure on the impeller vane surfaces. This action may be progressive, and under severe (very high suction energy), conditions can cause serious pitting damage to the impeller.

The accompanying noise is the easiest way to recognize

cavitation.

Excessive cavitation results in reduced capacity due to

the vapor present.

In addition, the head may be reduced and/or be

unstable and the power consumption also affected.

 Vibration and mechanical damage

such as bearing failure can also occur because of operating in excessive cavitation. Cavitation causes :
1. Drop in Q 2. Drop in Hm 3. Drop in eff. 4. power consumption may be affected. 5. Pitting 6. Noise 7. Vibrations

Impeller damaged by cavitation

How to prevent pump from cavitation?

To prevent the undesirable effects of cavitation is to insure that the minimum available pressure in the system is greater than the vapor pressure pressure. .

P min > P vap. P atm. H min > h vap. h atm. H ss - h ls- Vs2 / 2g Hm > h vap. h atm. h atm- h vap+H ss- h ls > Hm+ Vs2 / 2g
NPSHA > NPSHR

Net Positive Suction Head ( NPSH )

Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) NPSH
Available is a function of the system in which the pump operates. additional NPSH margin, above the NPSH Required.

High suction energy pumps Require an

NPSHA > NPSHR + ( 1.2m to 2.5m )

Affinity Laws
The affinity laws express the mathematical relationship between
the several variables involved in pump performance.

They apply to all types of centrifugal and axial flow pumps.

## They are as follows: 1- With impeller diameter D held constant 2- with rotational speed N held constant Q = Capacity, Cubic Meter Per Second H = Total Head, Meter BHP = Brake Horsepower N = Pump Speed, RPM

D is constant
Q Q N N
2

N is constant
Q1 D1 = Q2 D2
3

1 2

1 2

H1 N1 = H2 N2

H1 D1 = H 2 D2

BHP1 N1 = BHP2 N 2

BHP1 D1 = BHP2 D 2

Effect of Fluid Viscosity

The performance of centrifugal pumps is

affected when pumping viscous liquids.

A dramatic increase in Brake

Horsepower and A reduction of Flow , Head and pump efficiency occurs.

Centrifugal Pump Construction

Classification Casings Radial Thrust Impellers Impeller Mechanical Types Wearing Rings Axial Thrust Axial Thrust in MultiMulti-Stage Pumps Shafts and Shaft Sleeves Mechanical Seals

Impellers

Mech . Power

Hyd. Power ( Himp & V2/2g )

Impellers are classified according to the major direction of flow

Centrifugal pumps may have: Radial-flow impellers Axial-flow impellers Mixed-flow impellers, which combine radialradial - and axialaxial-flow principles

radial single-suction closed impeller

radial double-suction closed impeller

Open mixed-flow impeller

Axial-Flow impeller

 Impellers are further classified as: SingleSingle-suction suction, , with a single inlet on one side Double Double-suction, with water flowing to the impeller
from both sides

The mechanical construction of the impellers gives

a subdivision into: 1. Enclosed, Enclosed, with shrouds or side walls enclosing the waterways 2. Open, with no shrouds Semi-open or semisemi-enclosed 3. Semi

radial double-suction closed impeller.

 The hydraulic characteristics of an inducer are such

that it requires considerably less NPSH than a conventional impeller.

An inducer is a low low-head axialaxial-flow impeller with

few blades which is placed in front of a conventional impeller.

Variation in impeller profiles with specific speed

CASINGS
U2/2g Hyd. Power ( Hcasing & Vd2/2g )

The Volute Casing Pump This pump derives its name from the spiral spiral-shaped casing surrounding the
impeller.

This casing section collects the liquid discharged by the impeller and converts
velocity energy to pressure energy.

A centrifugal pump volute increases in area from its initial point until it

encompasses the full 360 around the impeller and then flares out to the final discharge opening.

In propeller and other pumps in which axialaxial-flow impellers are used, it is not

practical to use a volute casing; instead, the impeller is enclosed in a pipepipe-like casing.

 A pump in which the head is developed by

a single impeller is called a single single-

stage pump.

Often the total head to be developed

requires the use of two or more impellers operating in series,or multi multistage, each taking its suction from the

discharge of the preceding impeller.

Horizontal Multistage pump

Submersible pumps multimulti -stage

Radial Thrust

Arrangement of multi-stage volute pump for radial-thrust balance

AXIAL THRUST
Axial Thrust in SingleSingle-Stage Pumps with Closed Impellers

The pressures generated by a centrifugal pump exert

forces on both stationary and rotating parts.

Axial hydraulic thrust on an impeller is the sum of

the unbalanced forces acting in the axial direction. direction .

As reliable largelarge-capacity thrust bearings are now

readily available, axial thrust in single single-stage pumps remains a problem only in larger units.

Pressure distribution on: Front and Back shrouds of single-suction impeller With shaft through impeller eye

 Theoretically, a double double-suction impeller is in hydraulic

axial balance, with the pressures on one side equal to and counterbalancing the pressures on the other.

Balancing axial thrust of single single-suction impeller by means of wearing ring on back side and balancing holes

PumpPump -out vanes used in a single single-suction impeller to reduce axial thrust

Multistage pump with singlesingle-suction impellers facing in one direction and hydraulic balancing device

MultiMulti -stage pump with back to back impellers.

Balancing drum

Simple balancing disk

Combination balancing disk and drum

Specific applications

radial-vane non-clogging impeller used for solid handling

Paper pulp impeller

Open impellers

Open impeller with partial shroud

Semi-open impeller

WEARING RINGS

Wearing rings provide an easily and

economically renewable leakage joint between the impeller and the casing.

Plain flat leakage joint with no rings.

Single flat-casing-ring construction

Double flat-ring construction

Step-type leakage joint with double rings

An L-type nozzle casing ring.

Double rings, both of L type.

Single labyrinth intermeshing type. Double-ring const. with nozzle-type casing ring

Labyrinth-type rings in doublering construction

Wearing-ring clearances for single-stage pumps

Shaft Sleeves
Pump shafts are usually protected by renewable
sleeves from: from:

Eerosion, corrosion, and wear at stuffing boxes Leakage joints Internal bearings In the waterways

Sleeve with External locknut And Impeller key extending into sleeve to prevent slip

Sleeve with internal impeller nut, external shaft-sleeve nut, And separate key for sleeve

Seal arrangement for shaft sleeve to prevent leakage along the shaft

Sealing Liquid Arrangements

Water seal unit

Lantern Ring

Lantern ring (also called seal cage)

Weighted grease sealer. (Worthington Pump)

automatic grease sealer mounted on a vertical sewage pump

MECHANICAL SEALS
The conventional stuffing box design and
composition packing are impractical to use for sealing a rotating shaft for many conditions of service.

In the ordinary stuffing box, the sealing between

the moving shaft or shaft sleeve and the stationary portion of the box is accomplished by means of rings of packing forced between the two surfaces and held tightly in place by a stuffing box gland.

The leakage around the shaft is controlled merely by

tightening up or loosening the gland studs.

 The actual sealing surfaces consist of the axial

rotating surfaces of the shaft or shaft sleeve and the stationary packing.

Attempts to reduce or eliminate all leakage from a

conventional stuffing box increase the gland pressure.

The packing packing, , being semisemi-plastic, forms more closely

to the shaft and tends to cut down the leakage.

After a certain point, however, the leakage

continues no matter how tightly the gland studs are brought up.

 The frictional horsepower increases rapidly

at this point, the heat generated cannot be properly dissipated, and the stuffing box fails to function.

Even before this condition is reached, the shaft

sleeves may be severely worn and scored, so that it becomes impossible to pack the stuffing box satisfactorily. packing as the sealing medium between rotating surfaces if the leakage is to be held to an absolute minimum under severe pressure

These undesirable characteristics of using

 The condition, in turn, automatically eliminates

use of the axial surfaces as the sealing surfaces, for a nonnon-plastic packing is the only material that can always be made to form about the shaft and compensate for the wear.

Another factor that makes stuffing boxes

unsatisfactory for certain applications is the relatively small lubricating value of many liquids frequently handled by centrifugal pumps, such as propane or butane.

 These liquids actually dissolve the

lubricants normally used to impregnate the packing.

Seal oil must therefore be introduced into the

lantern gland or a packed box to lubricate the packing and give it reasonable life.

With these facts in mind, designers have

attempted to produce an entirely different type of seal with wearing surfaces other than the axial surfaces of the shaft and packing.

 The mechanical seal, is a later development

than regular stuffing boxes but has found general acceptance in those pumping applications in which the shortcomings of packed stuffing boxes have proved excessive.

Fields in which the packed boxes gave good

service, however, have shown little tendency to replace them with mechanical seals.

The most common method of sealing

centrifugal pumps today uses the mechanical seal (Fig.).

 The three basic parts of a mechanical seal are as

follows:

Primary seal components:

These consist of an axially adjustable sealing ring and an axially fixed mating ring against which it slides, forming a seal. Depending on the seal configuration, either the sealing or the mating ring may be the rotating or stationary element.

Secondary seals:
These consist of O-rings or other suitable gasket materials.

Hardware:
This consists mainly of the spring(s) and a retainer, normally made of a series 300 stainless steel.

Basic components of a mechanical seal..

Comparison of packing and mechanical seals Advantages Packing 1. Lower initial cost 2. Easily installed as rings and glands are split 3. Good reliability to medium pressures and shaft speeds 4. Can handle large axial movements (thermal expansion of stuffing box versus shaft) 5. Can be used in rotating or reciprocating applications 6. Leakage tends to increase gradually, giving warning of impending breakdown Disadvantages

1. Relatively high leakage 2. Requires regular maintenance 3. Wear of shaft and shaft sleeve can be relatively high 4. Power losses may be high

Advantages

Disadvantages

Mechanical seals
1. Very low leakage/no leakage 2. Require no maintenance 3. Eliminate sleeve wear/shaft wear 4. Very good reliability 5. Can handle higher pressures and speeds 6. Easily applied to, toxic, flammable, or radioactive liquids 7. Low power loss 1. Higher initial cost 2. Easily installed but may require some disassembly of pump (couplings and so on)

Single Acting Piston Pump

Double Acting Piston pump

Diaphragm Pump

Air Operated Diaphragm Pump

External Gear Pump

External Gear Pump

External Gear Pump

External Gear Pump

Internal Gear Pump

External Gear Pump

Screw Pump

Radial Piston pump

Vane Pump

Parallel Cylinder Piston Pump

Swash Plate Pump

Finger Pump

Peristaltic Pump

Jet Pump

In your car there are three types of pumps:

1. Water pump for cooling. 2. Oil pump for lubrication. 3. Fuel pump for engine combustion. a- What are these types? b- Compare these types according to function of each .

Pumping Stations

Pumping Stations

Pumping Stations

Sewage Pumping Station

Water Treatment Plants

Water Treatment Plants

Wastewater Treatment Plants

Fire Fighting systems

Hydraulic Turbines

Definition Turbine is a hydraulic machine used to convert hydraulic power into

mechanical power
I/P ( Hyd. Energy )

O/P ( Mech. Energy )

Dams and Reservoirs

A picture for A hydro-power plant

Water Turbines

Francis Turbine
Spiral casing

Runner

Draft tube

Types of Hydraulic Turbine Runners

Aerodynamics

Automotives

Wind Tunnels

Sports machines require the understanding of F.M.

Water sports

Cycling

Offshore racing

Auto racing

Surfing

Airplanes & Rockets

Wind Energy

THANK YOU