Departement Sosiologie en Sosiale Antropologie Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology

S364 - Sosiale Navorsing (2013) S364 - Social Research (2013)

Lecture 2

Lesing 2

Social research strategies

Wednesday 24 July

Sosiale navorsingstrategie
Woensdag 24 Julie

Dr Lloyd Hill lloydhill@sun.ac.za

Overview / Oorsig
What is theory? What is research?
Role of theory Ontological considerations Epistemological considerations

Wat is teorie? Wat is navorsing?

Rol van "teorie" Ontologiese oorwegings Epistemologiese oorwegings

What is a research strategy?

What is n navorsingstrategie?

What is theory?
Wat is teorie?
Etymology: Greek a looking at, viewing, contemplation, speculation, theory, also a sight, a spectacle [OED]
view/spectacle... mental view/conception 'n uitsig/skouspel... verstandelike siening/begrip ... system of ideas or statements (stellings) Key distinction: theory vs practice (praktyk)
That department of an art or technical subject which consists in the knowledge or statement of the facts on which it depends, or of its principles or methods, as distinguished from the practice of it.
1795 C. Hutton Math. & Philos. Dict. (at cited word), To be learned in an art, &c., the Theory is sufficient; to be a master of it, both the Theory and practice are requisite.

Theory and research

Theory as existing

knowledge (eg in books) Theory as formal explanation of observed regularities Distinguished from practice in general and specifically Practices associated with generating new knowledge, i.e. the most common sense of research

Teorie as bestaande kennis (bv in boeke) Teorie as formele verklaring van waarneembare relmatighede teorie onderskei van praktyk in die algemeen en in die besonder praktyke verbonde met die ontwikkeling van nuwe kennis, dws dws die mees algemene gebruik van "navorsing"

Teorie en navorsing
Key theoretical issues in Social research practice: Relationship between theory and research - deductive - inductive Types of theory - Grand theories - Middle range theories (see below) Hoof teoretiese kwessies in sosiale navorsingspraktyk: Verwantskap tussen teorie en navorsing - deduktief - induktief Teorie soorte - Groot teorie - Middelrang teorie (sien hieronder)

Relationship between theory & research

Inductive data gathering & interpretation generates theory inferences from observations e.g. grounded theory (Glaser and
Strauss)

Induktief
data-insameling en interpretasie genereer teorie afleidings uit waarnemings bv. grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss)

Deductive

Deduktief

Relationship between theory & research

Deductive theory formulation before data gathering data used to test theory e.g. explicit hypothesis to be confirmed or rejected Deduktief teorie stelling voor data insameling data word gebruik om n teorie te toets bv eksplisiete hipotese word bevestig of verwerp

Hypothesis // Hipotese
Assuming a hypothetico-deductive (positivist?) model of science (epistemology) What is the etymology of hypothesis?
hypo + thesis (of hipo + tese) less than a theory

So why is a hypothesis less than a theory?

See Bryman, page 10 & 11 (3rd Ed.)

Teoriesoorte (Merton)
grand theories
highly abstract (theoretical vocabulary & style) e.g. Bourdieus theory of social capital

Groot teorie
hoogs abstrak (teoretiese woordeskat en styl) Bv. Bourdieu se theory van sosiale kapitaal

middle range theories

limited domain (defended on grounds of empirical evidence) e.g. labelling theory (Becker 1963)

Middelrang teorie
beperkte domein (simboliese gebied) (verdedig op grond van empiriese bewys) Bv. labelling teorie (Becker 1963)

Observable regularities

Waarneembare relmatighede

Research issues
Why do we call this module social research? Implicit distinction between social and natural (science) research
Ontological and epistemological issues

Hoekom verwys ons na sosiale navorsing (bv. Naam van module)? Implisiete onderskeit tussen sosiale en natuurlike (wetenskap) navorsing
Ontologies en epistemologiese kwessies

Ontological considerations
Ontology (Gk. ontos = being) what kinds of objects exist (in the social world)? are there natural (vs social) objects (or classes of objects? do social entities exist independently of our perceptions of them? is social reality external to social actors or constructed by them?
Ontologie (Gk. ontos = wese) watter soorte objekte bestaan (in die sosiale wreld)? Is daar natuurlike (vs sosiale) objekte (of klasse van objekte? Bv tale & spesies) Bestaan sosiale entiteite onafhanklik van ons persepsie daarvan? Is sosiale realiteit buite sosiale rolspelers of word dit deur hulle gebou?

Objectivist (naturalist) ontology

social phenomena confront us as external facts individuals are born into a pre-existing social world social forces and rules exert pressure on actors to conform e.g. culture exists independently of social actors who are socialized into its values Sosiale verskynsels as eksterne feite Individue word gebore in n reeds-bestaande sosiale wreld Sosiale magte en rels oefen druk uit op rolspelers om te konformeer Bv kultuur bestaan onhafhanklik van sosiale rolspelers wat in kultuur se waardes gesosialiseer is.

Constructionist (subjectivist) ontology

social phenomena and their meanings are constructed by social actors continually accomplished and revised researchers accounts of events are also constructions - many alternative interpretations language and representation shape our perceptions of reality Sosiale verskynsels en hulle betekenis word gekonstrueer deur sosiale rolspelers Voortdurend voltooi en hersien Navorsers se weergawe van gebeure is ook konstrukte baie alternatiewe interpretasies Taal en representasie vorm ons persepsies van realiteit

E.g. ontology in language (use)

Ontological assumptions are frequently evident in analogies (usually implicitly) drawn between classes of phenomena E.g. can languages die (i.e. become extinct)? An implicit analogy between languages and biological organisms (and species)

Epistemological considerations
Epistemology = logic of knowing How do we justify beliefs as knowledge? Can the social world be studied scientifically? Is it appropriate to apply the methods of the natural sciences to social science research? Epistemologie = logika van weet Hoe regverdig ons oortuigings as kennis? Kan die sosiale wreld wetenskaplik bestudeer word? Is dit gepas om metodes van natuurwetenskappe toe te pas op navorsing in sosiale wetenskappe?

Positivist (naturalist) epistemology

Application of natural science methods to social science research (Comte positive, Mill exact) Phenomenalism: knowledge via the senses Distinction between scientific and normative statements Objective, value-free researcher Toepassing van natuurwetenskaplike metodes op sosiale wetenskaplike navorsing (Comte, Mill) Fenomenalisme: kennis deur die sintuie Onderskeid tussen wetenskplike en normatiewe stellings Objektief, waarde-vrye navorser

Interpretivist epistemology
Interpretive methods (from theology, philosophy, literature) rather than natural science methods e.g. Phenomenology: subjective logics of social phenomena e.g. Weber: verstehen = interpretative understanding of social action (vs. explanation) Interpretatiewe metodes (van teologie, filosofie, letterkunde) eerder as natuurwetenskaplike metodes bv. Fenomenologie: subjektiewe logika van sosiale veskynsels bv. Weber: verstehen = verstaan; interpreteer (?); verklaar => explain (nuanse)

Realist epistemology
Similarities to positivism:
external (social) reality exists independently of our perceptions

Ooreenkomste met positivisme:

Eksterne realiteit bestaan onafhanklik van ons persepsies

Empirical (nave?) realism (positivism?)

close correspondence between reality and terms used to describe it direct knowledge of the social world

Empiriese (naewe?) realisme (positivisme?)

Naby ooreenstemming tussen realiteit en terme wat dit beskryf Direkte kennis van die sosiale wreld

Critical realism
theoretical terms mediate our knowledge of reality underlying structures generate observable events E.g. Language? (deep structures?)

Kritiese realisme
Teoretiese terme bemiddel ons kennis van realiteit Onderliggende strukture genereer observeerbare gebeure

What is a research strategy?

useful introductory way of classifying methods of social research two distinctive clusters of research strategies: quantitative and qualitative these strategies differ in terms of their: general orientation to social research ontological basis epistemological foundations
Nuttige inleidende manier om metodes van sosiale navorsing te klassifiseer Twee afsonderlike groepe navorsingstrategie: Kwantitatief en kwalitatief Hierdie strategie verskil in terme van hulle:
Algemene orintasie tot sosiale navorsing Ontologiese basis Epistemologiese grondslagte

Breaking down the Quantitative vs Qualitative research distinction

What about numbers (numerical data) vs words (verbal data) a fourth dimension of difference?

Quantitative research
measurement of social variables common research designs: surveys and experiments numerical and statistical data deductive theory testing objectivist view of reality as external to social actors (?!) positivist epistemology (?) Meet van sosiale veranderlikes Algemene navorsingsontwerpe: opnames en eksperimente Numeriese en statistiese data Deduktiewe teorie-toetsing Objektivistiese siening van realiteit as ekstern tot sosiale rolspelers (?!) Positivistiese epistemologie (?)

Qualitative research
common methods: interviews, ethnography data are words, texts and stories inductive approach: theory emerges from data social constructionist ontology (?!) understanding the subjective meanings held by actors (interpretivist epistemology) (?) Algemene metodes: onderhoude, etnografie Data is woorde, tekste en stories Induktiewe benadering: teorie ontstaan uit data Sosiale konstruktionistiese ontologie (?!) Begrip van die subjektiewe betekenisse van rolspelers (Interpretatiewe epistemologie) (?)

Choosing a strategy
A choice between a quantitative OR a qualitative strategy? Yes: for practical purposes there are relatively distinct traditions and skillsets No => lecture 22 bridging the divide n Keuse tussen n kwantitatiewe OF n kwalitatiewe strategie? Ja: vir praktiese doeleindes is daar verskillende tradisies en vaardigheidstelle Nee => lesing 22: oorbrug die gaping

 Quantitative methods Qualitative methods Mixed methods

Practical issues influencing both quantitative & qualitative research

Researcher interests (2 senses) & values time cost/funding available how much prior literature exists topic (sensitive issues may be more suited to qualitative research) all social research is a compromise between the ideal and the feasible Navorser se belange en belangstelling; waardes, tyd Koste/befondsing beskikbaar Hoeveel literatuur bestaan reeds Onderwerp (sensitiewe kwessies miskien meer gepas vir kwalitatiewe navorsing) Alle sosiale navorsing is n kompromis tussen die ideale en die uitvoerbare