Technical Paper

BR-1887

Heavy Lift Crane Selection

Authors: R.L. Mikut, Jr., P.E. Babcock & Wilcox Power Generation Group, Inc. Barberton, Ohio, U.S.A. Presented to: ASCE Construction Institute Summit Date: November 8-11, 2012 Location: Fort Worth, Texas, U.S.A.

Heavy Lift Crane Selection

R.L. Mikut, Jr., P.E. Babcock & Wilcox Power Generation Group, Inc. Barberton, Ohio, USA

Presented at: ASCE Construction Institute Summit Fort Worth, Texas, U.S.A. November 8-11, 2012

BR-1887

Abstract
Many factors must be looked at simultaneously to properly select a heavy lift crane for a specific job. There are various types of cranes including crawler, tower, ringer, derricks and more. The type of crane, the size of the load, site constraints, deductions from the listed crane capacity, ground-bearing pressures, crane efficiency and rental costs must all be taken into account. This paper will discuss how to take all of these issues and constraints into account when selecting the proper heavy lift crane. Knowing the weight and dimensions of the component to be lifted is a critical element, but there are many other items that should be considered. Site constraints may actually impact the selection of the crane more than the lifted element itself. Also, when sizing the crane, the weight of the rigging, the crane block, line weight and other items below the boom point must be added to the load weight. Another major factor affecting crane selection is the ground-bearing pressure imposed by the crane and the ground preparation needed. Costs must be considered. Taking these and other factors into account, a properly sized heavy lift crane is an important component to completing a job safely and effectively.

edge of the geometry, size and rigging weight of the lifted load is all that is required for heavy lift crane selection. In fact, while this knowledge is critical to the overall selection process, it is a small part of the required input. There are many types of cranes available, each having specific advantages and disadvantages. Proper crane selection can help reduce cost, schedule, and safety risks. Crane selection is challenging because it often takes place early in the planning stages of a project. Some of the elements to be taken into account during the selection process are total load, site constraints, deductions from the listed crane capacity, ground bearing pressures, cost, efficiency and reliability. It is important to choose an efficient, versatile crane that will bring the greatest possible contribution to the job for the least overall cost. This cost is likely a key component to the total project cost, but it should also be measured against reliability, redundancy, and ground preparation costs. There are many computer programs and algorithms available to help in crane selection, but the factors discussed in this paper should be considered in addition to using these computer programs.

Types of Cranes
Cranes can be classified into several broad categories such as mobile cranes, tower cranes, derricks, bridge/gantry cranes, container cranes, barge cranes, etc. The most common cranes used at typical construction sites are mobile cranes, tower cranes, ringers and derricks. Mobile cranes, whether they are lattice boom crawler cranes, hydraulic all-terrain cranes, or rough-terrain cranes, are the backbone of the modern construction industry. Figure 1 shows an environmental retrofit project at a coal-fired utility plant. This photo illustrates the different types of
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Introduction
With the increasing size of component modules on construction sites to reduce schedules and field labor costs, mobile cranes are becoming more and more critical for the completion of a successful job. The selection of a heavy lift crane for a specific project application involves detailed consideration of many factors that critically affect the load handling capabilities on the job site. Historically speaking, from an initial perspective, one may assume that a knowlBabcock & Wilcox Power Generation Group

Fig. 1 Multiple cranes on a construction site.

heavy lift cranes that can be utilized on a job site. Lattice boom crawler cranes typically range in capacity from 75 to 3500 t (68 to 3175 tm). They are extremely versatile with options such as wheeled or hanging counterweights, fixed jibs, luffing jibs, etc. With all of these options, a lattice boom crawler crane can perform almost any job in the construction industry. Hydraulic all-terrain cranes typically range in capacity from 20 to 650 t (18 to 590 tm). All-terrain cranes are usually designed with the capability to drive on roadways and highways, as well as from a rental yard to a project site. They are usually higher in capacity than rough-terrain cranes, but require more set-up time. All-terrain cranes usually have their booms and counterweights transported separately, and therefore, have a higher mobilization cost. Rough-terrain cranes can range in capacity from 15 to 150 t (14 to 136 tm). Unlike the all-terrain cranes, the rough-terrain cranes usually only have four large wheels and are not meant to travel on roadways. They require little set-up time and are used primarily as yard cranes, site fabrication cranes, or on smaller jobs. Rough-terrain cranes are usually brought to site in a single assembly on a semi-trailer. Tower cranes, ringers, and derricks are referred to as fixed cranes because they remain in a stationary location from mobilization to demobilization. These cranes are used in more specialized applications, such as in areas with a limited footprint. Even though they are in a fixed position, they still require about the same space as a mobile crane to assemble and disassemble. This paper will primarily concentrate on lattice boom crawler cranes, but many of the topics can be applied to all types of cranes.

may in fact set the size of the crane for the entire project, it is not the only consideration to be made. Additional factors to consider are: 1. Dimensions of the largest module Determining the dimension of the largest module will provide insight as to whether a jib attachment is needed at the top of the boom. If a very large module is to be picked, then a fixed jib or even a luffing jib may be needed to keep the module away from the boom. The length of the boom can also be increased to prevent the jib from getting boom bound. 2. Crane reach The required crane reach may actually set the boom and/or jib configuration of the crane. Site constraints often play a role when considering crane reach. The farther the crane has to reach, the more boom and/or jib that will be required to make the reach. This reduces the overall capacity of the crane. 3. Weight of the module at the farthest reach point A modules weight at the farthest reach point is directly related to the cranes reach because a minimum capacity will be needed at the farthest reach, which may reduce the overall capacity of the crane due to the additional lengths of the boom or jib. Also note that just because the crane is capable of lifting 200 t (181 tm) at 50 feet, does not mean it will have the ability to set 10 t (9 tm) at 200 feet. 4. Type of rigging required to lift the module The rigging concept and height of the rigging are factors that affect the proper rigging choice. If spreader bars are to be utilized or if the module is very wide, the rigging will have to be fairly tall which increases the overall headroom required to lift and set the piece. The height of the boom tip is an important factor that will be discussed throughout this paper. 5. Estimated versus actual calculated weights of the module Identifying how the weights were determined helps to know what risk to take when sizing the crane. If the module weights are all estimated, it would be prudent to not select a crane that is at 99% of its capacity when lifting the module. However, if the weight of the module is known, then using the cranes full capacity requires less risk. Determining the required heaviest lift provides valuable information, such as the size of crane block and the number of parts of line required to make the lift. The number of parts of line refers to the number of wire ropes running between the boom tip and crane block to support the crane block and the load hanging below it. This will be discussed further in the deductions section.

Load
There are many factors to consider when first assessing a project that requires a heavy lift crane. Most of these considerations relate to the loads that must be moved. Determining the required heaviest lift is usually the first question asked. Although the answer to this question is very important, and
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Site Constraints
Conducting an initial site review is often the first step in crane selection. This can be done prior to knowing all of the job details because many times the existing site conditions may dictate the choice of crane rather than the actual loads that will be lifted. The location of the site, access around
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and to the crane, existing soil conditions, underground utilities, overhead lines, existing buildings, and prevailing wind conditions, etc. all play major roles in the selection of a heavy lift crane. The location of the site may limit the size and type of crane for the project. Heavy lift cranes add project cost and require time to mobilize and demobilize. To limit these costs, it is usually beneficial to choose a crane rental supplier close to the job site. However, depending on the region, this may limit the types and availability of heavy lift cranes. Crane access presents a variety of questions. Can the modules be brought directly to the crane? Are the modules being fabricated next to the crane or being brought in on a trailer? If the modules cannot be transported in or built near the crane, how far does the crane have to reach to pick up the module and how does it relate to the radius of the final setting location? This last question is very important. If the crane is sized based on just the weight of the module and how far its final location is from the crane, then there could be a major issue if the initial pick location of the module is farther away than the final location. Another consideration in crane access is whether there is adequate space for crane assembly. Heavy lift cranes usually do not require significant space to build their superstructure, but they do need a significant space in which to assemble their boom and jib attachments. There are ways to build the boom and jib attachment in the air, but in terms of safety, cost and schedule, it is preferred to lay out and build the boom on the ground. Therefore, by adding the length of the boom and jib attachment, the length of space required to build the boom and jib attachment is calculated. This area usually requires an assist crane to help build the boom and the crane superstructure. Also, the boom may need to be laid down periodically during the job due to high winds, contract requirements, or repair needs. Therefore, a boom laydown area should always be available to a heavy lift crane within a reasonable amount of time. Figure 2 shows the amount of space that is required to lay down a boom of a heavy lift crane.

Existing soil conditions and underground utilities can also determine the crane size or type. If the soil conditions are poor or there are a lot of underground utilities, then it may be prudent to select a crane that imposes a lower ground bearing pressure, such as a ringer crane. If this is impractical or unavailable, then it will be necessary to improve the ground conditions and/or move the existing underground utilities. If the crane is to be put on a site where new underground utilities are going to be installed, then it is necessary to take into account where the new underground utilities will be routed. Improving the ground conditions with filler material or a crane pad may lead to selecting a crane with a smaller footprint that will safely and adequately perform the required lifting functions to save on ground preparation costs. This may make using a larger crane with a smaller footprint more practical than a smaller crane with a wheeled counterweight or hanging counterweight with a larger tail swing and thus, a larger footprint. Availability, cost and preference to the job will dictate this choice. Other existing site conditions, such as overhead power lines or existing buildings, will likely dictate the type of boom and jib attachment configuration. Overhead power lines will either limit the location of the crane, or how far it can rotate. Per OSHA regulation 1926.550(a)(15)(ii), for power lines rated over 50 kV, minimum clearance between the lines and any part of the crane or load shall be 10 ft plus 0.4 in. for each 1kV over 50 kV, or twice the length of the line insulator, but never less than 10 ft. If the crane must lift over buildings, it may make using a luffing jib more appealing and/or necessary.1 Wind can be a factor in the selection of a heavy lift crane. Tables are available that provide the allowable operating conditions for a specific boom and/or jib combination. Table 1 is an example of a rating reduction table for various wind speeds for a Manitowoc 2250 crane with no counterweight attachment.2 The wind affects the stability of the boom and load during lifting operations. It can be observed in the table that the more boom or jib length added, the more restrictions there are on the operation of the crane. Failure to observe wind conditions can cause the crane to tip or the boom to collapse. These restrictions may limit the decision of how much boom or jib to add if the heavy lift crane will be operating in a high wind area.

Deductions
Crane load charts accompany every crane and provide the capacities of the crane at a known radius. For most heavy lift crane charts, this is defined as the gross load to be lifted below the boom tip. Therefore when sizing a crane, one cannot just look at the heaviest module at a radius and compare it to the capacity of the crane at the matching radius. Some deductions to consider along with the weight of the modules are: weight of the rigging, weight of the block, weight of the lines, weight of any jib or ball attached to the lifted load point, wind restrictions, and the number of parts
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Fig. 2 Heavy lift crane with boom laid down.

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Table 1 Rating Reductions for Various Wind Speeds and Wind Gusts When Equipped with Boom Only (Heavy Lift or Long Reach) Boom Length ft (m)
Maximum Wind Speed mph 15 20 25 30 35 m/s 7 9 11 13 16 0 0 0 0 0

70 to 220 (21.3 to 67.1)

230 to 260 (70.1 to 79.2)

270 to 300 (82.3 to 91.4)

310 to 330 (94.5 to 100.6)

Percent Rating Reduction 0 0 10 10 20 0 10 20 30 50 0 10 30 40 60

Above 35 mph (16 m/s)

OPERATION NOT PERMITTED

For operation in winds above 30 mph (13 m/s) with boom positioned above 80, load block must weigh at least 4800 lb (2177 kg). Boom may be blown over backwards if this precaution is not observed.

of line. Figure 3 shows a heavy lift crane making a lift with rigging weighing 20 t (18 tm) and a crane block weighing nearly 20 t (18 tm). This is an additional 40 t (36 tm) to the weight of the module being lifted with still other items to consider such as the weight of the number of parts of line. The weight of rigging could be estimated from previous jobs or it could be sized and calculated if enough is known about the module. The weight of the block can be found in the crane load charts, but it should be requested from the crane supplier to know the exact size and weight of block that will be arriving on site with the crane. The weight of the lines is conservatively determined by taking the boom tip height multiplied by the number of parts of line and then multiplied by the weight per foot of line. The number of parts of line is determined by using the given available line pull capacity of the hoist line and dividing it into the heaviest load that is to be lifted. This heaviest load to be lifted needs to include the component weight along with the weight of the rigging and crane block. For example, if the total load to be lifted is 85 t (77 tm) and the crane has a line installed with a maximum of a 15 t (14 tm) line pull capacity, then at minimum, six parts of line would be needed to lift the load. Another deduction is the weight of anything attached to the boom tip such as a rooster sheave, a whip line, and ball. This is usually a single part line (whip line) running off of a single sheave attached to the boom or luffing jib tip. It is used to lift lighter items and has a faster line speed which allows for quicker erection times. The weight of the whip line is usually negligible since the ball will likely be pulled nearly to the rooster sheave during the heavy lift operations. If lifting from the boom and a fixed jib is attached, then the fixed jib along with the rigging hanging from it must be deducted from the listed capacity of the boom. As discussed earlier, wind can also be a major deduction. If lifting in higher winds, proper deductions must be made to the capacities of certain boom and jib combinations. Finally the number of parts of line may be a deduction to the capacity of the crane in two ways. First, the weight of the lines themselves is a deduction that needs to be accounted for in the total weight below the boom tip. Second, if the total number of line parts equipped
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on the crane have a capacity lower than the listed capacity of the crane, then the capacity of the number of lines governs.

Ground-Bearing Pressures
The existing soil conditions and the bearing pressures imposed on them by cranes have become increasingly scrutinized in the construction industry. Crane manufacturers and rental suppliers typically use software to help calculate the loads imposed by a specific crane, with a specific configuration, that is lifting a specific load, at a specific radius. This will only provide one scenario out of the many dynamic loads that the crane will induce throughout the duration of a construction project. The ground-bearing pressures should be considered at various lifting radii, swing angles, and loads to find the worst-case scenario. The heaviest load picked may not cause the worst ground-bearing pressure and therefore, is an ill-advised assumption to make. The allowable ground-bearing pressure, if given, or the limitations of the crane mat might dictate the crane selection. In general, the larger the capacity of a crawler crane, the higher the ground-bearing pressure will be induced. There are some options to help reduce the ground-bearing pressures imposed, such as wider tracks or track arrangement. For example, the Manitowoc 18000 has two very large tracks similar to most crawler cranes, whereas the Manitowoc 21000 has a system of eight tracks which help to better distribute the load to the crane pad. Therefore, although the Manitowoc 21000 has a higher capacity, it usually induces a lower ground-bearing pressure than the Manitowoc 18000. Another option to help reduce the loading is to add a sled or wheeled counterweight to the back of the crane. These backend counterweights add significant capacity to the crane, but they also help in keeping the crane from leaning forward and therefore, decreases the ground-bearing pressure of the crane. This must be compared against the loading induced by the wheel counterweight or sled which may impose a greater ground-bearing pressure than some of the lower capacity cranes.
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be transferred from the bottom of the crawler through the crane pad to existing grade. How one is to analyze these loads, and how these loads will act on the existing soils to give an allowable ground-bearing pressure are other areas needing further research. The load from the crane is a transient load and not a permanent load. Therefore, using calculations that are reserved for permanent building foundations seems very conservative. As stated in Cranes and Derricks, Presumptive soil-bearing capacities used for building foundation design are often over-conservative when applied to crane supports. Buildings present longterm loads to the ground, so that allowable soil capacity must reflect a degree of settlement control not necessary for crane use. 4 A new standard would hopefully provide more certainty within the construction industry. The levelness of the crane pad is specified by the crane manufacturer for the crane. This is usually around 0.5 in. vertically for every 10 ft horizontally. Depending on the existing site conditions, it may be easy to create a level pad, or it may come at a large cost. The larger the crane pad, for a crawler crane with a wheeled counterweight for example, it may be more difficult to maintain throughout the duration of the job, and should be considered while planning the project.

Cost
Cost is a major determining factor during the selection of a heavy lift crane because it usually is a major component of the total project cost. Essentially, the higher the capacity of
Fig. 3 Heavy lift crane, rigging and load.

Bearing pressures induced by crawler cranes can be lessened to an extent by distributing them with crane mats. Figure 4 shows an example of a large timber crane pad built for a heavy lift crawler crane. Crane mats are usually hardwood timber mats, but can be made out of steel, composites and other materials. The mats can be stacked in layers to increase distribution of the loads. Each layer should be laid perpendicular to the layer above or below it to help distribute the load. Crane mats are usually placed on a layer of compacted fill, usually crushed rock, to create a level pad and to serve as a way to continue to distribute the crane loading to the existing grade. The loading imposed by the crane when making a lift is usually a triangular distributive loading due to the crane leaning towards the direction of the boom. There are many suggestions as to how to distribute the load through the layers of crane mats and compacted fill. They range from using finite element analysis to analyze it as a beam on elastic foundation, to using assumptions to make the triangular distributive loading as a rectangular distributive loading. Placing additional layers of crane mats on top of the first layer adds even more assumptions and unknowns to the analysis. David Duerrs 2010 paper, Effective Bearing Length of Crane Mats, gives one approach as to how to handle the distribution of crane loads and compares the existing methods currently being used.3At present, more research into this topic is required on how the loads should
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Fig. 4 Crane pad.

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the crane and the more accessories added, such as a luffing jib or wheeled counterweight, the higher the rental rate. The higher rental rate also usually means a higher mobilization and demobilization cost. As previously stated, the location of the crane supplier to the location of the job site will also have an effect on the mobilization and demobilization costs. Another cost to consider is the time required to erect the crane and have it hook-ready for the job to start. This cost adds man-hours to the job which may be included in the mobilization cost, but it should be clarified with the rental house as to how the crane will be erected and disassembled. Rental rates also vary throughout the year based on the season, the rental demand, and other factors. Another cost outside of the rental and mobilization cost is the expenditure for the crane pad and/or ground improvements that will be needed. This cost may include multiple layers of crane mats and/or a crushed gravel pad. This is an additional cost depending on the site and the duration of the job that may affect the crane selection from one with a wheeled counterweight to a larger capacity crane with no wheeled counterweight. This would lead to a smaller crane pad, but will likely lead to a higher crane rental rate or possibly a thicker pad due to the larger crane. These costs should all be considered to select the most efficient and economical crane for the job.

Using a belly block is another option to try to increase the efficiency of the crane. If the crane has a luffing jib or fixed jib attached, it could still have a block hanging from the main boom. If it is within the capabilities of the crane, the heavy module could be lifted with this block while the luffing jib or fixed jib make the lifts for the lighter parts of the project. The weights of the accessories above the boom tip must be deducted when analyzing the use of the belly block.

Crane Reliability
The need for complete reliability of the cranes on a job will vary depending on scope and schedule. Even if a job has a large amount of float in the schedule and is not on the critical path for the overall project, the crane selection needs to take into account the reliability of the crane. If the job involves lifts in which schedule is critical, then crane reliability is much more important to the crane selection process. This may come at a premium rental rate, but it should bring less risk to the overall job. If a single crane is to be used as the only crane on the job site, it may be worthwhile to consider the premium rate to keep the crane continually operating. If the crane breaks down in this case, then the majority of the work will halt because materials cannot be delivered to the areas where they are required. The availability of spare parts and components such as engines, pumps, cables, sheaves, and boom inserts is also important. Some components of the crane could have lead times up to two to three months, especially if the crane is manufactured overseas. Renting from a supplier that stocks these major parts may require higher rental costs, but may lessen the impact of crane maintenance. The benefit of additional service and response time should be a factor in the crane selection decision. Although crane reliability may not show in the rental cost of the crane, it should be analyzed when considering the total cost of a project. Benefits can be gained by utilizing a crane that has been properly maintained over its lifetime and has spare parts available if needed. The reliability of the crane is extremely important regardless of whether the lifts are on the critical path because each lift should be considered critical and important to the schedule. Therefore, the lowest rental cost may not be the best overall cost for the job.

Crane Efficiency
Crane efficiency involves selecting a crane that uses at least 85% of its rated capacity throughout the duration of the project. This optimizes the rental rate of the crane. If a selected heavy lift crane is to be used to set structural steel, but is only at 40% capacity for all of its lifts, then the crane is too large for the job and is not an efficient use of resources. Another issue may be that only one heavy module is dictating the crane size for the entire job. In this case, there are a few options. One option is to try to reduce the size of the only large module into a few smaller modules; however, this may not always be possible as in the case of steel trusses or vessels. A second option would be to select a smaller crane to perform the majority of the work, and then a larger second crane is used to set the large module. Extra mobilization costs, scheduling issues, site constraints, and other costs may make this option cost prohibitive. Another option is to consider using a crane with a wheeled counterweight or a sled that could be install or removed when needed. The counterweight could be utilized at a later point in the project to limit rental costs while the base crane does the remainder of the work. This option would require a sizable amount of space to place the crane and an increased pad size, but could keep rental costs down and increase the efficiency of the crane. Another way to increase the speed and overall efficiency of the crane is to use the whip line over a rooster sheave. This should be used for lighter lifts since it only has one or two parts of line, and therefore, has a higher line speed than a main block which will have multiple parts of line.
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Conclusion
Heavy lift crane selection is a complex process. There are a variety of issues that must be taken into account simultaneously to select the best crane for the job. The existing site constraints may have more influence on crane selection crane than the actual loads to be picked. When considering the loads, all deductions must be used to determine the correct crane capacity. The ground-bearing pressure must also be analyzed to ensure that the existing soil conditions can handle the imposed loads. The construction industry would greatly benefit by more investment in research on calculating
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ground-bearing pressures and the formation of a standard calculation. After the crane has been selected, the rental rates should be analyzed based on multiple factors and not just the lowest cost. It is expected that more advanced algorithms and crane selection programs will continue to be developed to incorporate additional variables to assist in the heavy lift crane selection process.

References
1. U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration, OSHA Standards for the Construction Industry, Chicago, Illinois, 2010. 2. Wind Conditions, Manitowoc Cranes, Inc., Folio 1678, 2000. 3. Duerr, D.P., Effective Bearing Length of Crane Mats, Crane & Rigging Conference, Houston, Texas, 2010. 4. Shapiro, H., Shapiro, J., and Shapiro, L., Cranes and Derricks, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., Fourth edition, 2010. Manitowoc is a registered trademark of Manitowoc Crane Companies, LLC.

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Disclaimer

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