THE PASSIONS AND THE INTERESTS,

Political Arguments for Capitalism before Its Triumph

A L B E R T O. HIRSCHMAN

PRINCETON

UNIVERSITY NEW

PRESS

PRINCETON,

JERSEY

Copyright 1977 by Princeton University Press Published by Princeton University Press Princeton, New Jersey In the United Kingdom; Princeton University Press Guildford, Surrey
A L L RIfiHTS RESERVED

Et il est h e u r e u x p o u r les h o m m e s d'etre dans u n e situation o u , p e n d a n t q u e leurs passions leur inspirent la pensee d'etre m e d i a n t s , ils o n t p o u r t a n t interet de ne pas 1'etre. Montesquieu, De Vesprit rte.s lois

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data will be found on the last printed page of this book Publication of this book has been aided by the Whitney Darrow Publication Reserve Fund of Princeton University Press Printed in the United States of America by Princeton University Press Princeton, New Jersey

AO

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

WROTE

a first draft of this b o o k in leave from

1972-73

while I

w a s a v i s i t i n g m e m b e r a t the I n s t i t u t e for A d v a n c e d on sabbatical Harvard University.

Study,

I n the c o u r s e o f the s u b s e q u e n t year, d u r i n g w h i c h the m a n u s c r i p t h a d to be set aside, I was i n v i t e d to j o i n the I n s t i t u t e on a p e r m a n e n t basis a n d I a c c e p t e d . T h e r e upon a substantial a m o u n t of r e w r i t i n g and fattening u p was a c c o m p l i s h e d in further a m o u n t in

1974-75 * o n l y a q u i t e l i m i t e d 1975-76. I a m v e r y c o n s c i o u s that m y

a n c

argument could be considerably expanded,

bolstered,

q u a l i f i e d , b e n t , a n d a d o r n e d , b u t b y M a r c h o f this year I felt that it h a d r e a c h e d a t o l e r a b l e d e g r e e of c l o s u r e a n d was a n x i o u s t o e x p o s e m y c r e a t i o n , e r r o r s a n d a l l , to the p u b l i c . I am r e m i n d e d of a C o l o m b i a n F i n a n c e M i n i s t e r i n the f i f t i e s w h o w a s r a t h e r i m p u l s i v e i n issuing decrees and w h o explained to me, w h e n I counseled p r u d e n c e , that h e d i d n o t h a v e the f u n d s n e e d e d t o e m p l o y a l a r g e r e s e a r c h staff: " I f this d e c r e e r e a l l y h u r t s s o m e g r o u p s , " s o h e w o u l d say, " t h e y w i l l d o m y research for me after the d e c r e e is o u t , a n d if they c o n v i n c e me I w i l l issue a n o t h e r d e c r e e ! " It is in this s p i r i t that I am i s s u i n g m y b o o k , e x c e p t that I c a n n o t p r o m i s e t o a n y a g g r i e v e d parties o r critics t o w r i t e a n o t h e r o n e s h o u l d I a g r e e w i t h t h e m b u t I d o u b t they w o u l d w a n t m e to. S p e a k i r i g of p o t e n t i a l critics, I o w e a special w o r d of a p o l o g y to J. Moment G. A. Pocock whose The Machiavellian 1975) touches (Princeton University Press,

r e p e a t e d l y o n topics c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o m y o w n t h e m e s . A l t h o u g h I h a v e g r e a t l y p r o f i t e d f r o m a n u m b e r of P r o fessor P o c o c k ' s articles that were later incorporated i n t o his m o n u m e n t a l v o l u m e , t h e m a i n a r g u m e n t s o f m y vii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

b o o k h a d t a k e n s h a p e b e f o r e I h a d a c h a n c e to r e a d his. F o r this r e a s o n my t r e a t m e n t d o e s n o t reflect as full an e n c o u n t e r w i t h his p o i n t o f v i e w a s w o u l d b e d e s i r a b l e . S e v e r a l p e o p l e , n o n e o f w h o m are t o b e h e l d responsib l e for t h e o u t c o m e , h a v e h e l p e d m e t h r o u g h a d v i c e o r e n c o u r a g e m e n t . T h e i n t e r c h a n g e o f ideas a n d i n f o r m a t i o n a m o n g social scientists a n d h i s t o r i a n s a t the Instit u t e has b e e n e n o r m o u s l y u s e f u l ; I p r o f i t e d p a r t i c u l a r l y from c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h D a v i d B i e n a n d P i e r r e B o u r d i e u in Winch P A R T ONE. Acknowledgments Introduction

CONTENTS

H o w the Interests w e r e C a l l e d

U p o n t o C o u n t e r a c t the Passions
T h e Idea o G l o r y a n d Its D o w n f a l l M a n "as he really is" 12 14 20 g

1972-73 a n d w i t h Q u e n t i n S k i n n e r a n d D o n a l d i n 1974-75. T h e r e a c t i o n s o f J u d i t h S h k l a r a n d
1973 were very T e n d l e r c r i t i c i z e d this draft Princeton the University manuscript Press with

M i c h a e l W a l z e r to my first draft in important to me. Judith Sanford edited T h a t c h e r of and otherwise the

R e p r e s s i n g a n d H a r n e s s i n g Lhe Passions

T h e P r i n c i p l e of lhe C o u n t e r v a i l i n g Passion "Interest" a n d "Interests" as T a m e r s of the Passions 31 42

in considerable detail with her usual acumen. Finally, processed

Interest as a N e w P a r a d i g m

r e m a r k a b l e c o m p e t e n c e , s p e e d , a n d g o o d spirits.
Princeton, Neiu May ipy6 Jersey

Assets of an I n t e r e s t - G o v e r n e d W o r l d : Predictability and Constancy 48

Money-Making and Commerce as Innocent a n d Doux 56 63

M o n e y - M a k i n g as a C a l m Passion

P A R T

T W O .

H o w E c o n o m i c Expansion was

E x p e c t e d to I m p r o v e the Political O r d e r
E l e m e n t s of a D o c t r i n e 1. M o n t e s q u i e u
t

70

70 81

2. Sir J a m e s Steuart 3. J o h n M i l l a r 87

R e l a t e d yet D i s c o r d a n t V i e w s 1. T h e Physiocrats g6

93

2. A d a m S m i t h a n d the E n d of a V i s i o n

100

Vlll

ix

CONTENTS P A R T T H R E E . Intellectual History W h e r e the Wrong Momesquieu-Steuart 117 Vision W e n t Reflections o n a n Episode i n 115

T h e Promise of an Interest-Governed W o r l d versus the Protestant E t h i c Contemporary Notes Notes Index 132 137 147 128

T H E PASSIONS AND THE INTERESTS

INTRODUCTION

H I S essay has its o r i g i n i n t h e i n c a p a c i t y o f c o n t e m p o r a r y - s o c i a l science, to,, s h e d J i g h t o n t h e p o l i t i c a l and, perhaps even

consequences of economic growth

m o r e , i n the s o f r e q u e n t l y c a l a m i t o u s p o l i t i c a l correlates o f e c o n o m i c g r o w t h n o m a t t e r w h e t h e r s u c h g r o w t h takes p l a c e u n d e r c a p i t a l i s t , socialist, o r m i x e d a u s p i c e s . R e a s o n i n g a b o u t such c o n n e c t i o n s , specifically the seventeenth and I suspected, m u s t centuries. h a v e b e e n rife a t a n e a r l i e r a g e o f e c o n o m i c e x p a n s i o n , eighteenth W i t h the " d i s c i p l i n e s " o f e c o n o m i c s a n d p o l i t i c a l scie n c e n o t yet i n e x i s t e n c e a t t h e t i m e , t h e r e w e r e n o i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y b o u n d a r i e s to cross. As a result, p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m i s t s c o u l d r a n g e freely and speculate without inhibitions about the likely c o n s e q u e n c e s of, say, c o m m e r c i a l e x p a n s i o n for p e a c e , o r o f i n d u s t r i a l g r o w t h for l i b e r t y . I t s e e m e d w o r t h w h i l e to look back at their thoughts and speculations, if only because of our o w n , specialization-induced intellectual p o v e r t y i n this f i e l d . S u c h w a s the o r i g i n a l m o t i v a t i o n o f the p r e s e n t essay, t h e i d e a that p r o m p t e d m e ' t o v e n t u r e i n t o t h e edifice o f s e v e n t e e n t h - a n d e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y social thought. G i v e n t h e r i c h a n d c o m p l e x n a t u r e o f this edifice, i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g that I e m e r g e d w i t h s o m e t h i n g r a t h e r b r o a d e r arid e v e n m o r e a m b i t i o u s t h a n w h a t I h a d c o m e to l o o k for. In fact, the v e r y a n s w e r s to t h e q u e s t i o n s I b e g a n w i t h y i e l d e d , as an i n t r i g u i n g b y - p r o d u c t , a n e w a p p r o a c h t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the " s p i r i t " o f c a p i t a l i s m a n d o f its e m e r g e n c e . I t m a y b e u s e f u l h e r e to o u t l i n e this a p p r o a c h , ' r e s e r v i n g a f u l l e r p r e s e n t a t i o n for t h e last p a r t of this s t u d y . 3

THE

PASSIONS

AND

THE

INTERESTS

INTRODUCTION

A vast l i t e r a t u r e has c o n t r a s t e d t h e aristocratic, her o i c i d e a l o f t h e F e u d a l A g e a n d the R e n a i s s a n c e w i t h t h e b o u r g e o i s m e n t a l i t y a n d the P r o t e s t a n t E t h i c o f a later era. T h e decline of o n e ethic and p r e s e n t e d as p r e c i s e l y s u c h : t h e rise o f another have been exhaustively surveyed and have been as t w o d i s t i n c t h i s t o r i c a l processes, e a c h of w h i c h h a d as its p r o t a g o n i s t a differe n t social class, the d e c l i n i n g a r i s t o c r a c y o n the o n e h a n d , a n d t h e r i s i n g b o u r g e o i s i e o n the o t h e r . H i s t o r ians h a v e of c o u r s e f o u n d it a t t r a c t i v e to p r e s e n t the story as a p a g e a n t in the c o u r s e of w h i c h a y o u n g c h a l l e n g e r takes o n the a g i n g c h a m p i o n . B u t this c o n c e p t i o n has a p p e a l e d e q u a l l y , i f n o t m o r e , t o those s e a r c h i n g for scientific k n o w l e d g e o f s o c i e t y a n d its so-called l a w s o f motion. While the Marxian and Weberian analyses d i s a g r e e o n the r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f e c o n o m i c a n d n o n e c o n o m i c factors, t h e y b o t h v i e w the rise o f c a p i t a l ism a n d o f its " s p i r i t " a s a n assault o n preexisting systems o f ideas a n d o f s o c i o e c o n o m i c r e l a t i o n s . A g r o u p of h i s t o r i a n s has r e c e n t l y q u e s t i o n e d t h e class c h a r a c t e r o f the F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n . I n d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h the h i s t o r y of ideas I do n o t a s p i r e to be q u i t e so i c o n o clastic; b u t , in a s i m i l a r v e i n , I s h a l l p r e s e n t s o m e e v i d e n c e that the n e w arose o u t o f the o l d t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n has g e n e r a l l y b e e n a p p r e c i a t e d . T o p o r t r a y a lengthy ideological change or transition as an endogen o u s process i s o f c o u r s e m o r e c o m p l e x than t o d e p i c t i t a s t h e rise o f a n i n d e p e n d e n t l y c o n c e i v e d , i n s u r g e n t i d e o l o g y c o n c u r r e n t w i t h the d e c l i n e o f a h i t h e r t o d o m i n a n t e t h i c . A p o r t r a y a l of this sort i n v o l v e s t h e identific a t i o n o f a s e q u e n c e o f c o n c a t e n a t e d ideas a n d p r o p o s i t i o n s w h o s e final o u t c o m e i s n e c e s s a r i l y h i d d e n f r o m the p r o p o n e n t s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l l i n k s , a t least i n t h e e a r l y stages o f the process; for t h e y w o u l d h a v e s h u d 4

deredand revised their

thinkinghad

they r e a l i z e d

w h e r e t h e i r ideas w o u l d u l t i m a t e l y l e a d . In t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of s u c h a s e q u e n c e of l i n k e d ideas o n e m u s t n o r m a l l y d r a w o n e v i d e n c e f r o m m a n y s o u r c e s a n d c a n g i v e b u t s c a n t a t t e n t i o n t o the systems o f t h o u g h t i n w h i c h that e v i d e n c e i s e m b e d d e d . T h i s i s i n d e e d the p r o c e d u r e f o l l o w e d i n the first p a r t o f this essay. I n t h e s e c o n d p a r t t h e focus n a r r o w s t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n the high points o f the sequence. T h e authors w h o h a v e f u l l y d e v e l o p e d these p o i n t s , s u c h a s M o n t e s q u i e u a n d Sir J a m e s S t e u a r t , are t r e a t e d a t g r e a t e r l e n g t h , a n d a n effort i s m a d e t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w the specific p r o p o sitions u n d e r l i n e d for the p u r p o s e s o f o u r story r e l a t e t o t h e i r g e n e r a l w a y o f t h i n k i n g . T h e t h i r d p a r t o f the essay c o m m e n t s o n the h i s t o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the i n t e l l e c t u a l e p i s o d e here p r e s e n t e d a n d o n its r e l e v a n c e for s o m e o f o u r c o n t e m p o r a r y p r e d i c a m e n t s .

PART

ONE

How the Interests were Called Upon to Counteract the Passions

T h e Idea of: Glory and Its Downfall

A T T H E b e g i n n i n g o f the p r i n c i p a l s e c t i o n o f his f a m o u s i i essay, Max Weber asked: "Now, how could an a c t i v i t y , w h i c h w a s a t b e s t e t h i c a l l y t o l e r a t e d , t u r n in t o a c a l l i n g i n t h e sense o f B e n j a m i n ' F r a n k l i n ? I n other words: H o w did commercial, banking, and similar *rn^r!e^rnaking pursuits become honorable at some p o i n t " " i n t h e m o d e r n a g e after h a v i n g s t o o d c o n d e m n e d o r I ] \ |! dfesfrised as g r e e d , love : '"" lucre"/ a n d a v a r i c e for c e n t u ries past? T h e e n o r m o u s critical literature on The Protestant i t has Ethic has f o u n d f a u l t e v e n w i t h t h i s p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e of W e b e r ' s inquiry. T h e "spirit of capitalism," b e e n a l l e g e d , was e x t a n t a m o n g m e r c h a n t s a s far h a c k a s t h e f o u r t e e n t h a n d fifteenth c e n t u r i e s , a n d a p o s i t i v e attitude toward certain categories of business pursuits c o u l d be discovered in the writings of the Scholastics.2 I -Jf
7

Weber's asked in a

question

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nevertheless No

justified matter

if

it

is \ ,

comparative vein.

how

much in the

a p p r o v a l was bestowed on c o m m e r c e a n d other forms | of m o n e y - m a k i n g , they certainly stood lower scale of m e d i e v a l v a l u e s t h a n a n u m b e r or o t h e r activities, in p a r t i c u l a r the s t r i v i n g "for g l o t y . It is i n d e e d t h r o u g h a brief sketch of the idea of glory in the M i d d l e A g e s a n d t h e R e n a i s s a n c e t h a t I shall n o w a t t e m p t to renew t h e ' sense o f w o n d e r about the genesis of "spirit of capitalism." A t the b e g i n n i n g o f the C h r i s t i a n era S t ^ J ^ g u s t i n e h a d si'ijTjVHed basic g u i d e l i n e s t o m e d i e v a l t h i n k i n g l i y d e n o u n c i n g J u s t for m o n e y a n d possessions a s o n e o f t h e t h i r e e . p r i n c i p a l s i n s j o E J E a l l ^ j n a i L j u s t for po\yer (libido UominandiTlma sexual lust, being the other tw&i^On

i I I

the^j

THE

PASSIONS

AND

THE

INTERESTS

COUNTERACTING

THE

PASSIONS

t h e w h o l e A u g u s t i n e i s p e r f e c t l y e v e n - h a n d e d i n his c o n d e m n a t i o n o f these t h r e e h u m a n d r i v e s o r passions. I t h e d o e s a d m i t o f a t t e n u a t i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s ' for a n y of t h e m , it is tor libido dominandi w h e n c o m b i n e d with" T ~ s t r o n g d e s i r e for praise a n d g l o r y . T h u s A u g u s t i n e s p e a k s o f the " c i v i l v i r t u e " c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e e a r l y R o m a n s " w h o h a v e s h o w n a B a b y l o n i a n l o v e for t h e i r e a r t h l y f a t h e r l a n d , " a n d w h o w e r e " s u p p r e s s i n g the desire o f w e a l t h a n d m a n y o t h e r v i c e s for t h e i r o n e v i c e , n a m e l y , the l o v e o f p r a i s e . "
4

c e n t r a l t e a c h i n g s , n o t o n l y o f St. A u g u s t i n e , b u t o f a l o n g l i n e o t r e l i g i o u s w r i t e r s , f r o m St. T h o m a s A q u i n a s To Dante, w h o attacked glory-seeking as both vain Jlnanis) a n d sinful." T h e n , d u r i n g t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , t h e "striving for h o n o r a c h i e v e d t h e status of a d o m i n a n t ^ ' i d e o l o g y a s the i n f l u e n c e o f t h e C h u r c h r e c e d e d a n d the actyocales o f tKe~aristocratic i d e a l w e r e a b l e t o d r a w o n the p l e n t i f u l G r e e k a n d R o m a n texts c e l e b r a t i n g t h e pursuit of glory.
7

T h i s powerful

intellectual current

c a r r i e d o v e r i n t o the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y : p e r h a p s t h e p u r e s t c o n c e p t i o n o f g l o r y - s e e k i n g a s the o n l y justificat i o n o f l i f e i s t o b e f o u n d i n the t r a g e d i e s o f C o r n e i l l e . A t the s a m e t i m e , C o r n e i l l e ' s f o r m u l a t i o n s w e r e s o e x t r e m e that t h e y m a y h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s p e c t a c u l a r d o w n f a l l o f t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c i d e a l that was t o b e s t a g e d b y s o m e o f his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s .
8

F o r t h e l a t e r a r g u m e n t of this essay it is of c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t that St. A u g u s t i n e c o n c e i v e s h e r e o f the p o s s i b i l i t y that o n e v i c e m a y c h e c k a n o t h e r . In any "event, his l i m i t e d e n d o r s e m e n t o f g l o r y - s e e k i n g left a n o p e n i n g t h a t was b r o a d e n e d far b e y o n d his t e a c h i n g s b y t h e s p o k e s m e n for t h e c h i v a l r i c , a r i s t o c r a t i c i d e a l w h o m a d e the s t r i v i n g for h o n o r a n d g l o r y i n t o the _ touchstone \ I Augustine of had a man's virtue and greatness. What relucexpressed most cautiously and

W r i t e r s from a n u m b e r of W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n countries c o o p e r a t e d i n this " d e m o l i t i o n o f t h e h e r o , " w i t h those f r o m F r a n c e t h e c o u n t r y t h a t h a d p e r h a p s g o n e farthest in the c u l t of the h e r o i c i d e a l p l a y i n g t h e m a j o r p a r t . A l l the h e r o i c v i r t u e s w e r e s h o w n t o b e f o r m s o f m e r e s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n b y H o b b e s , o f self-love b y L a R o c h e f o u c a u l d , o f v a n i t y a n d o f frantic e s c a p e f r o m real s e l f - k n o w l e d g e b y P a s c a l . T h e h e r o i c passions w e r e p o r t r a y e d a s d e m e a n i n g b y R a c i n e after h a v i n g b e e n d e n o u n c e d as foolish, if not d e m e n t e d , by C e r vantes. This astounding transformation of the moral and i d e o l o g i c a l s c e n e e r u p t s q u i t e s u d d e n l y , a n d the histori c a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a s o n s for i t are still n o t w h o l l y t / u n d e r s t o o d . T h e p r i n c i p a l p o i n t t o b e m a d e h e r e i s that t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e d e m o l i t i o n d i d n o t d o w n g r a d e the t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s i n o r d e r t o p r o p o u n d a n e w m o r a l c o d e that m i g h t h a v e c o r r e s p o n d e d t o the interests o r j y
9

tantly was later t r i u m p h a n t l y proclaimed: love of glory, i n c o n t r a s t w i t h the p u r e l y p r i v a t e p u r s u i t o f r i c h e s , can h a v e " r e d e e m i n g social v a l u e . ' ] Tn fact, the i d e a of

^ an " I n v i s i b l e H a n d ' ' o f a f o r c e that m a k e s m e n purs u i n g t h e i r p r i v a t e passions c o n s p i r e u n k n o w i n g l y toward t K e p u p l i c g o o d w a s formulated in oormection w i t h t h e search for g l o r y , r a t h e r than w i t h the d e s i r e for money, by Montesquieu. T h e pursuit of honor in a m o n a r c h y , s o h e says, " b r i n g s l i f e t o all t h e parts o f t h e b o d y p o l i t i c " ; a s a result, " i t t u r n s o u t that e v e r y o n e c o n t r i b u t e s t o the g e n e r a l w e l f a r e w h i l e t h i n k i n g t h a t he w o r k s for his o w n interests. "
1 5

W i t h o r w i t h o u t s u c h s o p h i s t i c a t e d j u s t i f i c a t i o n , striv^J i n g for h o n o r and_ g l o r y was e x a l t e d b y the m e d i e v a l ' c h i v a l r i c ethos e v e n t h o u g h i t j t o o d a T o d d s w i t h t h g f

1

10

11

THE

PASSIONS

AND

THE

INTERESTS

COUNTERACTING

THE

PASSIONS

e e d s of. a n e w class. D e n u n c i a t i o n of the h e r o i c i d e a l was n o w h e r e associated w i t h the a d v o c a c y of a n e w bour geois ethos. O b v i o u s as this statement is w i t h respect to P a s c a l a n d L a R o c h e f o u c a u l d , i t also h o l d s f o r H o b b e s , some interpretations to the contrary notwithstanding. " F o r a l o n g time it was t h o u g h t t h a t ' M o l i e r e ' s plays had as their message the praise of b o u r g e o i s virtues, b u t o n c e a g a i n t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n has b e e n s h o w n t o b e u n t e n able.11 B y itself, t h e r e f o r e , t h e d e m o l i t i o n o f t h e h e r o i c i d e a l c o u l d have o n l y restored the e q u a l i t y in i g n o m i n y that A u g u s t i n e had meant to bestow on love of m o n e y and l u s t for p o w e r a n d g l o r y (not to m e n t i o n lust proper). it, ; T h e fact i s o f c o u r s e t h a t , less t h a n a c e n t u r y l a t e r , t h e /acquisitive drive a n d the activities c o n n e c t e d w i t h ! such as c o m m e r c e , banking, a n d eventually industry,
1

m a i n t a i n , a n d e x p a n d p o w e r , ( ^ f a c h i a v e l l i m a d e his fun damental fective and celebrated of^thmgs"

12

distinction and the

between

"the

ef

truth

"ima^riaryrepublics

alidTrionarchies t h a t h a v e n e v e r b e e n seerTnorn^veTSeen known to exist." political T h e implication was that moral and exclusivel to philosophmlvadhkh^^

arjoirr'tlielatter^

re~reaTworla i n w h i c h t h e p r i n c e m u s t o p e r a t e . T h i s l e m a n d for a scientific, p o s i t i v e a p p r o a c h w a s e x t e n d e d o n l y l a t e r f r o m t h e p r i n c e t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l , f r o m the . n a t u r e o f t h e state t o h u m a n n a t u r e . ^ V i a c h i a v e l l i p r o b a b l y sensed t h a t a r e a l i s t i c t h e o r y of t h e state r e q u i r e d a T n o w l e d g e o f h u m a n n a t u r e , b u t his r e m a r k s o n subject, w h i l e invariably acute, are scattered systematic. and that un

By the next century a considerable change

h a d o c c u r r e d . T h e a d v a n c e s o f m a t h e m a t i c s a n d celes tial m e c h a n i c s h e l d o u t t h e h o p e t h a t l a w s o f m o t i o n m i g h t b e d i s c o v e r e d for m e n ' s a c t i o n s , j u s t a s for f a l l i n g b o d i e s a n d p l a n e t s . T h u s H o b b e s , w h o b a s e d his t h e o r y o f h u m a n n a t u r e O~rrt>d"lileu, u d e v o t e s r t r e ~ f r r s t ten c h a p l e i s Of Leuiuthan reiterated, the past, with this In he to t h e i i a r a r e ~ o f " m a n before proceed i n g 1 t o t h a t o f Lhe c o m m o m v e a l t n . m u i t w a s S p i n o z a w h o

^-j c a m e to be w i d e l y h a i l e d , for a v a r i e t y of r e a s o n s . B u t this e n o r m o u s c h a n g e did n o t result from any s i m p l e '! victory of o n e fully a r m e d ideology over another. T h e r e a l story i s far m o r e c o m p l e x a n d r o u n d a b o u t .

Man "as he really is"

T ^ p H E b e g i n n i n g o f t h a t story d o e s c o m e w i t h t h e R e n aissance, b u t n o t t h r o u g h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n e w e t h i c , t h a t is, o f n e w r u l e s o f c o n d u c t for t h e individual. R a t h e r , it will be traced here to a n e w turn in the theory of t h e state, to the a t t e m p t at i m p r o v i n g statecraft this p o i n t o f w i t h i n t h e e x i s t i n g o r d e r / i T o insist o n of the tale I propose to tell. In a t t e m p t i n g to teach the prince h o w to achieve,

particular sharpness a n d vehemence," the Utopian to thinkers of human Tractahis in the relation individual who and

Machiavelli's charges against time behavior. politicus And this

the o p e n i n g paragraph of the attacks philosophers positive

"conceive . normative

m e n n o t as they are b u t as they w o u l d like t h e m to b e . " J distinction between

d e p a r t u r e proceeds of c o t r r ^ from the e n d o g e n o u s bias

14 L e o Strauss in Spinoza's Critique of Religion (New York: S c h o c k c n , 1965), p. 277, notes " t h e s t r i k i n g fact that S p i n o z a ' s tone is m u c h s h a r p e r t h a n that of M a c h i a v e l l i . " He attributes this to the fact that, b e i n g p r i m a r i l y a p h i l o s o p h e r , Spinoza, was person ally m u c h m o r e i n v o l v e d w i t h U t o p i a n t h o u g h t than M a c h i a v e l l i , the p o l i t i c a l scientist.

12

THE

PASSIONS

AND

THE

INTERESTS

COUNTERACTING

THE

PASSIONS

thinking

appears

again

in

the

Ethics,

where

Spinoza t o "crtti were

^ophy ^ n r l

p r ^ ^ p t r n n l d n o Inn^rr b e trusted

o p p o s e s t o t h o s e w h o " p r e f e r t o d e t e s t a n d scoff a t h u m a n attects a n d a c t i o n s ^"sider human actions his o w n i a m o u s p r o j e c t and appetites just as
14

w i t h r e s t r a i n i n g t h e d e s t r u c t i v e passions o f m e n . N e w "ways h a d t o b e f o u n d a n d t h e search for t h e m b e g a n q u i t e logically with a detailed a n d c a n d i d dissection of h u m a n n a t u r e . T h e r e w e r e those l i k e L a R o c h e f o u c a u l d w h o d e l v e d i n t o its recesses a n d p r o c l a i m e d t h e i r " s a v a g e d i s c o v e r i e s " w i t h s o m u c h g u s t o that t h e d i s s e c t i o n l o o k s v e r y m u c h l i k e a n e n d i n itself. B u t i n g e n e r a l i t w a s u n d e r t a k e n t o d i s c o v e r m o r e effective w a y s o f s h a p i n g the pattern of h u m a n actions than t h r o u g h moralistic exhortation or the threat of d a m n a t i o n . A n d , naturally e n o u g h , t h e s e a r c h was successful; i n fact,_one c a n dis t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n a t least t h r e e l i n e s o f a r g u m e n t t h a t were proposed as alternatives to the reliance on religious command. T h e m o s t o b v i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e , w h i c h a c t u a l l y antedates the m o v e m e n t of ideas here surveyed, is the a p p e a l t o c o e r c i o n a n d r e p r e s s i o n . \ T h e task o f h o l d i n g Back, b y f o r c e i f necessary, t h e w o r s t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s a n d t h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e passioris is entrvisted t o t h e state.yi'his w a s t h e t h o u g h t c C j t . A u g u s t m e > w h i c h was t o b e c l o s e l y e c h o e d i n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y b y / C a l y i n j ^ A n y e s t a b l i s h e d social a n d p o l i t i c a l o r d e r i s j u s t i f i e d b y its v e r y e x i s t e n c e . Its p o s s i b l e i n j u s t i c e s a r e j u s t r e t r i b u t i o n s for t h e siria_QLFaIIen M a n . T h e p o l i t i c a l systems . A u g u s t i r j e a n ^ T J a l v l n ^ a r e iTT some~~respects c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to t h a t a d v o c a t e d in (T^eviathan^But the crucial invention of Hobbes is his

" c o n s i d e r i n g lines, p l a n e s , o r b o d r e s ^ 7 hat man

"as h e r e a l l y T T i s t h e p r o p e r s u b j e c t o f almost routinelyin the eight

w h a t i s t o d a y c a l l e d p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e c o n t i n u e d t o Ibe assertedsometimes eenth century. Vico, w h o had read Spinoza, followed h i m f a i t h f u l l y i n this r e s p e c t , i f n o t i n o t h e r s . H e w r i t e s

in t h e Scienza nuova:
Philosophy considers m a n as he o u g h t to be a n d is t h e r e f o r e u s e f u l o n l y t o t h e v e r y few w h o w a n t t o live in Plato's R e p u b l i c a n d do not throw them selves i n t o t h e d r e g s o f R o m u l u s . L e g i s l a t i o n c o n siders m a n a s h e i s a n d a t t e m p t s t o p u t h i m t o g o o d uses i n h u m a n s o c i e t y . 1 5 E v e n R o u s s e a u , w h o s e v i e w o f h u m a n n a t u r e w a s far r e m o v e d from those of M a c h i a v e l l i a n d H o b b e s , pays t r i b u t e t o t h e i d e a b y o p e n i n g t h e Conirat social w i t h the s e n t e n c e : " T a k i n g m e n a s t h e y a r e a n d t h e l a w s a s they m i g h t be, I wish to investigate w h e t h e r a l e g i t i m a t e and certain principle of g o v e r n m e n t can be encoun tered."

Repressing and Harnessing the Passions

p e c u l i a r transactional c o n c e p t of the C o v e n a n t , w h i c h is q u i t e a l i e n i n s p i r i t t o t h o s e e a r l i e r a u t h o r i t a r i a n sys tems. N o t o r i o u s l y difficult t o p i g e o n h o l e , t h e t h o u g h t o f Hojjbes will be discussed u n d e r a different category. u T i e repressive solution to the p r o b l e m posed by the r e c o g n i t i o n o f m a n ' s u n r u l y passions h a s g r e a t difficul-

I H E o v e r w h e l m i n g insistence o n l o o k i n g a t m a n "as really is" has a s i m p l e e x p l a n a t i o n . A reeling

arose in the Renaissance a n d became h r m c o n v i c t i o n

d u r i n g t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h a t m o r a l i z i n g philos-

14

15

THE

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AND

THE

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COUNTERACTING

THE

PASSIONS

tiesT^For w h a t i f the s o v e r e i g n fails t o d o h i s j o b p r o p erly, b e c a u s e o f e x c e s s i v e l e n i e n c y , c r u e l t y , o r s o m e o t h e r f a i l i n g r f f p n c e this q u e s t i o n is asked, t h e p r o s p e c t of t h e establishment of an appropriately repressive sovereign o r a u t h o r i t y a p p e a r s t o b e o f the s a m e o r d e r o f p r o b a b i l ity as the p r o s p e c t that m e n will, r e s t r a i n t h e i r passions because of the exhortations of moralizing philosophers o r c h u r c h m e n . A s the l a t t e r p r o s p e c t i s h e l d t o b e n i l , the r e p r e s s i v e s o l u t i o n t u r n s o u t t o b e i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n w i t h its o w n p r e m i s e s . ] T o _ i m a g i n e a n a u t h o r i t y e x machina that w o u l d s o m e h o w s u p p r e s s the m i s e r y a n d h a v o c m e n inflict on e a c h o t h e r as a r e s u l t of t h e i r passions m e a n s in_effect t o w i s h a w a y , r a t h e r t h a n t o s o l v e , the v e r y difficulties.tat_ h a v e b e e n d i s c o v e r e d . It is perhaps for this r e a s o n that t h e r e p r e s s i v e s o l u t i o n d i d n o t l o n g s u r v i v e the d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f the passions i n the seventeenth century7] \A s o l u t i o n that is m o r e in h a r m o n y w i t h these p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s c o v e r i e s a n d p r e o c c u p a t i o n s consists i n t h e i d e a of harnessing t h e passions, i n s t e a d of s i m p l y rep r e s s i n g t h e m . O n c e a g a i n the state, o r " s o c i e t y , is c a l l e d u p o n t o p e r f o r m this feat, y e t this t i m e n o t m e r e l y as a r e p r e s s i v e b u l w a r k , _ b u t as a t r a n s f o r m e r , a c i v i l i z i n g medium.^Speculations a b o u t such a t r a n s j p r m a u o j i ^ f the d i s r u p t i v e passions i n t o s o m e t h i n g c o n s t r u c t i v e c a n b e e n c o u n t e r e d a l r e a d y i n the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . A n ticipating A d a m Smith's Invisible H a n d , Pascal argues for m a n ' s g r a n d e u r o n the g r o u n d t h a t h e "has m a n a g e d t o tease o u t o f c o n c u p i s c e n c e a n ' a d m i r a b l e a r r a n g e m e n t " a n d "so beautiful an order.""
Pensees, N o s . 502, 503 ( B r u n s c h v i c g edn.). T h e idea that a society h e l d together by self-love rather than by charity can be w o r k a b l e in spite of b e i n g sinful is f o u n d a m o n g a n u m b e r of p r o m i n e n t Janscnist c o n t e m p o r a r i e s of. Pascal, such as N i c o l e a n d

I n the e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y G i a m b a t t i s t a V i c o a r t i c u l a t e d the i d e a m o r e f u l l y w h i l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y e n d o w i n g i t w i t h the f l a v o r o f a n e x c i t i n g d i s c o v e r y : O u t o f ferocity, a v a r i c e , a n d a m b i t i o n , the t h r e e v i c e s w h i c h l e a d a l l m a n k i n d astray, [society] m a k e s n a t i o n a l d e f e a s e , c o m m e r c e , a n d p o l i t i c s , a n d thereb y causes the s t r e n g t h , t h e w e a l t h , a n d the w i s d o m o f the r e p u b l i c s ; o u t o f these three g r e a t v i c e s w h i c h w o u l d c e r t a i n l y d e s t r o y m a n o n earth, society t h u s causes t h e c i v i l h a p p i n e s s t o e m e r g e . T h i s p r i n c i p l e p r o v e s the e x i s t e n c e o f d i v i n e p r o v i d e n c e : t h r o u g h its i n t e l l i g e n t l a w s t h e passions o f m e n w h o are e n t i r e l y o c c u p i e d b y the p u r s u i t o f t h e i r p r i v a t e u t i l i t y are t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a c i v i l o r d e r w h i c h permits men to live in h u m a n society.
17

T h i s i s c l e a r l y o n e o f those s t a t e m e n t s t o w h i c h V i c o o w e s his f a m e a s a n e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y s e m i n a l m i n d . H e g e l ' s C u n n i n g o f R e a s o n , the F r e u d i a n c o n c e p t o f s u b limation ana, once again. A d a m Smith's Invisible H a n d c a n all b e r e a d i n t o these t w o p r e g n a n t s e n t e n r p j i B u t t h e r e i s n o e l a b o r a t i o n a n d w e are left i n t h e d a r k a b o u t the c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h that m a r v e l o u s m e t a m o r phosis o f d e s t r u c t i v e " p a s s i o n s " i n t o " v i r t u e s " a c t u a l l y takes p l a c e . T h e idea o f h a r n e s s i n g the passions o f m e n , o f m a k i n g t h e m w o r k t o w a r d the g e n e r a l w e l f a r e , w a s p u t f o r w a r d at considerably greater length by Vico's English conD o m a t . See G i l b e r t C h i n a r d , En lisant Pascal ( L i l l e : G i a r e l , 1948), p p . 9 7 - 1 1 8 , a n d D. W. Smith, Helvetius: A Study in Persecution ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n Press, 1965), p p . 1 2 2 - 1 2 5 . A fine recent study o f N i c o l e i s i n N a n n e r l O . K e o h a n e , " N o n - C o n f o r m i s t A b solutism i n L o u i s X I V ' s F r a n c e : Pierre N i c o l e a n d D e n i s V e i r a s , " Journal of the History of Ideas 35 (Oct.-Dec. 1974), p p . 5 7 9 - 5 9 6 .

16

!7

THE

PASSIONS

AND

THE

INTERESTS

COUNTERACTING

THE

PASSIONS

temporary, <^rnard~ Mandevilje. p r e c u r s o r o f laissez-faire,

Often

regarded

as

s u a s i v e : h e b l u n t e d the e d g e o f M a n d e v i l l e ' s s h o c k i n g p a r a d o x b y s u b s t i t u t i n g for " p a s s i o n " a n d " v i c e " such b l a n d terms a s " a d v a n t a g e " o r " i n t e r e s t . " I n this l i m i t e d a n d d o m e s t i c a t e d f o r m the h a r n e s s i n g i d e a was a b l e to s u r v i v e a n d to p r o s p e r b o t h as a m a j o r t e n e t of n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y l i b e r a l i s m a n d as a c e n t r a l c o n s t r u c t o f e c o n o m i c theory. B u t r e t r e a t from the g e n e r a l i t y of the h a r n e s s i n g i d e a w a s far from u n i v e r s a l . In "tact, s o m e of its later a d e p t s w e r e e v e n less c a r e f u l than [ V i c o : for t h e m the_..onward-mar-eh-of h i s t o r y w a s , p r o o f e n o u g h ' l x h a t ^ s o m e h o w the passicjns.of m e n ^ a m s p i r e t o [ ^ e - g & n e r a L ^ O ^ r e j s ^ o f ^ a ^ k i n d o r o f the W o r l d SpiriFT - H e r i f e r a n d f l i e g e J b o t h w r o t e a l o n g such l i n e s i n their "works o n the p h i l o s o p h y o f history.*
1

Mandeviiie actually invoked

" t h r o u g h o u t The Fable of the Bees the " S k i l f u l M a n a g e m e n t of the D e x t r o n s P o l i t i c i a n " as a necessary c o n d i tion a n d a g e n t for the t u r n i n g o f " p r i v a t e v i c e s " i n t o "publick benefits." Since the m o d u s o p e r a n d i o f the P o l i t i c i a n was n o t r e v e a l e d , h o w e v e r , there r e m a i n e d considerable mystery a b o u t the alleged beneficial and p a r a d o x i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s . O n l y for o n e specific " p r i y a t e _ y i c e " did M a n d e v i i i e s u p p l y a d e t a i l e d d e m o n s t r a t i o n o t . h o w such plished. t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s are to in tact a c c o m I am r e f e r r i n g , of c o u r s e , his c e l e b r a t e d

TreaTment of t h e passion for m a t e r i a l g o o d s in g e n e r a l , a n d for l u x u r y i n p a r t i c u l a r . ' I t m a y t h e r e f o r e b e said that M a n d e v i i i e r e s t r i c t e d the area i n w h i c h h e e f f e c t i v e l y c l a i m e d v a l i d i t y for his p a r a d o x t o o n e p a r t i c u l a r " v i c e " o r passion. In this r e t r e a t f r o m g e n e r a l i t y h e w a s t o b e f o l l o w e d , w i t h the w e l l - k n o w n r e s o u n d i n g success, b y t h e A d a m S m i t h o f The Wealth of Nations, a w o r k that w a s w h o l l y f o c u s e d o n the passion t r a d i t i o n a l l y k n o w n a s fupidity>pr ^ v a ^ ) ' f i c e ^ M o r e o v e r , b e c a u s e o f the i n t e r v e n i n g e v o l u t i o n o f Ja^jruajge, t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a t s o m e l e n g t h l a t e r i n this essay, S m i t h w a s a b l e to t a k e a f u r t h e r g i a n t s t e p in the d i r e c t i o n o f m a k i n g the p r o p o s i t i o n p a l a t a b l e a n d permit has been convincingly argued that by "Dextrous Management" Mandeviiie did not mean detailed day-to-day intervention and regulation but rather the slow elaboration and evolution, by trial and error, of an appropriate legal and institutional framework. See Nathan Rosenberg, "Mandeviiie and Laissez-Faire,"
Journal of the History of Ideas 24 (April-June 1963), pp. 1 8 3 - 1 9 6 .

Hegel's famous

c o n c e p t o f t h e C u n n i n g o f R e a s o n expresses the idea that m e n , f o l l o w i n g t h e i r passions, a c t u a l l y s e r v e s o m e higher world-historical purpose of which t h e y are tot a l l y u n a w a r e . I t i s p e r h a p s s i g n i f i c a n t that the c o n c e p t d o e s n o t r e a p p e a r in H e g e l ' s Philosophy of Law w h e r e h e i s c o n c e r n e d , n o t w i t h the s w e e p o f w o r l d history, b u t w i t h the a c t u a l e v o l u t i o n o f society i n his o w n t i m e . So b l a n k e t an e n d o r s e m e n t of the passions as is i m p l i c i t i n the C u n n i n g o f R e a s o n o b v i o u s l y h a d n o p l a c e i n a n y w o r k that t o o k a c r i t i c a l v i e w o f c o n t e m p o r a r y social a n d political development. A final is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the i d e a at the its m o s t unwith his

guarded

M e p h i s t o of G o e t h e ' s Faust

f a m o u s self-definition as "a p o r t i o n of that force t h a t a l w a y s w i l l s e v i l a n d a l w a y s b r i n g s forth g o o d . " H e r e i t

A c c o r d i n g to H e r d e r , "all passions of man's breast are wild drives of a force w h i c h does not k n o w itself yet, but w h i c h , in accordance w i t h its nature, can o n l y ' c o n s p i r e toward a better order of things." Ideen zur Philosophic der Oeschichte der Menschheit in Werke, ed. S u p h a n (Berlin, 1909), V o l . 14, p. 213.
11

But, again, the modus operandi oi this framework is assumed rather than demonstrated by Mandeviiie, And regarding luxury, whose favorable effects on the general welfare he does describe in detail, the active roles of the Politician or of the institutional framework are not at all prominent.

19

THE

PASSIONS

AND

THE

INTERESTS

COUNTERACTING

THE

PASSIONS

seems that the idea of harnessing the evil instead, > their

passions i n

accesi"

to "Ehrsucht, Herrschsucht und Habsucht"' in M u c h like the three pestilencethese was further as a of mankindwar, famine,

s o m e c o n c r e t e m a n n e r has b e e n a b a n d o n e d a l t o g e t h e r transformation is accomplished t h r o u g h an o c c u l t , if b e n e f i c e n t , w o r l d p r o c e s s .

K a n t ' s Idea for a General History. scourges

b a s i c passions w e r e b e l i e v e d t o f e e d o n e a c h o t h e r . T h e habit of considering them as indissoluble reinforced by their being ordinarily contrasted

//

The Principle of the Countervailing Passion

bloc with the dictates of reason or the r e q u i r e m e n t s of salvation. Medieval allegories had frequently depicted with just the such cally fights this of the virtues against tradition would that made pit one the vices,

G
_age.

I V E N t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g r e a l i t y o f restless, passionI he repressive

^ a f e ^ H r i y e n m a n , b o t h the repressive a n d t h ^ H a T "

soul of m a n as battleground.* Perhaps it was paradoxiit possible for a later, m o r e realistic age to c o n c e i v e of a very different k i n d of fight, which passion against another, t o the w h i l e still r e d o u n d i n g , j u s t a s t h e e a r l i e r o n e ,

nessing solutions l a c k e d persuasiveness.

solution was a m a n n e r of assuming the p r o b l e m away, whereas the greater realism of the harnessing solution" was marred by an element of alchemical transformation , r a t h e r o u t o f t u n e w i t h t h e scientific e n t h u s i a s m o f the T h e very material ' with which the moralists of the to

b e n e f i t o f m a n a n d m a n k i n d . I n a n y e v e n t , the i d e a a r o s e a n d d i d s o i n fact a t o p p o s i t e e n d s o f the t h o u g h t a n d p e r s o n a j j l y s p e c t r u m o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h century:^rSacqn) and $pin^u^ F o r B a c o n , t h e i d e a w a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f his system a t i c a t t e m p t a t s h a k i n g off the m e t a p h y s i c a l a n d theo l o g i c a l y o k e s t h a t k e p t men f r o m t h i n k i n g i n d u c t i v e l y and experimentally. In t h e sections of The Advancemen/ of Learning t h a t d e a l w i t h having acted
e P r i d e , envy, a n d greed are the three sparks that set m e n ' s hearts afire. Inferno, XaTrto" VIT^ineT7475 " " " a m b i t i o n , lust.for p o w e r , and g r e e d y r this reason the g e n r e is k n o w n as p s y c h o m a c h y . Its history, he tsychomachia of P r u d e n t i u s , a htth-century work, to the v i r t u e a n d vice cycle on the central porch of the facade of N o i r e Dame-de-Paris, is traced in A d o l f K a t z e n e l l e n b o g e n , Allegories of the Virtues and Vices in Mediaeval Art ( L o n d o n : W a r b u r g Insti tute, 1939).

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y w e r e d e a l i n g t h e d e t a i l e d descrTptioii a n d i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e p a s s i o n s w a s b o u n d fireto fsugges^a tJTjrcj_soliuion): Is it n o t p o s s i b l e to d i s c r i m i n a t e ^aTnon~g t h e passions a n d fight tire w i t h utilize

"qne_set_of c o m p a r a t i v e l y i n n o c u o u s

passions t o c p u j f l i r -

_vail a n o t h e r m o r e d a n g e r o u s a n d d e s t r u c t i v e set or, perh a p s , t o w e a k e n a n d t a m e t h e passions b y s u c h inter necine fights i n divide et impera f a s h i o n ? in s p i t e o f St. I t seems a Augustine's simple a n d o b v i o u s t h o u g h t o n c e o n e despairs of the efficacy o f m o r a l i z i n g yet, p a s s i n g h i n t , i t w a s p r o b a b l y a m o r e difficult o n e t o c o m e u p w i t h t h a n t h e p r o j e c t o f a t t a c k i n g alt t h e p a s s i o n s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . T h e m a j o r passions h a d l o n g b e e n sol idly linked to one another in literature and thought, often in some unholy.trinity, from Dante's "Superbia, i n v i d i a e a v a r i z i a s o n o / le t r e f a v i l l e c h ' a n n o i c u o r i

the " A p p e t i t e a n d W i l l

o f M a n " h e c r i t i c i z e s t r a d i t i o n a l m o r a l p h i l o s o p h e r s for

21

THE

PASSIONS

AND

THE

INTERESTS

COUNTERACTING

THE

PASSIONS

as if a m a n t h a t professeth to t e a c h to w r i t e d i d only exhibit fair c o p i e s o f a l p h a b e t s and letters joined, w i t h o u t g i v i n g any precepts or directions for t h e c a r n a g e o f t h e h a n d a n d f r a m i n g o f t h e let ters. S o h a v e t h e y m a d e g o o d a n d fair e x a m p l e s a n d copies, carrying the draughts of G o o d , V i r t u e , D u t y , Felicity; . . . b u t h o w to a t t a i n t h e s e e x c e l l e n t marks, a n d h o w to frame a n d s u b d u e the will of m a n t o b e c o m e t r u e a n d c o n f o r m a b l e t o these pur suits, t h e y pass it o v e r a l t o g e t h e r . . . . l f l A l t h o u g h the critique is familiar since M a c h i a v e l l i , the s i m i l e is r e m a r k a b l y s u g g e s t i v e a n d a few p a g e s l a t e r B a c o n tries his o w n h a n d a t t h e task h e has o u t l i n e d . H e d o e s s o i n t h e g u i s e o f c o m m e n d i n g p o e t s a n d his toriansin painted contrast to philosophersfor having forth w i t h g r e a t life, h o w affections are

o w n intensive personal e x p e r i e n c e as a politician and s t a t e s m a n f ^ T h e i d e a o f c o n t r o l l i n g t h e passions b y play i n g o n e off a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r is, m o r e o v e r , h i g h l y c o n g r u e n t w i t h t h e i r r e v e r e n t a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l b e n t o f his t h o u g h t J O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , his f o r m u l a t i o n d o e s n o t s e e m t o h a v e b e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f l u e n t i a l a t the t i m e . -Only m o d e r n scholarship has called attention to it in o r d e r to p r e s e n t { d ? a c o g ) i n this r e s p e c t as a f o r e r u n n e r o f p n o z J T ) a n d ^ u m e > w h o g a v e t h e i d e a a~far m o r e T e n t r a T ' p l a c e in t h e i r s y s t e m s . 2 0 ~ " I n e l a b o r a t i n g h i s t h e o r y o f t h e p a s s i o n s i n the Ethics, S p i n o z a p u t s f o r t h t w o p r o p o s i t i o n s t h a t a r e essential for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f his a r g u m e n t : A n affect c a n n o t b e r e s t r a i n e d n o r r e m o v e d u n l e s s b y a n o p p o s e d a n d s t r o n g e r affect. 2 1 and N o affect c a n b e r e s t r a i n e d b y t h e t r u e k n o w l e d g e o f g o o d a n d e v i l i n s o f a r a s i t i s true, b u t o n l y inso far as it is c o n s i d e r e d as an affect. 2 2 A t first s i g h t i t s e e m s s t r a n g e that Spinoza, with \\ his All / | )

kindled and incited;

how pacified and refrained;

. . . h o w they disclose themselves, h o w they work, h o w t h e y vary, h o w t h e y g a t h e r a n d fortify, h o w they are i n w r a p p e d o n e w i t h i n another, and h o w t h e y d o fight a n d e n c o u n t e r o n e w i t h a n o t h e r , a n d o t h e r t h e l i k e p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s ; a m o n g s t w h i c h this last i s o f s p e c i a l use i n m o r a l a n d c i v i l m a t t e r s ;

m e t a p h y s i c a l b e n t a n d his c o m p a r a t i v e l a c k o f i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e life o f a c t i o n , s h o u l d h a v e e s p o u s e d t h e s a m e d o c t r i n e a s B a c o n . H e d i d s o i n fact for q u i t e different reasons. N o t h i n g c o u l d have b e e n farther from his m i n d t h a n t h e t h o u g h t that t h e p a s s i o n s c o u l d b e u s e f u l l y r e s t r a i n e d a n d m a n i p u l a t e d b y s e t t i n g o n e pas s i o n a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r . T h e passages j u s t q u o t e d s e r v e d primarily to emphasize the strength and a u t o n o m y of t h T p a s s i o n s so t h a t t h e r e a l difficulties of: a t t a i n i n g t h e final destination of Spinoza's j o u r n e y in the Etfiics would b e f u l l y r e a l i z e d . T h a t d e s t i n a t i o n i s t h e t r i u m p h o f r e a s o n a n d l o v e o f G o d o v e r t h e passions, a n d t h e ' , \
1

\ how (I say) to set affection against affection and Jo

! masterone by another: e v e n a s l v e use to h u n t b e a s t w i t h b e a s t a n d fly b i r d w i t h b i r d . . . . F o r as in t h e g o v e r n m e n t of states it is s o m e t i m e s necessary to b r i d l e o n e f a c t i o n w i t h a n o t h e r , s o i t i s i n t h e gov. ernment within.
19

T h i s f o r c e f u l p a r a g r a p h , p a r t i c u l a r l y its l a t t e r part, has all t h e e a r m a r k s o f b e i n g based, n o t s o m u c h o n t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s of poets a n d historians, as on Bacon's

22

23

THE

PASSIONS

AND

THE

INTERESTS

COUNTERACTING

THE

PASSIONS

i d e a o Q h e ^ Q Q . u j i ^ e r y a i l i n g p a s s i o n f u n c t i o n s as a m e r e way s t a t i o n l e a d i n g t o it. A t the s a m e t i m e , t h e i d e a remains an integral part of the c u l m i n a t i o n of Spinoza's w o r k , a s i s e v i d e n t f r o m its v e r y last p r o p o s i t i o n : T. . [we do not] d e l i g h t in blessedness because we r e s t r a i n o u r lusts; b u t , o n the c o n t r a r y , b e c a u s e w e delight ^ them.
23

i n g can oppose or retard the i m p u l s e of passion b u t a contrary impulse."^] " " " U n l i k e S p i n o z a , H u m e w a s e a g e r t o a p p l y his i n s i g h t . H e d i d s o i m m e d i a t e l y i n B o o k I I I o f t h e Treatise w h e n discussing the " o r i g i n of society.'i^Speaking of the "avid i t y . . . o f a c q u i r i n g g o o d s a n d possessions," h e f i n d s this so potentially de'smJcaye and a l s o l o uniquely powerful a passion that the o n l y way of c h e c k i n g it is to have it countervail itselfJjThis d o e s n o t s e e m a n easy o p e r a t i o n t o perform, b u t h e r e i s h o w H u m e solves the p r o b l e m : T h e r e is no passion, therefore, capable of controll i n g t h e i n t e r e s t e d affection, b u t t h e v e r y afrection itself, b y a n a l t e r a t i o n o f its d i r e c U o r r N o w t h i s al t e r a t i o n m u s t n e c e s s a r i l y T a k e p l a c e u p o n t h e least reflection; liberty, sions, since that 'tis in evident, that the passion we is m u c h b e t t e r satisfy'd b y its r e s t r a i n t , arid than t h a n b y its make condi:

in

it,

therefore

we

are

able

to

restrain

T h e f i r s t g r e a t p h i l o s o p h e r w h o g a v e p r i d e o f place t o ! t h e i d e a t h a t passions c a n be f o u g h t successfully o n l y t h r o u g h o t h e r passions had therefore no i n t e n t i o n what e v e r o f t r a n s l a t i n g this i d e a i n t o t h e r e a l m o f p r a c t i c a l j m o r a l or political e n g i n e e r i n g ; e v e n t h o u g h he h a d a \ lively appreciation of such possibilities. Spinoza's
11

Indeed,

the

t h o u g h t -does n o t r e c u r i n

political

works,

w h i c h otherwise do n o t lack in practical suggestions on h o w to make the quirks of h u m a n nature w o r k out to the a d v a n t a g e o f society. V "] A l t h o u g l f ^ i i m i e ^ e n o u n c e d S p i n o z a ' s p h i l o s o p h y as are r e m a r k a b l y close to Spinoza's. K T i u m e was " h i d e o u s , " h i s i d e a s o n t l i e passions aird thoir rclatioirto~ reason 'simply more radical in proclaiming the imperviousness ) t h e passions t o r e a s o n ; " r e a s o n is, a n d o u g h t o n l y to^ b e t h e s l a v e o f t h e p a s s i o n s " i s o n e o f his best k n o w n j w D n o u n c e m e n t s . I n v i e w o f this e x t r e m e p o s i t i o n h e w a s b a d l y l r T n e e a o f the c o n s o l i n g t h o u g h t that o n e passion c a n f u n c t i o n as t h e c o u n t e r p o i s e t o a n o t h e r . H e pro c l a i m s i t i n d e e d i n the s a m e c r u c i a l - p a r a g r a p h : " N o t h As is s h o w n , for e x a m p l e , by the f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e : " B y contrary affects, I u n d e r s t a n d in the f o l l o w i n g pages those w h i c h , a l t h o u g h they m a y be of the same k i n d , d r a w a m a n in different d i r e c t i o n s ; such as v o l u p t u o u s n e s s a n d avarice, w h i c h are b o t h a species o f l o v e . . . . " Ethics, Part I V , Definitions.
ll

p r e s e r v i n g society, solitary and

nvnxh grpatpr a d v a n c e s i n t h e a c q u i r i n g o f posses jn__rire forlorn don. . . ,20 O n e m i g h t of course q u i b b l e that to a v o w the need for s o m e r e a s o n o r r e f l e c t i o n , h o w e v e r " l e a s t , " m e a n s t o introduce an alien element ( w h i c h , m o r e o v e r , i s sup p o s e d t o b e t h e " s l a v e o f the p a s s i o n s " ) i n t o a n a r e n a i n w h i c h o n l y passion is supposed to fight w i t h passion. T h e p o i n t h e r e , h o w e v e r , i s n o t t o n o t e flaws i n H u m e ' s t h o u g h t b u t to d e m o n s t r a t e the h o l d that the idea of the c o u n t e r v a i l i n g p a s s i o n h a d o n h i m . H e uses i t m o r e felic i t o u s l y i n a n u m b e r o f less m o m e n t o u s a p p l i c a t i o n s ^ ! ^ discussing M a n d e v i l l e , for e x a m p l e ,

24

THE

PASSIONS

AND

THE

INTERESTS

COUNTERACTING

THE

PASSIONS

let us n e v e r

A more general formulation follows: W h a t e v e r m a y b e the c o n s e q u e n c e o f s u c h a m i r a c u lous transformation of m a n k i n d as w o u l d e n d o w t h e m w i t h e v e r y species o f v i r t u e , a n d free t h e m f r o m e v e r y species o f v i c e ; this c o n c e r n s n o t the magistrate w h o aims only at possibilities. V e r y often h e c a n o n l y c u r e o n e v i c e b y a n o t h e r ; a n d i n that case, he o u g h t to p r e f e r w h a t is least p e r n i c i o u s to society.
117

by t h e a r t i c l e on " F a n a t i c i s m " in the Encyclopedic; essentially a s p i r i t e d d i a t r i b e a g a i n s t r e l i g i o u s institutions a n d beliefs, it e n d s w i t h a special s e c t i o n on " t h e f a n a t i c i s m of the p a t r i o t , " w h i c h is p r a i s e d l a r g e l y because i t can u s e f u l l y c o u n t e r a c t r e l i g i o u s f a n a t i c i s m . By contrast, the i d e a is c o n v e y e d in its m o s t g e n e r a l f o r m by V a u v e n a r g u e s :
20

Passions are o p p o s e d t o passions a n d o n e can serve as a c o u n t e r w e i g h t to a n o t h e r . "

3

A n d the s a m e l a n g u a g e i s f o u n d i n the m o r e e l a b o r a t e formulation of^HoJ^bacJi^ T h e passions are the true c o u n t e r w e i g h t s o f the jJ^ passions; w e _ m u s l _ n o t at all a t t e m p t to destroy ( t h e m , b u t raj^er^try_ to d i r e c t rhem: Iet"us offset those that_are h a r m f u l by those that are u s e f u l to society. R e a s o n . . . is n o t h i n g b u t the act of c h o o s i n g j h o s e passions w h i c h w e m u s t f o l l o w for the sake of ourJiappiness.
SI

Elsewhere, as will be noted below, H u m e advocated! A n d o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s o f the i d e a o b v i o u s t y T a s c i n a t e a h i m e v e n w h e n h e d i d n o t a g r e e , a s i n the f o l l o w i n g passage, t a k e n from the essay o n " T h e S c e p t i c " : " N o t h i n g can b e m o r e d e s t r u c t i v e , " says F o n t e n e l l e , " t o a m b i t i o n a n d the passion for c o n q u e s t , t h a n t h e t r u e system o f a s t r o n o m y . W h a t a p o o r t h i n g i s e v e n the w h o l e g l o b e i n c o m p a r i s o n [to] the infinite extent o f n a t u r e ? " T h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s e v i d e n t l y too d i s t a n t e v e r to h a v e a n y effect. O r , if it h a d any, w o u l d it not destroy patriotism as well as a m b i t i o n ?
2 8

T h i s p o l e m i c suggests t h a t the i d e a o f e n g i n e e r i n g social p r o g r e s s D y c l e v e r l y s e t t i n g u p o n e passion t o tight a n o t h e r b e c a m e a fairly c o m m o n i n t e l l e c t u a l p a s t i m e in tne c o u r s e of the e i g n t e e n t n c e n t u r y , it is i n d e e d ex-~ pressed by a host of writers, m i n o r as w e l l as m a j o r , in general or applied form. T h e latter genre is illustrated

TThe p r i n c i p l e o f the c o u n t e r v a i l i n g passion h a d arisen in the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y on the basis of its s o m b e r v i e w o f h u m a n n a t u r e a n d o f a g e n e r a l b e l i e f that t h e passions are d a n g e r o u s a n d d e s t r u c t i v e . I n the c o u r s e o f the s u c c e e d i n g c e n t u r y b o t h h u m a n n a t u r e a n d the passions c a m e t o b e w i d e l y r e h a b i l i t a t e d ^ j l n F r a n c e the b o l d e s t d e f e n d e r o f t h e passions w a s HeLv~eiius. H i s p o s i t i o n is sufficiently i n d i c a t e d by s u c h c h a p t e r headi n g s f r o m De I'esprit as " O n the p o w e r of the passions," " O n the i n t e l l e c t u a l s u p e r i o r i t y o f passionate o v e r sensib l e p e o p l e (gens senses)," a n d " O n e b e c o m e s s t u p i d as s o o n as o n e ceases to be p a s s i o n a t e . " B u t just as R o u s seau r e p e a t e d r o u t i n e l y the c a l l for l o o k i n g a t m a n "as
32
1

See also b e l o w , p. 64.

26

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h e r e a l l y i s " e v e n t h o u g h his c o n c e p t o f h u m a n n a t u r e was totally d i f f e r e n t from that w h i c h w a s r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e c a l l h a v i n g b e e n issued in the first p l a c e , ^5 the c o u n tervailing-passion remedy c o n t i n u e d to be advocated e v e n t h o u g h t h e passions w e r e n o w p r o n o u n c e d t o b e i n v i g o r a t i n g r a t h e r t h a n p e r n i c i o u s j i l n fact, H e l v e t i u s p r o d u c e d o n e of the finest s t a t e m e n t s of the*"jprinciple7 o n e that h a r k s r i g h t b a c k t o B a c o n ' s o r i g i n a l f o r m u l a w i t h , to be sure, a d a s h of r o c o c o a d d e d : T h e r e are few moralists w h o k n o w h o w t o a r m o u r passions a g a i n s t o n e a n o t h e r . . . for the p u r p o s e of h a v i n g t h e i r c o u n s e l a d o p t e d . M o s t o f the t i m e their a d v i c e w o u l d inflict t o o m u c h i n j u r y i f f o l l o w e d . Y e t t h e y s h o u l d r e a l i z e that this sort o f i n j u r y cann o t w i n o u t o v e r f e e l i n g ; t h a t o n l y a passion c a n t r i u m p h o v e r a passion; that, for e x a m p l e , if o n e w i s h e s to i n d u c e m o r e m o d e s t y a n d r e s t r a i n t in a f o r w a r d w o m a n (femme galante) o n e o u g h t to set h e r v a n i t y a g a i n s t h e r c o q u e t r y a n d m a k e h e r realize that m o d e s t y is an i n v e n t i o n of l o v e a n d of refined v o l u p t u o u s n e s s . . . . T h e m o r a l i s t s m i g h t s u c c e e d in h a v i n g their m a x i m s o b s e r v e d if tfjey

p i e is in N u m b e r 72 of The Federalist, w h e r e H a m i l t o n justifies the~prihciple o f r e e l e c t i o n for the P r e s i d e n t . H i s a r g u m e n t runs largely in terms of w h a t prohibition of r e e l e c t i o n w o u l d d o t o the i n c u m b e n t ' s m o t i v a t i o n s . A m o n g o t h e r i l l effects, h e says, t h e r e w o u l d b e the "temptation to sordid views, to peculation": A n a v a r i c i o u s m a n , w h o m i g h t h a p p e n t o f i l l the office, l o o k i n g f o r w a r d t o the t i m e w h e n h e m u s t a t all e v e n t s y i e l d u p the e m o l u m e n t s h e e n j o y e d , w o u l d feel a p r o p e n s i t y , n o t easy to be resisted by s u c h a m a n , to m a k e the best use of the o p p o r t u n i t y h e e n j o y e d w h i l e i t lasted, a n d m i g h t n o t s c r u p l e . to h a v e r e c o u r s e to the m o s t c o r r u p t e x p e d i e n t s to m a k e the h a r v e s t a a b u n d a n t as it w a s transitory; t h o u g h the s a m e m a n , p r o b a b l y , w i t h a d i f f e r e n t p r o s p e c t b e f o r e h i m , m i g h t c o n t e n t h i m s e l f w i t h the r e g u l a r p e r q u i s i t e s o f his s i t u a t i o n , a n d m i g h t e v e n b e u n w i l l i n g t o risk t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a n a b u s e : o f his o p p o r t u n i t i e s . H i s a v a r i c e m i g h t b e a g u a r d u p o n hie a v a r i c e . A d d t o this that the s a m e m a n m i g h t be vain or ambitious, as well as avaricious. A n d i f h e c o u l d e x p e c t t o p r o l o n g his h o n o u r s b y h i s g o o d c o n d u c t , he m i g h t hesitate to sacrifice his ; a p p e t i t e for t h e m t o his a p p e t i t e for g a i n . B u t w i t h the prospect before h i m of a p p r o a c h i n g an inevi; t a b l e a n n i h i l a t i o n , his a v a r i c e w o u l d b e l i k e l y t o g e t f the v i c t o r y o v e r his c a u t i o n , his v a n i t y , o r his ambition. T h e last s e n t e n c e s s h o w real v i r t u o s i t y i n the h a n d l i n g / o f the c o u n t e r v a i l i n g idea, s o m u c h s o that t h e y l e a v e thej m o d e r n r e a d e r , r a t h e r less well, t r a i n e d a l o n g these I i n e s , ! ^ a b i t breathless. A b e t t e r k n o w n i n s t a n c e of r e a s o n i n g that seems v e r y

^substituted in this manner the language of interest . for that of injury/?*

F r o m F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d the i d e a t r a v e l e d t o A m e r ica w h e r e it was u s e d by t h e F o u n d i n g F a t h e r s as an i m p o r t a n t i n t e l l e c t u a l tool for the p u r p o s e s o f constit u t i o n a l e n g i n e e r i n g . * A fineand, in v i e w of r e c e n t e x p e r i e n c e w i t h the P r e s i d e n c y , h i g h l y t o p i c a l e x a m 3

28

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m a n n e r the t r a i n o f t h o u g h t s t u d i e d h e r e r e t u r n e d t o its p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e : i t h a d started w i t h the state, whence it turned to consider problems of individual c o n d u c t , a n d i n d u e c o u r s e the insights y i e l d e d b y this phase w e r e i m p o r t e d b a c k i n t o the t h e o r y o f p o l i t i c s .

'Interest" and "Interests" as Tamers of the Passions

O
f r was! notctTOrwcroiis s t r a t a g e m of c o u r s e . In fact, the a u t h o r o f that s e n t e n c e ( H a m i l t o n o r M a d i s o n ) a p p e a r s to h a v e b e c o m e the first v i c t i m of the c o n f u s i o n it fostered, for he c o n t i n u e s : " I t m a y be a r e f l e c t i o n on hum a n n a t u r e that s u c h d e v i c e s s h o u l d b e necessary t o c o n t r o l the abuses o f g o v e r n m e n t . B u t w h a t i s g o v e r n m e n t itself b u t the greatest o f all reflections o n h u m a n nature?" N o w it certainly is a "reflection on h u m a n n a t u r e " t o h o l d that m a n ' s e v i l i m p u l s e s c a n o n l y b e r e s t r a i n e d b y s e t t i n g u p his v a r i o u s passions t o f i g h t a n d n e u t r a l i z e each o t h e r . T h e p r i n c i p l e o f the d i v i s i o n o f p o w e r s , o n the o t h e r h a n d , i s n o t n e a r l y s o i n s u l t i n g t o h u m a n nature. It looks therefore as though by w r i t i n g the l a p i d a r y s e n t e n c e " a m b i t i o n m u s t b e m a d e t o c o u n teract a m b i t i o n " its a u t h o r p e r s u a d e d h i m s e l f that the p r i n c i p l e o f c o u n t e r v a i l i n g passion, r a t h e r t h a n that o f c h e c k s a n d b a l a n c e s , w a s the f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e n e w state. S p e a k i n g m o r e g e n e r a l l y , i t seems r a t h e r p l a u s i b l e that the f o r m e r p r i n c i p l e l a i d the i n t e l l e c t u a l g r o u n d w o r k for t h e p r i n c i p l e o f s e p a r a t i o n o f p o w e r s . I n this

N C E the strategy o f p i t t i n g passion a g a i n s t passion had been devised and was considered acceptable a n d e v e n p r o m i s i n g , a f u r t h e r s t e p in the s e q u e n c e of r e a s o n i n g h e r e d e s c r i b e d b e c a m e d e s i r a b l e : for t h e strategy to have ready applicability, to become "operational" i n t o d a y ' s j a r g o n , o n e o u g h t t o k n o w , a t least i n a g e n e r a l w a y , w h i c h passions w e r e t y p i c a l l y t o b e " a s s i g n e d t h e r o l e o f t a m e r s a n d w h i c h ones, o n the contidl'y, vveie tiret r u l y " w i l d " passions that r e q u i r e d t a m i n g . r o l e , a s s i g n m e n t o f this sort u n d e r l i e s t h e l ibhespan C o v e n a n t , w h i c h is r p n ^ l n d ^ H n n l y h p r a i m p the ire

tesireiolfsuch t h i n g s as are necessary to m m m o d i o u s l i v i n g : a n d a H o p e J>y their I n d u s t r y t o o b t a i n t h e m . " y T h e w h o l e o f the social c o n t r a c t d o c t r i n e is, in this sense, an offshoot of the
3

c o u n t e r v a i l i n g strategy. H o b b e s n e e d s t o a p p e a l t o i t Just once, for t h e p u r p o s e of founding a state so constit u t e d that t h e p r o b l e m s c r e a t e d b y passionate m e n are s o l v e d o n c e a n d for a l l . W i t h this task i n m i n a i t was sufficient for h i m t o define t h e t a m i n g a n d t o - b e - t a m e d

30

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passions o n a n a d h o c b a s i s j B u t m a n y c o n t e m p o r a r i e s of H o b b e s , w h i l e sharing his c o n c e r n a b o u t the predica m e n t o f m a n a n d society, d i d n o t e m b r a c e h i s r a d i c a l solution and felt, moreover, that the countervailing s t r a t e g y w a s n e e d e d o n a c o n t i n u i n g , day-to-day basis. F o r this p u r p o s e a m o r e g e n e r a l a n d p e r m a n e n t f o r m u J a t i o n of the r o l e assignment was clearly desirable.TSuch a f o r m u l a t i o n e m e r g e d i n fact a n d t o o k t h e f o r m o f o p p o s i n g t n e interests o f m e n to t h e i r passions a n d o f con n o t i n g t h e f a v o r a b l e effects t h a t f o l l o w w h e n m e n a r e g u i d e d b ^ t h e i r i n t e r e s t s t o t h e c a l a m i t o u s state o f affairs t h a t p r e v a i l s w h e n m e n g i v e free r e i n t o t h e i r p a s s i o n s ^ T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e o p p o s i t i o n o f these t w o c o n c e p t s , s o m e t h i n g m u s t first b e s a i d a b o u t t h e v a r i o u s s u c c e s s i v e (and often simultaneous) m e a n i n g s of the terms "inter est" a n d "interests" in the course of the e v o l u t i o n of

i n v o l v i n g t h e n o t i o n o f i n t e r e s t f i r s t arose i n a c o n t e x t entirely removed from individuals and their material w e l f a r e . E a r l i e r i t w a s s h o w n h o w c o n c e r n for i m p r o v i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f statecraft w a s a t t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e q u e s t for g r e a t e r r e a l i s m i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f h u m a n b e h a v i o r . T h i s same c o n c e r n led to the first definition a n d detailed investigation of "interest."

MW^^if^iM^p^^BtSI.

As

we

shall

see,

these

T w o f l o w s r a n s e p a r a t e l y for a l o n g t i m e , b u t i n the e n d they m e r g e d w i t h s o m e r e m a r k a b l e results. M a c h i a v e l l i a c t u a l l y d i d n o t n a m e his c h i l d . H e pre s c r i b e d a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b e h a v i o r for r u l e r s o f states, b u t d i d n o t s u b s u m e it u n d e r a single expression. L a t e r his w o r k s d i d inspire the twin, initially s y n o n y m o u s terms interesse a n d ragione di stato, w h i c h c a m e i n t o w i d e spread use in the second half of the sixteenth century, a s s h o w n i n M e i n e c k e ' s g r e a t study. 3 l i T h e s e c o n c e p t s w e r e m e a n t t o d o battle o n t w o fronts: o n the o n e hand, they were obviously a declaration of i n d e p e n d e n c e from

j^^^|j^I|^h;ef

J J E I F S I B ' "OF-Concerns;-,

tapiratlorij^

the m o r a l i z i n g precepts and rules

that

had

been

the

^ ^ ^ ^ d ^ p m ^ ' M - V ^ m c t t i nraj*V h r m t e d to the material

Etiti

mainstay of pre-Machiavellian political philosophy; but, at the same time, they a i m e d at i d e n t i f y i n g a " s o p h i s t p c a t e d , r a t i o n a l w i l l , u n t r o u b l e d b y passions a n d rnomen-1 tary i m p u l s e s , " " t h a t w o u l d g i v e c l e a r a n d s o u n d g u i d n ance to the prince. T h e m a i n battle o f M a c h i a v e l l i , the f o u n d e r o f the n e w statecraft, w a s o f c o u r s e w a g e d o n t h e first front, e v e n t h o u g h M e i n e c k e shows that h e was b y n o m e a n s o b l i v i o u s o f t h e s e c o n d . 3 8 j T h e constraints t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f i n t e r e s t a s g u i d e p o s t for a c t i o n i m p l i e d for t h e rulers came to the fore as it travelled from Italy to

l e M ^ t t r S i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , its m e a n i n g w a s bty p$ asec ts^^oF^a "*pcrsori^s t a t h e r J t , c o m p r i s e d the totality o f h n m a i i , ^ loted an e l e m e n t of reflection a n d calcrp tpeM C A % t M T m a n n e r i n whreh^tKese 'aspira^%18 fact, serious thought

J T h e history of the term g o e s b a c k m u c h farther for its o t h e r m e a n i n g s , such as the interest that is c h a r g e d on b o r r o w e d m o n e y a n d the s t r a n g e F r e n c h usage in w h i c h intSrSt m e a n t injury a n d lossa m e a n i n g still e v i d e n t in the c o n t e m p o r a r y dommagesinterets.

32

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France famous

and

E n g l a n d j T h e y stand o u t sharply in sentence of the essay On the

the

interest s h o u l d have c o m e to w a r n a n d inveigh against i n d u l g i n g t h e passions s o s o o n after t h e m o r a l i z i n g a n d religious precepts of old had b e e n r i d i c u l e d as unreal istic a n d useless. T h i s i r o n y w a s n o t lost o n t h e p u r v e y ors o f t h e s e p r e c e p t s , and some of them were happy example one may cite j B j s h o p e n o u g h to take advantage of their new, s o m e w h a t un e x p e c t e d ally. As an Butler, w h o shows h o w "reasonable self-love"that is i n t e r e s t i s a r r a y e d a l o n g s i d e m o r a l i t y against t h e pas sions: \

opening

Interest

of Princes and States of Christendom by t h e H u g u e n o t statesman, the D u k e o f R o h a n : . J L e s princes c o m m a n d e n t a u x peuples, et l'interet c o m m a n d e a u x princes.k As M e i n e c k e points out, this f o r m u l a t i o n R o h a n m a y have borrowed

from such earlier Italian writers on

statecraft a s B o c c a l i n i a n d B o n a v e n t u r a , w h o h a d called i n t e r e s t t h e " t y r a n t o f t y r a n t s " a n d ragione di stato t h e " p r i n c e of the p r i n c e . " 3 0 B u t R o h a n goes to considerable l e n g t h t o d r i v e his p o i n t h o m e . Having outlined in g e n e r a l t e r m s t h e n a t i o n a l interests o f S p a i n , F r a n c e , I t a l y , E n g l a n d , a n d t h e o t h e r p r i n c i p a l p o w e r s o f his t i m e , h e p r o c e e d s , i n t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f his essay, t o re c o u n t some historical episodes i n t e n d e d to show that ii |'l 1 in m a t t e r s o f state o n e m u s t n o t l e t o n e s e l f be

. . ^ p a r t i c u l a r passions a r e n o m o r e c o i n c i d e n t w i t h p r u d e n c e , o r t h a t r e a s o n a b l e self-love, t h e e n d o f w h i c h i s o u r w o r l d l y interest, t h a n t h e y a r e w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e of v i r t u e a n d r e l i g i o n ; . . . s u c h p a r t i c u l a r passions a r e viciously.4^ F o r t h e P r i n c e , t h e n , t h e n e w d o c t r i n e was n e a r l y a s constraining as the old one. Moreover, it soon revealed itself a s r a t h e r u n h e l p f u l : w h e r e a s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l stand a r d s o f v i r t u o u s b e h a v i o r w e r e difficult t o attain, inter est t u r n e d o u t t o b e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y difficult t o define. I t w a s easy e n o u g h t o say i n g e n e r a l t h a t t h e i n t e r e s t o f a k i n g is to m a i n t a i n and increase the p o w e r and wealth o f h i s r e a l m , b u t this p r i n c i p l e h a r d l y y i e l d e d p r e c i s e "decision rules" in concrete situations. T h e history of attempts to lay d o w n such rules is tortuous a n d frustrating, as M e i n e c k e has masterfully (the p r i n c e shown. Y e t , a l t h o u g h the c o n c e p t of interest b e c a m e f a i r l y b o g g e d d o w n i n its o r i g i n a l d o m a i n o r state), i t p r o s p e r e d r e m a r k a b l y w h e n i t w a s a p p l i e d t o g r o u p s o r i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h e state. H e r e t h e m i x t u r e o f self-seeking a n d r a t i o n a l i t y t h a t h a d b e e n d e v e l o p e d 35 as much temptations to act impru d e n t l y w i t h r e g a r d to o u r w o r l d l y interest, as to act

j ! Wuided b y disorderly appetites, w h i c h m a k e u s often u n d e r t a k e tasks b e y o n d o u r s t r e n g t h ; n o r b y v i o l e n t passions, w h i c h a g i t a t e us in v a r i o u s w a y s as s o o n as

t h e y possess u s ; . . . b u t b y o u r o w n i n t e r e s t g u i d e d U by reason alone, w h i c h m u s t be the rule of o u r actions:1 ~ ~ ~

A n d , i n d e e d , t h i s p r o g r a m m a t i c p r o n o u n c e m e n t i s fol l o w e d by several e x a m p l e s of princes w h o have, c o m e to g r i e f b e c a u s e t h e y f o l l o w e d t h e i r passions r a t h e r t h a n their interest. It is richly ironical that the new doctrine of princely
k P r i n c e s o r d e r their p e o p l e a r o u n d a n d interest orders princes around. I n t r o d u c t i o n to P a r t I I . Significantly, reason is h e r e d o w n g r a d e d to the p u r e l y i n s t r u m e n t a l role of figuring o u t w h e r e the true interest of the state lies.

34

THE

PASSIONS

AND

THE

INTERESTS

COUNTERACTING

THE

PASSIONS

as

the quintessence of interest-motivated

behavior

in

ily i m p a r t e d m o r e of a domestic a n d g r o u p orientation to the concept. T h e "interest of E n g l a n d " was no longer discussed in r e l a t i o n to S p a i n or France, b u t r a t h e r in r e l a t i o n t o t h e m a i n p r o t a g o n i s t s o f those d o m e s t i c strug gles. Similarly, after the to Restoration, dealt with the the the discussions interest of around religious E n g l a n d in tolerance

t h e d i s c u s s i o n s a r o u n d statecraft w a s f o u n d t o b e a par t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l and h o p e f u l c a t e g o r y . T h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e interest o f t h e r u l e r t o t h e interests o f v a r i o u s g r o u p s a m o n g t h e r u l e d p r o c e e d e d i n s o m e w h a t different ways in England and France. In E n g l a n d t h e c o n c e p t o f i n t e r e s t i n t h e s i n g u l a r t h a t was t o g u i d e p r i n c e s a n d s t a t e s m e n a n d l a t e r t u r n e d i n t o the "national France interest" Italy was in apparently imported from and early the seventeenth century.'"

relation

interests of Presbyterians,

Catholics, Q u a k e r s , and others. It was thereafter, t o w a r d ' the e n d of the c e n t u r y , w i t h p o l i t i c a l stability reestab l i s h e d and a measure of religious tn toleration ensured, by'" by and " that the interests ot g r o u p s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e increas i n g l y discussed terms of e c o n o m i c aspirations." "desire ot those c o n v e n i e n c e s , the early e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y we finc^ffiaftesbujj^efin-~" I n g interest as the tvTiich w e a r e w e l l p r o v i d e d for, a n d m a i n t a i n e d 1

R o h a n ' s On the Interest of Princes and States of Christendom w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f l u e n t i a l . I t w a s r a p i d l y trans lated and provoked m u c h comment. ne pent jamais manquer O n e of Rohan's p i t h y p h r a s e s i n h i s o p e n i n g p a r a g r a p h V i n t e r e t seul ( c o m i n g a f t e r Le prince peut

se tromper, son Conseil peut etre corrompu, mais . . . )

is at the origin of the m a x i m "Interest W i l l N o t L i e , " which gained considerable currency in seventeenthcentury England." I n his essay R o h a n h a d d e f i n e d i n t e r e s t i n t e r m s o f dynastic or foreign policy. It was r e v o l u t i o n and civil w a r i n m i d - s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d t h a t necessar[. A. W. G u n n , Politics and the Public Interest in the Seven teenth Century ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e a n d K e g a n P a u l , 1969), p. 36 a n d passim. 1 have m u c h profited from the w e a l t h of i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d in this v o l u m e on the c o n c e p t of " i n t e r e s t " and "inter ests" i n seventeenth-century E n g l a n d . See also G u n n ' s article " 'Interest W i l l N o t L i e ' : A S e v e n t e e n t h - C e n t u r y P o l i t i c a l M a x i m , " Journal of the History of Ideas 29 (Oct.-Dec. 1968), p p . 5 5 1 - 5 6 4 . An e x c e l l e n t analysis of related topics is in F e l i x R a a b , The English Face of Machiavelli: A Changing Interpretation, 7500jyoo ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e and K e g a n P a u l , 1964), p p . 1 5 7 - 1 5 8 . " T h e m a x i m was used as the title of an i m p o r t a n t p a m p h l e t by M a r c h a m o n t N e d h a m , a v i c a r a n d e x p e r t l y flexible p o l i t i c i a n as well as a great a d m i r e r of, and frequent b o r r o w e r from, b o t h M a c h i a v e l l i and R o h a n . See the just cited w o r k s b y G u n n a n d Raab.
m

"Tpeaking of the "possession of w e a l t h " as " t h a t passion 'Which is e s t e e m e d p e c u l i a r l y m f e r e ! y h n g . " 1 C l H u m > 1 s i m i "Tarly uses t h e t e r m s " p a s s i o n o f i n t e r e s t " o r ' t h e " i n t e r e s t e d a f f e c t i o n " a s s y n o n y m s for t h e " a v i d i t y o f a c q u i r i n g g o o d s a n d possessions" o r the " l o v e o f g a i n . " " T h i s e v o l u t i o n o f t h e t e r m m a y h a v e b e e n assisted b y a c o n vergent shift in the meaning of "public interest"; {"plenty"i became an increasingly important ingredient of that expression."
R a a b writes at the e n d of a l o n g b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l f o o t n o t e on " I n t e r e s t " : " I t was at t h e e n d of this p e r i o d [that is, in the last d e c a d e of t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y ] that 'interest' a c q u i r e d a specif ically e c o n o m i c . . . m e a n i n g . " The English Face of Machiavelli, p. 237. G u n n says m o r e g e n e r a l l y : "Interest m a d e the j o u r n e y from the c o u n c i l c h a m b e r s to the m a r k e t place very q u i c k l y . " Politics, p. 42. G u n n , Politics, C h a p t e r 5 a n d p. 265. T h i s is n o t i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h V i n e r ' s w e l l - k n o w n d e m o n s t r a t i o n that p o w e r a n d p l e n t y w e r e t w i n foreign policy o b j e c t i v e s o f e q u a l s t a n d i n g t h r o u g h o u t the mercantilist e p o c h . See J a c o b V i n e r , " P o w e r versus P l e n t y as O b j e c t i v e s o f F o r e i g n P o l i c y i n the S e v e n t e e n t h a n d E i g h t e e n t h
0

36

37

THE

PASSIONS

AND

THE

INTERESTS

COUNTERACTING

THE

PASSIONS

In F r a n c e the p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s of le grand siecle w e r e h a r d l y f a v o r a b l e to a systematic c o n s i d e r a t i o n of p r i v a t e o r g r o u p interests i n their r e l a t i o n t o t h e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the c a r e e r of the t e r m interet rey s e m b l e d that o f its E n g l i s h c o u s i n . T h e i d e a o f i n t e r e s t a s i t h a d b e e n developed b y t h e p o l i t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e since ^ M a c h i a v e l l i t h e i d e a , that is. of a d i s c i p l i n e d nhdefS Ikanding^of w h a t it takes to a d v a n c e o n e ' s p n w e r . irifln^ e n c e . a n d w e a l t h - j - c a m e i n t o c o m m o n use e a r l v i n the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d w a s , s o o n u t i l i z e d b y the great' m o r a l i s t s a n d o t h e r w r i t e r s o f the p e r i o d i n t h e i r m e t i c u l o u s d i s s e c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l h u m a n n a t u r e . A s the scene these w r i t e r s w e r e d e a l i n g w i t h w a s t y p i c a l l y t h e c o u r t o f L o u i s X I V , the actors w e r e " i n t e r e s t e d " i n m u c h the s a m e c a t e g o r i e s a s the s o v e r e i g n h i m s e l f : influence. not only in w e a l t h , b u t also a n d p e r h a p s p r i n c i p a l l y i n p o w e r a n d Hence i n t e r e s t w a s o f t e n used with a v e r y " i n c l u s i v e m e a n i n g . Y e t e v e n t h e n a n d this i s t h e p o i n t o f c o n v e r g e n c e o f the E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h h i s t o r i e s t h a t m e a n i n g w a s b e i n g n a r r o w e d , b y s o m e process, t o the pursuit ot material, economic a d v a n t a g e . T h i s c a n b e i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e " A d v i c e t o the R e a d e r " b y w h i c h L a R o c h e f o u c a u l d p r e f a c e d the s e c o n d e d i t i o n
1

for the a v e r a g e r e a d e r of the Maximes, the t e r m "interest"" h a d started to t a k e on the m o r e r e s t r i c t e d sense of economic advantage. A r o u n d the s a m e t i m e J e a n d e S i l h o n , secretary a n d apologist, Richelieu's this also n o t e d a n d d e p l o r e d

e v o l u t i o n o f m e a n i n g i n a treatise i n w h i c h h e u n d e r l i n e s the p o s i t i v e r o l e p l a y e d b y i n t e r e s t i n m a i n t a i n i n g l i f e a n d s o c i e t y . H e lists a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r e s t s " I n t e r est o f c o n s c i e n c e , I n t e r e s t o f h o n o r , I n t e r e s t o f h e a l t h , Interest of wealth, and several other Interests"and t h e n a t t r i b u t e s the u n f a v o r a b l e c o n n o t a t i o n a t t a c h i n g t o such e x p r e s s i o n s as un homme interesse to the fact that

lis

m e a n i n g of

interest

antedates

the

one

"discussed h e r e b y s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s . P o s s i b l y , too, the s p e c i a l affinity o f r a t i o n a l c a l c u l a t i o n i m p l i c i t i n t h e c o n c e p t o f i n t e r e s t w i t h the n a t u r e o f e c o n o m i c activities, accounts century time, for these a c t i v i t i e s one may eventually monopolizing that, with the c o n t e n t s o f the c o n c e p t . R e t u r n i n g t o s e v e n t e e n t h France, also conjecture p o w e r so concentrated and seemingly so stable at the e c o n o m i c interests c o n s t i t u t e d t h e o n l y p o r t i o n o f a n o r d i n a r y p e r s o n ' s total a s p i r a t i o n s i n w h i c h i m portant ups a n d d o w n s c o u l d be v i s u a l i z e d ^ A c t u a l l y A d a m S m i t h stated the last p o i n t a s a g e n e r a l

(1666)

of

his Maximes:
B y the w o r d i n t e r e s t I u n d e r s t a n d n o t a l w a y s a n interest c o n c e r n e d w i t h w e a l t h but most frequently one
4

(un interet de bien), with

that is concerned

honor or glory. * T h i s w a r n i n g against misunderstanding was the only

proposition

when

discussing

what

he considered

the

p o i n t of real substance in a very short preface; clearly,

C e n t u r i e s , " World Politics, V o l . 1 (1948), r e p r i n t e d in D. C. C o l e m a n , ed., Revisions in Mercantilism ( L o n d o n : M e t h u e n , 1969), pp. 6 1 - 9 1 .

o v e r r i d i n g . m o t i v e o f m a n , n a m e l y , t h e "desire~of better-., mg our condition": A n a u g m e n t a t i o n o f f o r t u n e i s the m e a n s b y w h i c h the greater part of m e n propose and wish to better 39

38

THE

PASSIONS

AND

THE

INTERESTS

COUNTERACTING

THE

PASSIONS

their c o n d i t i o n . It is the m e a n s the most vulgar a n d the m o s t o b v i o u s . . . .

1S

P e r h a p s n o o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n i s n e e d e d for the n a r r o w i n g of the m e a n i n g of the term "interests" once the A t this p o i n t , t h e n , a j u n c t i o n i s effected b e t w e e n t h e previously developed train of thought on countervail i n g passions a n d the d o c t r i n e of interest. B o t h doctrines originated in M a c h i a v e l l i ; yet the final o u t c o m e t h e b e g i n n i n g s of e c o n o m i c g r o w t h m a d e the ber of people." So m u c h is clear n o w : w h e n the interests of m e n c a m e to be contrasted have quite with their passions, meanings this opposition on m a k i n g i n this f a s h i o n a c r u c i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o state c r a f t w o u l d ha,ve g r e a t l y s u r p r i s e d a n d o u t r a g e d h i m . I n a w e l l - k n o w n l e t t e r t o his f r i e n d F r a n c e s c o V e t t o r i , M a c h i a v e l l i left n o d o u b t a b o u t his b e l i e f t h a t e c o n o m ics a n d p o l i t i c s d w e l l i n t w o s e p a r a t e s p h e r e s : F o r t u n e has d e c r e e d that, a s I d o n o t k n o w h o w t o r e a s o n , e i t h e r a b o u t t h e a r t o f silk, o r a b o u t t h e a r t o f w o o l , e i t h e r a b o u t profits o r a b o u t losses, i t befits me to reason a b o u t the State.40 W h a t holds for Machiavelli is true also for many could different depending "augmenta

t i o n o f f o r t u n e " a r e a l p o s s i b i l i t y for a n i n c r e a s i n g n u m

w h e t h e r interests w e r e u n d e r s t o o d i n

the w i d e r or in

TTie~harrower s e n s e . a A m a x i m s u c h a s " I n t e r e s t W i l l N o t L i e " w a s o r i g i n a l l y a n e x h o r t a t i o n t o p u r s u e all o f one's aspirations advocated in an orderly and reasonable m a n n e r ; it the injection of an e l e m e n t of calculating

'efficiency, a s w e l l a s o f p r u d e n c e , i n t o h u m a n b e h a v i o r w h a t e v e r m i g h t b e t h e passion b y w h i r h i t i s b a s i c a l l y m o t i v a t e d . B u t b e c a u s e o f t h e j u s t n o t e d s e m a n t i c drift "of t h e t e r m " i n t e r e s t s , " t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n interesTs and passions could also mean or convey view of a different thought, much more startling in traditional

others w h o had forged i m p o r t a n t links in the chain of r e a s o n i n g h e r e d e s c r i b e d . I n g e n e r a l t h e story t o l d u p t o n o w illustrates h o w u n i n t e n d e d consequences flow from h u m a n t h o u g h t ^ n c t T r o m t h e snape it is g i v e n througl
(

" C o r r u p t i o n " has h a d a similar semantic trajectory. In the w r i t i n g s o f M a c h i a v e l l i , w h o took the term from P o l y b i u s , corruzione stood for d e t e r i o r a t i o n in the q u a l i t y of g o v e r n m e n t , n o m a t t e r for w h a t reason i t m a y occur. T h e term was still used w i t h this inclusive m e a n i n g in eighteenth-century E n g l a n d , al t h o u g h it b e c a m e also identified w i t h bribery at that time. Even' tually the m o n e t a r y m e a n i n g d r o v e the n o n m o n e t a r y o n e out ' a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y . T h i s is also w h a t h a p p e n e d w i t h the term ; " f o r t u n e , " w h i c h A d a m Smith uses, in the passage just cited, in the strict m o n e t a r y sense in contrast to the m u c h w i d e r m e a n i n g of fortuna in M a c h i a v e l l i . See ]. G. A. P o c o c k , " M a c h i a v e l l i , Har rington, and English Political Ideologies in t h e r E i g h t e e n t h C e n : tury," William and Mary Quarterly 22 ( O c t . 1965), p p . 5 6 8 - 5 7 1 , and The Machiavellian Moment ( P r i n c e t o n , N.J.: Princeton U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1975), p. 405.

^ Tanguage)_^no

less

thanH^iOrn^iuirian

the

n u m e r o u s treatises o n t h e passions t h a t a p p e a r e d i n the'' seventeenth century, no change whatever can be found i n t h e assessment o f a v a r i c e a s t h e " f o u l e s t o f t h e m a l l " or in its position as the deadliest Deadly Sin that it h a d c o m e to o c c u p y t o w a r d the e n d of the M i d d l e " ' --'iU-JI"
1

^ m ^ m M ^ W

40

41

THE

PASSIONS

AND

THE

INTERESTS

COUNTERACTING

THE

PASSIONS

g i v e n t h e task o f h o l d i n g b a c k those passions t h a t h a d l o n g b e e n t h o u g h t t o b e m u c h less out term that a new, permitted

R E P R E H E N S I B L E ^ T o
a n d colorless the stigma at-*

o u t and then be followed in preference to other conceiv"able erb courses "Interest of action Governs inspired hy
4

a c c o u n t for this r e v e r s a l i t d o e s n o t s e e m e n o u g h t o p o i n t comparatively neutral, lifting or attenuating

D I F F E R E N T
The

turned b y the e n d of the century into the positive the W o r l d . " *

P R N V ^

infatuation

w i t h interest as a key to the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h u m a n action carried o v e r into the e i g h t e e n t h century w h e n H e l v e t i u s , i n s p i t e o f his e x a l t a t i o n o f t h e passions, p r o claimed: if As the physical w o r l d is r u l e d by the laws of move m e n t s o i s t h e m o r a l u n i v e r s e r u l e d b y l a w s o f in terest.40 A s h a p p e n s f r e q u e n t l y w i t h concepts that are s u d d e n l y thrust to the center of the stageclass, elite, e c o n o m i c

tached to the o l d labels. v\ stronger e x p l a n a t i o n is pro-"' vided by o u r demonstration actually carriedand that the term "interests" ; bestowed on money-; therefore

m a k i n g a positive a n d curative c o n n o t a t i o n d e r i v i n g ! f r o m its r e c e n t c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e i d e a o f a morej__ e n l i g h t e n e d w a y o f c o n d u c t i n g h u m a n affairs, as well as p u b l i c ^ private!,,

Interest as a New Paradigm

development,

to n a m e some m o r e recent e x a m p l e s -

interest a p p e a r e d so self-evident a n o t i o n that n o b o d y

H E i d e a o f a n o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n i n t e r e s t s a n d pas s i o n s m a d e its f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e , t o m y k n o w l e d g e , the previously noted work of R o h a n , which is

b o t h e r e d to define it precisely. N o r d i d a n y o n e e x p l a i n the place it o c c u p i e d in relation to the two categories that h a d d o m i n a t e d the analysis o f h u m a n m o t i v a t i o n - s i n c e T l a t o , n a m e l y , t h e j>assions o n t h e o n e h a n d , ^ reason on the other. R u t it is precisely against the back g r o u n d o f this t r a d i t i o n a l d i c h o t o m y t h a t t h e e m e r g e n c e oJjl . third, category in the late sixteenth and e a r l y seven teenth century can be understood, dejemed, d e s i r u c U ve, . a n d i r e a s o n vmeff ec aqtion- c o u l d ' b e e x h a u s t i v e l y d e s c n b e d ; by-at^ri *o-*either o n e o r t h e , o t h e r m e a n t a n e x c e e d i n g l y 1 ^ : 9 ^ 1 0 0 ^ . 1 0 ^ h u m a n i t y , A message of h o p e was

with

w h o l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h r u l e r s a n d s t a t e s m e n . I n subse q u e n t decades the d i c h o t o m y was discussed by a n u m ber of English and French writers w h o applied it to h u m a n conduct in general. T h e o c c a s i o n for t h e d i s c u s s i o n w a s a p h e n o m e n o n t h a t i s f a m i l i a r i n i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y : ^ n c e ^ h e ^ J d e a _ of' n i t e r e s ^ h ^ d ^ a ^ r j e a r e d , i t b e c a m e a r e a l fad a s w e l l a s a ' p a r a d i g m ^ ( a J a _ K u h n ) a n d m o s t o f hurfiarl'actToTl w a s slid^en^'ejiplained^by point of tautology,. T a sefcntCTest^solneTi^ Roc^foucaulcOiis^ved~LThe

igfcfre- c o n v e y e d ^ by^tJhe w e d g i n g of. lnteresfrr^BHJJPE"o^!^^vSx^mfc^g^^7Gi: human rmouvx8s$, "lnterest_ was i e e n t o p a i u k e i n effecr or~lmrbe*|a$N of e a c h , as t h ^ M r f g g o j ^ s e l f - l o v e u n l a d e d ahtfe r e s u l t i n g h y b r i d form of huw a s cojasXdered e x e m p t f r o m b o t h t h e de|

passions and a l m o s t a l l v i r t u e s i n t o self-interest, a n d i n E n g l a n d H o b b e s c a r r i e d o u t a s i m i l a r r e d u c t i o n i s t en terprise. I n l i n e w i t h these d e v e l o p m e n t s the o r i g i n a l m a x i m "Interest W i l l N o t L i e , " w h i c h had the norma tive m e a n i n g that interest should be carefully

FIGURED

42

43

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THE

INTERESTS

COUNTERACTING

THE

PASSIONS

s t r u c t i v e n e s s o f passion a n d t h e t n e f f e c t u a l i t y o f r e a s o n . N o w o n d e r t h a t the d o c t r i n e o f i n t e r e s t w a s r e c e i v e d a t t h e t i m e a s a v e r i t a b l e m e s s a g e o f s a l v a t i o n ! T h e specific r e a s o n s for its c o n s i d e r a b l e a p p e a l w i l l b e e x a m i n e d i n detail in the n e x t section/ N o t e v e r y b o d y was c o n v i n c e d of course that all prob lems had been solved. T h e r e were those, in the first p l a c e , w h o r e s i s t e d the b l a n d i s h m e n t s o f t h e n e w doc trine and rejected it outright. As an ardent admirer of St. A u g u s t i n e , B o s s u e t s a w l i t t l e t o c h o o s e b e t w e e n pas sion a n d interest. F o r h i m b o t h "interest and passion c o r r u p t m a n , " a n d he warns against the temptations of the royal court as both " t h e e m p i r e of interests" a n d the "theater of the passions."s0 B u t so negative a stance was the e x c e p t i o n . In general t h e c r i t i c s o f t h e n e w d o c t r i n e m e r e l y d o u b t e d t h a t in terest, i n t h e sense o f r e a s o n a b l e , d e l i b e r a t e " s e l f - l o v e , " c o u l d b e a m a t c h for t h e passions. S u c h w a s S p i n o z a ' s view: I A l l m e n c e r t a i n l y seek t h e i r a d v a n t a g e , b u t s e l d o m a s s o u n d r e a s o n d i c t a t e s ; i n m o s t cases a p p e t i t e i s their o n l y guide, a n d i n their desires a n d j u d g m e n t s o f w h a t i s b e n e f i c i a l t h e y are c a r r i e d a w a y b y t h e i r passions, w h i c h .take n o a c c o u n t o f t h e f u t u r e o r o f else^/ anything

f e r e n c e o f t h e passions, a s s i m p l y b e c a u s e o f t h e i n a b i l i t y o f m e n t o p e r c e i v e t h e i r interests. B u t t h e i n f e r e n c e w a s again t h a t a state i n w h i c h i n t e r e s t s w o u l d b e c l e a r l y perceived and followed w o u l d be most enviable, as in this i r o n i c a l r e m a r k o f the M a r q u i s o f H a l i f a x : If m e n m u s t be supposed always to follow their true interest, it m u s t be m e a n t of a n e w m a n u f a c t o r y of m a n k i n d by G o d A l m i g h t y ; there must be some n e w clay, t h e o l d stuff n e v e r y e t m a d e a n y s u c h i n f a l l i b l e s creature.52 ^

In F r a n c e C a r d i n a l de R e t z p a i d his respects to the n e w doctrine, b u t c a u t i o n e d w i t h fine psychological acu m e n a g a i n s t c o u n t i n g t h e passions o u t : T h e m o s t c o r r e c t m a x i m for a c c u r a t e l y a p p r a i s i n g the i n t e n t i o n s of m e n is to e x a m i n e their interests w h i c h a r e t h e m o s t c o m m o n m o t i v e for t h e i r ac tions. B u t a truly subtle politician does n o t w h o l l y reject the conjectures w h i c h o n e can derive from m a n ' s passions, for passions e n t e r s o m e t i m e s r a t h e r o p e n l y i n t o , a n d a l m o s t a l w a y s m a n a g e t o affect un consciously, the motives that propel p o r t a n t affairs of state. 1 1
" C a r d i n a l d e R e t z , Memoires (Paris: P l c i a d e , N R F , 1956), p p . 1008-1U09. E l s e w h e r e R e t z w r i i e s s i m i l a r l y : " I n the times . . . i n w h i c h w e live o n e must j o i n the i n c l i n a t i o n s o f m e n w i t h their interests a n d d r a w on this m i x t u r e in o r d e r (o m a k e a j u d g m e n t on their p r o b a b l e b e h a v i o r . " Ibid., p. 984. A s t r i k i n g l y similar o p i n i o n is expressed o v e r a century later bv A l e x a n d e r H a m i l t o n , a n o t h e r p r a c t i c i n g (and reflective) p o l i t i c i a n : " T h o u g h nations, in the m a i n , are g o v e r n e d by w h a t they s u p p o s e their interest, he must be i m p e r f e c t l y versed in h u m a n n a t u r e w h o . . . does not k n o w that [ k i n d o r u n k i n d ] d i s p o s i t i o n s m a y insensibly m o u l d o r bias t h e v i e w s of self-interest." C i t e d in G e r a l d Stourzh, Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1970), p. 92.

1
r

t h e m o s t im

Elsewhere o n e finds the p r e e m i n e n c e of interest con tested, n o t s o m u c h b e c a u s e o f t h e o v e r p o w e r i n g inter-

L o u i s H a r t z is therefore t a k i n g an u n h i s t o r i c a l v i e w w h e n he speaks o f the " l i b e r a l bleakness a b o u t m a n w h i c h sees h i m work i n g a u t o n o m o u s l y o n the basis o f his o w n self-interest" a n d con trasts this pessimistic v i e w o f h u m a n n a t u r e w i t h the " f e u d a l bleakness a b o u t m a n w h i c h sees h i m fit o n l y for e x t e r n a l domi n a t i o n . " The Liberal Tradition in America ( N e w Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e a n d W o r l d , 1955), p- 80. O r i g i n a l l y the idea that m a n is r u l e d by interest w a s n o t sensed as b l e a k at all.

44

45

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L i k e S p i n o z a a n d H a l i f a x , R e t z still s e e m s t o feel h e r e t h a t t h e i n t r u s i o n o f t h e passions m a k e s t h e w o r l d i n t o a less o r d e r l y p l a c e t h a n i t w o u l d b e i f i t w e r e r u l e d b y i n t e r e s t a l o n e . A few d e c a d e s l a t e r L a B r u y e r e r o u g h l y agrees with R e t z on the w e i g h t to be assigned to the interests a n d the passions a s d e t e r m i n a n t s o f h u m a n b e h a v i o r a n d at the same time explicitly recognizes the e x i s t e n c e of t h e n e w menage a Lrois: N o t h i n g i s easier for p a s s i o n t h a n t o d e f e a t r e a s o n : Its g r e a t t r i u m p h i s t o g a i n t h e u p p e r h a n d o v e r interest.53 I t i s p e r h a p s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t L a B r u y e r e strikes h e r e a posture of clinical d e t a c h m e n t ; in contrast to the previ o u s l y q u o t e d o p i n i o n s , h e expresses n o d i s m a y w h a t s o e v e r a t t h e o c c a s i o n a l v i c t o r y o f t h e passions o v e r t h e interests. In the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y the view that interest is p a r a m o u n t was s u b j e c t e d t o m u c h s t r o n g e r c r i t i c i s m . H e r e are t w o typical statements, the first by Shaftesbury, a n d the second by B i s h o p B u t l e r : Y o u h a v e h e a r d i t . . . a s a c o m m o n s a y i n g t h a t In terest governs the World. B u t , I b e l i e v e , w h o e v e r l o o k s n a r r o w l y i n t o t h e affairs o f it, w i l l f i n d t h a t if

distance.

So greatly are profligate m e n

mistaken

w h e n t h e y affirm t h e y a r e w h o l l y g o v e r n e d b y interestedness a n d self-love. 5 5 T h e n e w e m p h a s i s o f these t w o passages m u s t b e inter preted in the l i g h t of a considerable c h a n g e that took p l a c e i n t h e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e passions f r o m t h e seven teenth to the eighteenth c e n t u r y j T h e y w e r e first v i e w e d as w h o l l y vicious a n d destructive, as in the f o l l o w i n g "phrase f r o m a f r e n c h catechism: "The K i n g d o m of F r a n c e is n o t a tyranny, w h e r e the Sovereign's c o n d u c t w o u l d be g u i d e d solely by his passion."5" B u t gradually, ^toward t h e e n d o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h a n d rpnre f course of the eighteenth century,
f h p

1 1 1 1 JJTP _

pajsjons were'_re-

' h a b i l i t a t e d as t h e essence of life a n d as a p o t e n t i a l l y crea t i v e force. I n the earlier period, w h e n the p r o p o s i t i o n m a n ' s c o n d u c t i s w h o l l y s h a p e d b y his i n t e r e s t s w a s c r i t i c i z e d o n t h e g r o u n d t h a t passion still h a d t o b e t a k e n i n t o account, the criticism assumed that the w o r l d is a worse p l a c e t h a n t h a t p r o p o s i t i o n i m p l i e d . B u t w i t h t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f t h e passions i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , the identical criticism c o u l d then m e a n that a w o r l d in w h i c h the passions are active a n d prevail on occasion is a better p l a c e t h a n o n e i n w h i c h i n t e r e s t a l o n e w o u l d c a l l the t u n e ^ T h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n of passion by Shaftesbury and B u t l e r w i t h such harmless and even useful e m o t i o n s a s h u m o r a n d c u r i o s i t y suggests this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I t i s rooted in the rejection, by the E n l i g h t e n m e n t , of the tragic and pessimistic view of m a n and society that was so^characteristic of the seventeenth century. ( T h e new) v i e w , w h i c h sees t h e passions as improving a w o r l d gov-; ~eTrred by i n t e i e s t a l o n e , is f u l l y a r t i c u l a t e d by H u m e : ; * . . . r e a s o n s of state, w h i c h a r e s u p p o s e d s o l e l y to influence the councils of m o n a r c h s are not always 47

passion, humour, caprice, zeal, faction, a n d a t h o u

s a n d o t h e r springs, w h i c h a r e c o u n t e r t o self-inter est, h a v e as c o n s i d e r a b l e a p a r t in t h e m o v e m e n t s o f this m a c h i n e . 5 4 W e d a i l y see [ r e a s o n a b l e self-love] o v e r m a t c h e d , n o t o n l y b y t h e m o r e b o i s t e r o u s passions, b u t b y c u r i osity, s h a m e , l o v e o f i m i t a t i o n , b y a n y t h i n g , e v e n i n d o l e n c e ; e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e interest, t h e t e m p o r a l i n t e r e s t w h i c h is t h e e n d of s u c h self-love, be at a 46

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the motives which there predominate;

. . . the

g o v e r n e d b y i n t e r e s t offered n o t o n l y a n e s c a p e from e x c e s s i v e l y d e m a n d i n g m o d e l s o f states t h a t " h a v e n e v e r b e e n seen n o r h a v e b e e n k n o w n t o e x i s t " ; i t w a s perc e i v e d t o h a v e a n u m b e r o f specific assets o f u T o w n T ^ * " T h e m o s t generaj_gXj.heiue assets. fas

m i l d e r views of gratitude, honour, friendship, generosity, are f r e q u e n t l y a b l e , a m o n g p r i n c e s a s w e l l as p r i v a t e persons, to c o u n t e r b a l a n c e these selfish considerations.
57

predictability.

fh factVthe p h r a s e t u r n s i n t o a l a m e n t , or i n t o a d e n u n ciation of cynicism, w h e n a character in Schiller's play Wallenstein's Tod exclaims:

M a c h i a v e l l i h a d s h o w n that s o m e p o w e r f u l p r o p o s i t i o n s a b o u t p o l i t i c s c a n b e e x t r a c t e d f r o m the a s s u m p t i o n o f a u n i f o r m h u m a n n a t u r e . " B u t his d i a g n o s i s w a s far t o o pessimistic t o b e w i d e l y a d o p t e d w i t n e s s t h e a d m i t t e d l y e x t r e m e f o r m u l a t i o n in C h a p t e r 17 of The Prince a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h m e n are " i
0

D e n n n u r v o m N u t z e n w i r d d i e W e l t regiert.* T h i s is c l e a r l y a t r a n s l a t i o n of the s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y proverb, which Schiller was probably keen on b r i n g i n g i n t o a p l a y that d e a l t w i t h e v e n t s o f that p e r i o d . T h e o n l y t r o u b l e w a s that the d e r o g a t o r y m e a n i n g h e i m parted to the sayingin line with eighteenth-century ideological currentswas totally different from the one it had at the time of Wallenstein! T h e pamphlet L i e " stressed this p o i n t : "Interest W i l l Not

If y o u can a p p r e h e n d w h e r e i n a man's interest to a n y p a r t i c u l a r g a m e o n f o o t d o t h consist y o u m a y s u r e l y k n o w , i f the m a n b e p r u d e n t , w h e r e a b o u t t o h a v e h i m , that is, h o w t o j u d g e o f his d e s i g n .

59

Assets of an Interest-Governed World: Predictability and Constancy

S i m i l a r ideas can b e f o u n d i n the p o s t - R e s t o r a t i o n litera t u r e a d v o c a t i n g r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n . O n e tract says: . . . to surmise the acting of multitudes, contrary to

T
(

H E b e l i e f that i n t e r e s t c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d a d o m i nant motive of h u m a n behavior caused considerable

t h e i r o w n i n t e r e s t s i s t o t a k e all a s s u r a n c e o u t o f h u m a n e affairs.

i n t e l l e c t u a l e x c i t e m e n t : at last a realistic basis for a

L

v i a b l e social o r d e r h a d b e e n d i s c o v e r e d . B u t J I w o r l d

A c t I, Scene 6, L i n e 37. " F o r the world is ruled by n o t h i n g but interest." T h e c h a n g e of m e a n i n g from the p r o v e r b is here strongly assisted by the insertion of the word " n u r " " o n l y " or " n o t h i n g but."

48

49

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W e r e m i r a c l e s w r o u g h t e v e r y day, the l a w s o f n a t u r e w o u l d n o l o n g e r b e l a w s : a n d w e r e e v e r y o n e t o act for the p u b l i c , a n d n e g l e c t himself, t h e statesman w o u l d be b e w i l d e r e d . . . . . . . w e r e a p e o p l e to b e c o m e q u i t e d i s i n t e r e s t e d : there w o u l d be no possibility of g o v e r n i n g them. E v e r y o n e m i g h t c o n s i d e r the i n t e r e s t o f his c o u n t r y in a different light, and m a n y m i g h t j o i n in the ruin o f it, b y e n d e a v o r i n g t o p r o m o t e its a d v a n t a g e s .
01

( ^ A ~ m o r e w e i g h t y o b j e c t i o n t o the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a m u t u a l g a i n a r i s i n g f r o m a s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h all parties steadfastly p u r s u e t h e i r interests d e r i v e d f r o m the fact that in i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s the interests of the p r i n c i p a l p a r t i e s are o f t e n e x a c t l y o p p o s i t e t o o n e anotnerT\ T h a t the interests of o n e p o w e r a r e the m i r r o r i m a g e 7M the interests o f its c h i e f r i v a l w a s s h o w n , for e x a m p l e , for F r a n c e _ a u d S p a i n i n R o h a n ' s essay t o the p o i n t o f t e d i u m . [Even i n these c i r c u m s t a n c e s , h o w e v e r , s o m e t h i n g was t h o u g h t t o b e g a i n e d for b o t h p a r t i e s b y t h e a d h e r e n c e t o c e r t a i n r u l e s o f the g a m e a n d b y the e l i m i n a t i o n o f " p a s s i o n a t e ^ _ h e h a v i o r , w h i c h the r a t i o n a l pursuit o f i n t e r e s t i m p l i e d ^ T h e probability of an all-round gain b e c a m e somew h a t h i g h e r w h e n the d o c t r i n e was a p p l i e d t o d o m e s t i c p o l i t i c s . L i k e t h e t e r m " i n t e r e s t " itself, the n o t i o n o f a balance of interests w a s t r a n s f e r r e d in E n g l a n d f r o m its original context involved with statecraftwhere the it

^WiuHy- w t u o u s ^ p e r s o n \ l n this_ fashion the.possi &s4&kei&st?tn*p&l

y i e l d e d the c o n c e p t o f a " b a l a n c e o f p o w e r " t o t h e

iUi^rj^^^^^^^f6WdC

beca'uffe'

conflict-ridden

domestic

scene.^After

Restoration

^matter, of d o c t r i n e m e c o n o m i c s . { T h e r e w e r e o f c o u r s e a n u m b e r o f s e r i o u s difficulties w i t h this n o t i o n . F o r o n e , the m o d e r n o b j e c t i o n that unpredictability is p o w e r was already voiced at the time. W h i l e g e n e r a l l y a d h e r i n g t o t h e d o c t r i n e o f interest, S a m u e l B u t l e r h e l d that foolish a n d i n c a p a b l e p e r s o n s in government h a v e o n e a d v a n t a g e , a b o v e those that are w i s e r , a n d t h a t o f n o m e a n i m p o r t a n c e ; for n o m a n can guess, nor imagine, beforehand, w h a t course they will p r o b a b l y t a k e i n a n y b u s i n e s s that o c c u r s , w h e n 'tis n o t u n e a s y t o foresee, b y t h e i r interests, w h a t w i s e r m e n are l i k e i n r e a s o n t o d e s i g n .
03

a n d d u r i n g the d e b a t e o n r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n , t h e r e was m u c h d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t the a d v a n t a g e s that m i g h t a c c r u e to the p u b l i c i n t e r e s t f r o m t h e p r e s e n c e of a v a r i e t y of interests and from a certain tension b e t w e e n them. *
e

m^^R^uld;ri^

50

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tnfr&bfo k sfrong web of interCTTfui W^m expected* that ex" -would create more cohesive" "trAde would help avoid wars A brief remark on the historiography of e c o n o m i c

Inconstancy a c t u a l l y c a m e to t h e fore as a c e n t r a l diffi c u l t y i n c r e a t i n g a v i a b l e social o r d e r after M a c h i a v e l H ' s and Hobbes's extreme pessimism about h u m a n nature ( a n d a b o u t the r e s u l t i n g " s t a t e o f n a t u r e " ) g a v e w a y t o m o r e m o d e r a t e v i e w s i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e seven t e e n t h c e n t u r y . O n e o f t h e m a j o r social c o n t r a c t doc trines o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h a t o f P u f e n d o r f , still m a d e some reference, in the m a n n e r of H o b b e s , to the "insatiable desire and a m b i t i o n " of m a n , b u t based the n e e d for a c o v e n a n t p r i m a r i l y o n m a n ' s i n c o n s t a n c y a n d u n t r u s t w o r t h i n e s s , o n t h e fact " t h a t t h e t y p i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p o f o n e m a n t o a n o t h e r w a s t h a t o f 'an i n c o n s t a n t friend.' " c a T h i s d o c t r i n e was essentially e m b r a c e d b y L o c k e , w h o had explicitly acknowledged Pufendorf's influence on his p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t . " 7 L o c k e c o n s t r u c t e d a state o f na t u r e t h a t is, i f n o t " i d y l l i c " a s s o m e c r i t i c s h a v e p u t it, at least r e m a r k a b l y n o n p r i m i t i v e , private property, inheritance, a l i v e as it is w i t h even to commerce, and

doctrines may be inserted here. Writings on mercantilist doctrine have accredited the idea that e c o n o m i c think i n g prior t o H u m e a n d A d a m S m i t h considered trade as s t r i c t l y a zero-sum g a m e , w i t h t h e g a i n a c c r u i n g to t h e c o u n t r y w i t h a n excess o f e x p o r t s o v e r i m p o r t s w h i l e a n e q u i v a l e n t loss i s suffered b y t h e c o u n t r y i n t h e o p p o s i t e position. B u t anyone l o o k i n g at the w h o l e range of con s i d e r a t i o n s o n c o m m e r c e a n d t r a d e e x p r e s s e d i n seven teenthand eighteenth-century discussion a b o u t all-round beneficial writings, trade effects rather balance, were than will o n l y at the conclude the

that

widely

e x p e c t e d t o flow f r o m t h e e x p a n s i o n o f c o m m e r c e . M a n y o f t h e s e effects w e r e p o l i t i c a l , social, a n d e v e n m o r a l rather than purely economic, and a n u m b e r of them w i l l b e r e v i e w e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s o f this essay, rP r e d i c t a b i l i t y i n its m o s t e l e m e n t a r y f o r m i s c o n ; stancy7"and"'it is this q u a l i t y " t h a t " w a s p e r h a p s t h e m o s t f i m p o r t a n t g r o u n d for w e l c o ' " g a g " y ^ r n e d J ^ _ interest. T h e erratic a n d fluctuating character o f most passionate behavior had often been stressed and was c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f its m o s t o b j e c t i o n a b l e a n d d a n g e r o u s features. T h e passions w e r e " d i v e r s " cording to Spinoza, M e n m a y differ i n n a t u r e f r o m o n e a n o t h e r i n s o f a r as t h e y a r e a g i t a t e d by . . . passions, a n d i n s o f a r as o n e a n d t h e s a m e m a n i s a g i t a t e d b y passions i s h e changeable and inconstant.05 ( H o b b e s ) , capri c i o u s , easily e x h a u s t e d a n d s u d d e n l y r e n e w e d a g a i n . A c

m o n e y . B u t p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e o f this o d d l y " a d v a n c e d " c h a r a c t e r o f L o c k e ' s state o f n a t u r e t h e r e i s n e e d secure it firmly through a c o m p a c t that will ensure the p e r m a n e n c e o f its a c h i e v e m e n t s . T h e L o c k e a n c o m p a c t i s m e a n t t o r e m o v e t h e " i n c o n v e n i e n c e s , t h a t [ m e n ] are e x p o s e d t o [in t h e state o f n a t u r e ] , b y t h e i r r e g u l a r a n d u n c e r t a i n e x e r c i s e o f t h e P o w e r e v e r y M a n has o f p u n i s h i n g t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n o f o t h e r s . . . .' , | i R E l s e w h e r e L o c k e says t h a t " F r e e d o m o f M e n u n d e r G o v e r n m e n t " m e a n s ] " n o t to be subject to the inconstant, l^knowh, Arbitrary Will of another uncertain,
(!0

un-;

man."

{ijncertainty'

in general and man's inconstancy in particular therefore b e c o m e the arch-enemy that needs to be exorcised. Al t h o u g h L o c k e d o e s n o t a p p e a l to* i n t e r e s t t o k e e p i n c o n s t a n c y at bay, t h e r e is c l e a r l y an affinity b e t w e e n t h e 53

'

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C o m m o n w e a l t h he is a t t e m p t i n g to construct a n d the seventeenth-century image of a w o r l d r u l e d by interest. F o r in the pursuit of their interests m e n w e r e e x p e c t e d o r a s s u m e d t o b e steadfast, s i n g l e - m i n d e d , a n d m e t h o d ical, in total contrast to t h e ^ t e r e o t y p e d b e h a v i o r of m e n w h o are b u f f e t e d a n d b l i n d e d by, t h e i r p a s s i o n s . T h i s a s p e c t o f t h e m a t t e r also h e l p s u s u n d e r s t a n d t h e e v e n t u a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f i n t e r e s t i n its o r i g i n a l b r o a d sense w i t h o n e p a r t i c u l a r passion, t h e l o v e o f m o n e y . F o r t h e p e r c e i v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f this p a s s i o n , w h i c h set it apart from others, w e r e precisely constancy, doggedness, a n d s a m e n e s s f r o m o n e d a y t o t h e n e x t a n d f r o m o n e p e r s o n t o a n o t h e r . I n o n e o f h i s essays H u m e s p e a k s of a v a r i c e w i t h o u t b o t h e r i n g to disguise it as "inter est"as an rates: | A y a r i c e , or the d e s i r e o f j j a i n , is a u n i v e r s a l p a s s i o n
J

p r a i s a l o f a v a r i c e i s g i v e n b y S a m u e l J o h n s o n i n Rasselas, w h e r e t h a t A b y s s i n i a n p r i n c e tells o f his c a p t i v i t y : M y c o n d i t i o n h a d lost m u c h o f its t e r r o r s i n c e I f o u n d that the A r a b r a n g e d the country m e r e l y to get riches. A v a r i c e is a uifiform a n d tractable v i c e ; . , o t h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s t e m p e r s a r e d i f f e r e n t i n differ ent constitutions of m i n d ; that w h i c h soothes the p r i d e o f o n e w i l l offend t h e p r i d e o f a n o t h e r ; b u t to the favor of the c o v e t o u s there is a ready way: bring money and nothing is denied.71 T h e J^rnarjsa^le .QOJlsjancy_and p e r s ^ ^ n ^ ^ f ^ h ^ j j a ^ i o n i ^f^accu^mh^don is also noted'^^Montes^maTT^1^" the small to the

"obstinate passion";70 in another he elabo

O n e c o m m e r c e leads to another:

m e d i u m ; the m e d i u m to the large; a n d the person w h o was so a n x i o u s to m a k e a little m o n e y places h i m s e l f i n a s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h h e i s n o less a n x i o u s to m a k e a l o t . 7 2 H e r e M o n t e s q u i e u seems to m a r v e l at m o n e y ' s b e i n g an_ e x c e p t i o n t o w h a t b e c a m e k n o w n i n m o d e r n eco nomics as the law of decreasing m a r g i n a l utility. A b o u t o n e h u n d r e d f i f t y years later the German sociologist

"which o p e r a t e s a t a l l t i m e s , i n a l l places, a n d u p o n ill p e r s o n s . " I n t h e Treatise H u m e h a d s p e c i f i c a l l y c o n t r a s t e d t h e

^^ieMi^^'aWiiir^tM^
A n o t h e r c o m p a r a t i v e ap Essays Moral, Political, and Literary, ed. . H. G r e e n a n d . H . G r o s e ( L o n d o n : L o n g m a n s , 1898), V o l . I , p . 176. C o m p a r e this to H u m e ' s d e s c r i p t i o n of love in a n o t h e r essay: " L o v e is a restless a n d i m p a t i e n t passion, full of c a p r i c e a n d v a r i a t i o n s : aris i n g in a m o m e n t from a feature, from an air, from n o t h i n g , and s u d d e n l y e x t i n g u i s h i n g after the same m a n n e r " (p. 238). A Treatise of Human Nature, R o o k I I I , P a r t I I , S e c t i o n I I . T h i s c o m p a r a t i v e appraisal is m a d e in the c o n t e x t of H u m e ' s a c c o u n t for the existence of civil society, and the strength a n d u n i v e r s a l i t y of the desire of g a i n are first p r e s e n t e d as a threat to society. H u m e t h e n shows h o w this threat is a v e r t e d " u p o n the
V

G e o r g S i m m e l m a d e some i l l u m i n a t i n g r e m a r k s o n this very s u b j e c t . N o r m a l l y , h e said, t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f h u m a n d e s i r e m e a n s a n i n t i m a t e a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h a l l t h e di v e r s e facets o f t h e d e s i r e d o b j e c t o r e x p e r i e n c e , a n d this acquaintance i s r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e w e l l - k n o w n disso b u t the desire satisfied, is n a n c e b e t w e e n d e s i r e a n d f u l f i l m e n t , w h i c h takes m o s t frequently the form of disappointment; for any given amount of money, once

least reflection; since 'tis e v i d e n t that the passion is m u c h better satisfied by its restraint. . . ." See a b o v e , p. 25.

54

55

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! u n i q u e l y i m m u n e to this d i s a p p o i n t m e n t provided that

a l r e a d y i n e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d w h e r e the B a n k crisis of 1710, the S o u t h Sea B u b b l e of 1720, a n d t h e w i d e s p r e a d p o l i t i c a l c o r r u p t i o n o f the a g e o f W a l p o l e g a v e rise t o c o n c e r n s that the o l d o r d e r w a s b e i n g undermined by money. Bolingbroke, Walpole's T o r y adversary, l a u n c h e d a few a t t a c k s on the s t o c k j o b b e r s a n d the p o w e r f u l nouveaux riches of his d a y a n d e v e n came than to d e n o u n c e , honour, in his n e w s p a p e r , relation, The Craftsman, or the r o l e that m o n e y w a s o c c u p y i n g a s " a m o r e l a s t i n g tie friendship, consanguinity, u n i t y o f affections.""' B u t these f e e l i n g s w e r e t o a s s u m e s o m e i d e o l o g i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o n l y w e l l i n t o the s e c o n d h a l f o f the c e n t u r y a m o n g the S c o t t i s h w r i t e r s , p a r t i c u larly A d a m Ferguson, and in France with M a b l y and Morelly. D u r i n g m u c h of the century, in both E n g l a n d and France, the d o m i n a n t appraisal of the " l o v e of g a i n " w a s p o s i t i v e , i f s o m e w h a t d i s d a i n f u l , a s i n the a b o v e q u o t e d passage f r o m Rasselas (". . . t h e _ A r a b r a n g e d the_cojnmtry_^ere^ to get riches"). D r . J o h n s o n is also r e s p o n s i b l e for a r e l a t e d , f a m o u s , and, in o u r context, particularly r e v e a l i n g r e m a r k :

^^A'FA
able."
7 3

thing absolutely

v d e v o i d of quality, [money] cannot hide either surprise o r d i s a p p o i n t m e n t a s d o e s a n y o b j e c t , h o w e v e r miserS i m m e r s psychological explanation might have appealed to H u m e , Montesquieu, and Dr. Johnson, w h o w e r e o b v i o u s l y i n t r i g u e d b y the c o n s t a n c y o f t h e l o v e o f m o n e y , so p e c u l i a r a q u a l i t y in a passion. j H T h e insatiability of auri sacra fames h a d o f t e n b e e n c o n s i d e r e d t h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s a n d r e p r e h e n s i b l e aspect of that passion. By a s t r a n g e twist, b e c a u s e of the preoccupation of post-Hobbesian thinking with' J e v e r m e l e s s , for this r a d i c a i c n a n g e i r T v a i u a t i o n t o c a r r y c o n v i c t i o n , a n d t o effectuate a temporary suspension of d e e p l y rooted patterns o f t h o u g h t a n d j u d g m e n t , i t w a s necessary t o e n d o w t h e "obstinatf" ri iirMjir
p

" H A R M T E S T T E S S T

^nin-TRFRH~an

^drlitionnJ_qiulitv_;

Money-Making and Commerce as Innocent and Doux

HE insight a b o u t the characteristic persistence of the " i n t e r e s t e d a f f e c t i o n " ( H u m e ) is rather apt to

strike the m o d e r n reader as alarming, because he will i m m e d i a t e l y t h i n k of the l i k e l i h o o d that a d r i v e so p o w e r f u l l y e n d o w e d w o u l d s w e e p e v e r y t h i n g else o u t o f its p a t h . T h i s r e a c t i o n f o u n d its m o s t v i g o r o u s a n d f a m o u s a r t i c u l a t i o n a c e n t u r y later, in t h e Communist Manifesto. T p b e sure, s o m e n o t e s o f a l a r m w e r e s o u n d e d 56

C i t e d in Isaac K r a m n i c k , Bolingbroke and his Circle: The Politics of Nostalgia in the Age of Walpole ( C a m b r i d g e , Mass.: H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1968), p. 73; see C h a p t e r I I I in g e n e r a l for a presentation of B o l i n g b r o k e as an early " p o p u l i s t " politician. K r a m n i c k m a y have o v e r d r a w n this p i c t u r e a t the e n d of C h a p t e r I I I he has to rely on H u m e for the most t e l l i n g indictm e n t of some of the financial i n n o v a t i o n s of the period. F o r a different v i e w of E o l i n g b r o k e ' s o p p o s i t i o n , see Q u e n t i n S k i n n e r , " T h e Principles and Practice o f O p p o s i t i o n : T h e Case o f B o l i n g b r o k e versus W a l p o l e , " in N e i l M c K e n d r i c k , ed., Historical Perspectives: Studies in English Thought and Society in Honour of J. H. Plumb ( L o n d o n : E u r o p a , 1974), p p . 9 3 - 2 1 8 ; a n d J. G. A. Pocock, " M a c h i a v e l l i , " p p . 5 7 7 - 5 7 8 . P o c o c k argues that B o l i n g b r o k e was exercised less o v e r the rise of the market than o v e r the p o w e r that the C o u r t a n d the P r i m e M i n i s t e r could w i e l d as a result of the enlarged financial resources at their disposal.

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''^| T h e r e are few w a y s i n w h i c h a m a n can b e m o r e I innocently e m p l o y e d than in getting m o n e y .

7 4

cial and e c o n o m i c activities were therefore looked upon m o r e k i n d l y n o t b e c a u s e o f a n y rise i n the e s t e e m i n w h i c h they w e r e h e l d ; o n the c o n t r a r y , a n y p r e f e r e n c e for t h e m e x p r e s s e d a_desire for a y a c a t i o n _ f r o m (disast

^ T h i s e p i g r a m spells o u t a n o t h e r c o u n t o n w h i c h interestmotivated behavior and money-making were considered to be superior to ordinary passion-oriented behavior. T h e passions w e r e w i l d a n d d a n g e r o u s , w h e r e a s l o o k i n g \ after o n e ' s m a t e r i a l interests w a s i n n o c e n t or, as o n e w o u l d say today, i n n o c u o u s . T h i s i s a little k n o w n y e t p a r t i c u l a r l y r e v e a l i n g c o m p o n e n t o f the c o m p l e x o f ideas u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n . f~ T h e e v a l u a t i o n of c o m m e r c i a l and money-making p u r s u i t s a s h a r m l e s s a n d i n n o c u o u s can b e u n d e r s t o o d " a s a n i n d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e l o n g - d o m i n a n t aristocratic i d e a l . A s n o t e d earlier, w h e n the faith i n this ideal had been severely shaken and the " h e r o " had been" " d e m o l i s h e d , " the l o n g - m a l i g n e d t r a d e r d i d n o t corres p o n d i n g l y rise in p r e s t i g e : the i d e a that he w a s a m e a r ^ g r u b b y , a n d u n i n s p i r i n g f e l l o w l i n g e r e d for a l o n g timej T h e r e e v e n w a s d o u b t that c o m m e r c e was a n efficient i n s t r u m e n t i n r e l a t i o n t o its o w n m o n e y - m a k i n g o b j e c t i v e s a d o u b t e x p r e s s e d as late as the m i d - e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y b y V a u v e n a r g u e s i n the s u r p r i s i n g m a x i m : " I n terest m a k e s few f o r t u n e s . " fighting, a c q u i r e s wealth
75

trous) greatness, a n d t h u s reflected c o n t i n u i n g c o n t e m p t . I n a sense, t h e t r i u m p h o f c a p i t a l i s m , l i k e that o f m a n y m o d e r n tyrants, o w e s m u c h t o t h e w i d e s p r e a d refusal to take it seriously or to believe it capable of great design or a c h i e v e m e n t , a refusal so e v i d e n t in D r . J o h n s o n ' s remark. T h e J o h n s o n i a n e p i g r a m a b o u t the i n n o c u o u s n e s s o f " m o n e y g e t t i n g " h a d its c o u n t e r p a r t i n F r a n c e . I n fact, the i d e n t i c a l t e r m " i n n o c e n t " c a n be f o u n d as a c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t i e s i n the p r e a m b l e o f the 1669 e d i c t that d e c l a r e d s e a b o r n e c o m m e r c e to be compatible with nobility: Whereas Commerce is the fertile source which

b r i n g s a b u n d a n c e t o the states a n d spreads i t a m o n g its s u b j e c t s . . .; a n d w h e r e a s no w a y of a c q u i r i n g w e a l t h is m o r e i n n o c e n t a n d m o r e l e g i t i m a t e . . . , "

7 7

S u b s e q u e n t l y another, at first sight even o d d e r term c a u g h t o n . T h e r e w a s m u c h talk, f r o m the l a t e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y o n , a b o u t the douceur of c o m m e r c e : w o r d n o t o r i o u s l y difficult t o guages a translate i n t o o t h e r lan-

T h a t "a man of quality, by honorably and quickly

more

t h a n a m e a n e r m a n by w o r k " has b e e n c a l l e d a basic b e l i e f o f the S p a n i a r d s a s t h e y e m e r g e d from the R e c o n quest,

70

(as, for e x a m p l e , in la douce France), it c o n v e y s

b u t the i d e a was w i d e l y s h a r e d . T h e v e r y c o n -

sweetness, softness, c a l m , a n d g e n t l e n e s s a n d is t h e a n t o n y m o f v i o l e n c e . T h e f i r s t m e n t i o n o f this q u a l i f i c a t i o n of c o m m e r c e I have been able to find occurs in Jacques S a v a r y ' s Le parfait negociant, t e x t b o o k for b u s i n e s s m e n : [ D i v i n e P r o v i d e n c e ] has n o t w i l l e d for e v e r y t h i n g that is n e e d e d for life to be f o u n d in the s a m e spot. I t has d i s p e r s e d its gifts s o t h a t m e n w o u l d trade 59 the seventeenth-century

t e m p t i n w h i c h e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t i e s w e r e h e l d l e d t o the c o n v i c t i o n , i n spite o f m u c h e v i d e n c e t o the c o n t r a r y , that t h e y c o u l d n o t p o s s i b l y h a v e m u c h p o t e n t i a l i n a n y area of h u m a n endeavor a n d w e r e incapable of causing e i t h e r g o o d or evil on a g r a n d scale, [in an a g e in w h i c h m e n w e r e s e a r c h i n g for w a y s o f l i m i t i n g the d a m a g e a n d h o r r o r s they are w o n t t o inflict o n e a c h o t h e r , c o m m e r 58

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COUNTERACTING most verbatim in

THE the

PASSIONS Scottish historian

t o g e t h e r a n d s o that the m u t u a l n e e d w h i c h t h e y h a v e t o h e l p o n e a n o t h e r w o u l d e s t a b l i s h ties o f friendship among them. This continuous exchange

the w o r k o f

W i l l i a m R o b e r t s o n , w h o w r i t e s in his View of the Prog-

ress of Society in Europe

(1769):
and animosity between na-

\J

of all the comforts of life constitutes commerce and this commerce makes for all the gentleness (douc e u r ) of life. . . .
7S

C o m m e r c e t e n d s t o w e a r off those p r e j u d i c e s w h i c h maintain distinctions t i o n s . It softens and polishes t h e m a n n e r s of men."' T h e expression "the polished nations," in contradistinct i o n t o the " r u d e a n d b a r b a r o u s " o n e s , c a m e t o b e c o m m o n l y u s e d i n E n g l a n d a n d S c o t l a n d t o w a r d the s e c o n d h a l f o f the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I t d e s i g n a t e d the c o u n tries o f W e s t e r n E u r o p e w h o s e i n c r e a s i n g w e a l t h w a s c l e a r l y p e r c e i v e d t o h a v e m u c h t o d o w i t h the e x p a n s i o n of commerce. T h e term "polished" may well have been s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e of its affinity w i t h adouci: in this m a n n e r t h e douceur o f c o m m e r c e c o u l d h a v e b e e n i n d i r e c t l y ) ' ! r e s p o n s i b l e for the first a t t e m p t at e x p r e s s i n g a d i c h o t omy on. T h e o r i g i n o f the e p i t h e t .doux. i s p r o b a b l y to be found in the "noncommercial" m e a n i n g o f commerce; that r e a p p e a r e d l a t e r under such labels as "advanced-backward," "developed-underdeveloped," and so

T h i s passage first exj ;>ounds the i d e a of a " f a v o r a b l e interest o f p r o v i d e n c e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e " V i n e r has t r a c e d t o the f o u r t h c e n t u r y A . D . v e r y m u c h t o the era i n w h i c h h e w r o t e . T h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l e x p o n e n t o f the d o c t r i n e o f the doux commerce w a s M o n t e s q u i e u . In t h e p a r t of Esprit des lots t h a t d e a l s w i t h e c o n o m i c m a t t e r s he states in . [/ the o p e n i n g c h a p t e r : . . . i t i s a l m o s t a g e n e r a l r u l e that w h e r e v e r t h e i w a y s of m a n a r e g e n t l e (mceurs douces)
s o

that J a c o b
T U

B u t the

last s e n t e n c e on douceur, u n d e r l i n e d by S a v a r y , b e l o n g s

t h e r e is

X ) c o m m e r c e ; a n d w h e r e v e r t h e r e is c o m m e r c e , t h e r e I the ways of m e n are g e n t l e .

A n d later in the same chapter he repeats: C o m m e r c e . . . p o l i s h e s a n d softens b a r i a n w a y s a s w e c a n see e v e r y d a y . I t i s n o t v e r y c l e a r i n M o n t e s q u i e u w h e t h e r the dou; ceuHjadjucing_eff^ is s u p p o s e d to be b r o u g h t a b o u t b y the c h a n g e s c o m m e r c e w o r k s a m o n g . t h e p e o p l e e n g a g i n g i n t r a d i n g a c t i v i t i e s or, m o r e a m p l y , \ a m o n g all those w h o use a n d c o n s u m e the c o m m o d i t i e s m a d e available through commerce. In any event, the t e r m i n its w i d e s t m e a n i n g h a d a successful c a r e e r o u t s i d e F r a n c e . T w e n t y - o n e y e a r s after the p u b l i c a t i o n o f M o n t e s q u i e u ' s w o r k the just c i t e d p h r a s e i s f o u n d al(adoucit) bar-

besides trade the w o r d l o n g d e n o t e d a n i m a t e d ' a ^ i d ' r e jjearerl c o n v e r s a t i o n _jnt^r/v^nrgp anH and other forms oL..pOlitesocial -^rprmg p e r s o n s (frequently
y

Hpgljngt

b e t w e e n t w o p e r s o n s o f the o p p o s i t e s e x ) . I t w a s i n this T h i s work, w h i c h is the preface to Robertson's History of the Reign of the Emperor Charles V, has recently been edited and supplied w i t h an i n t r o d u c t i o n by F e l i x G i l b e r t (University of C h i c a g o Press, 197a). T h e cited passage (emphasis mine) is on p. 67. In the "Proofs and Illustrations" a p p e n d e d to his essay R o b e r t s o n refers to Montesquieu's introduction to the part of Esprit des his- that deals w i t h commerce (see p. 165), though not to the precise phrase he adopts from that work. y T h i s is true for English as well as for French. See the Oxford English Dictionary.
x

60

61

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PASSIONS

AND

THE

INTERESTS

COUNTERACTING

THE

PASSIONS

c o n n e c t i o n that the t e r m doux w a s o f t e n u s e d in conj u n c t i o n w i t h commerce. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e i n t e r n a l r u l e s of a P a r i s i a n college issued in 1769 c o n t a i n t h e sentence: A s t h e y are t o l i v e i n society u p o n l e a v i n g the College, t h e p u p i l s w i l l b e t r a i n e d a t a n e a r l y stage in t h e p r a c t i c e of a g e n t l e , easy a n d h o n e s t inter-

T h e i m a g e of the t r a d e r as a doux, p e a c e f u l , inoffensive f e l l o w m a y h a v e d r a w n s o m e s t r e n g t h f r o m c o m p a r m g h i m w i t h the l o o t i n g a r m i e s a n d m u r d e r o u s pirates ot the t i m e ^ B u t in France even m o r e than in England" i t m a y also h a v e h a d m u c h t o d o w i t h the lenses w i t h w h i c h p e o p l e l o o k e d a t d i f f e r e n t social g r o u p s : a n y o n e w h o d i d n o t b e l o n g t o the n o b i l i t y c o u l d n o t , b y definition, share in h e r o i c v i r t u e s or v i o l e n t passions. A f t e r all, s u c h a p e r s o n h a d o n l y interests a n d n o t g l o r y t o p u r s u e , a n d e v e r y b o d y knew that this p u r s u i t was b o u n d to be doux in c o m p a r i s o n to the p a s s i o n a t e p a s t i m e s a n d savage e x p l o i t s o f the a r i s t o c r a c y ^

course

(un commerce doux, aise et honnete).*

T h e t e r m thus c a r r i e d i n t o its " c o m m e r c i a l " c a r e e r a n o v e r l o a d o f m e a n i n g that d e n o t e d p o l i t e n e s s , p o l i s h e d manners, and socially useful b e h a v i o r in general. E v e n so, the p e r s i s t e n t use of t h e t e r m le doux commerce strikes us as a s t r a n g e a b e r r a t i o n for an a g e w h e n t h e slave trade was a t its p e a k a n d w h e n t r a d e i n g e n e r a l was still a h a z a r d o u s , a d v e n t u r o u s , a n d o f t e n v i o l e n t business.
2

Money-Making as a Calm Passion

A c e n t u r y l a t e r the t e r m w a s d u l y r i d i c u l e d

b y M a r x w h o , i n a c c o u n t i n g for t h e p r i m i t i v e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l , r e c o u n t s s o m e o f the m o r e v i o l e n t e p i sodes i n the h i s t o r y o f E u r o p e a n c o m m e r c i a l e x p a n s i o n a n d t h e n e x c l a i m s sarcastically: " D a s ist d e r doux com-

N T H E c o u r s e of the e i g h t e e n t h , c e n t u r y the_p_osjtive a t t i t u d e t o w a r d e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t i e s ^was b o l s t e r e d b y

n e w i d e o l o g i c a l c u r r e n t s . G r o u n d e d t h o u g h i t w a s i n the somber seventeenth-century views on h u m a n nature, it survived remarkably well the sharp attack on those views that was m o u n t e d in the succeeding age. T h e e a r l i e r v i e w s o n t h e interests a n d passions w e r e s u b j e c t e d t o s e v e r a l c r i t i q u e s . F o r o n e , a s has a l r e a d y b e e n s h o w n , t h e proposition..that m a n i s wholly., r u l e d b y i n t e r e s t o r self-love c a m e t o b e s t r o n g l y d i s p u t e d ^ A t the s a m e t i m e , a n u m b e r o f n o v e l d i s t i n c t i o n s w e r e m a d e a m o n g t h e passions for the p u r p o s e o f p r e s e n t i n g s o m e of them as_less_ h a r m f u l than others, if n o t as outr i g h t b e n e f i c i a l . (n this w a y t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n ben i g n a n d m a l i g n a n t passions quisitive propensities ( w i t h s o m e types o f acamong the former) classified

merce!"
- T h e trade-and-exchange-conscious Savary was a b l e to c o m e to terms w i t h the institution of slavery by p o i n t i n g o u t that the " c u l t i v a t i o n of tobacco, sugar a n d i n d i g o . . . does n o t fail to be a d v a n t a g e o u s " to the slaves because of "the k n o w l e d g e of the true G o d a n d of C h r i s t i a n . r e l i g i o n w h i c h is s u p p l i e d to t h e m as a k i n d of c o m p e n s a t i o n for the loss of liberty." C i t e d in E. Levasseur, Histoire du commerce de la France (Paris: A. R o u s s e a u , 1 9 1 1 ) , V o l . I, p. 302. Das Kapital, V o l . I, C h a p t e r 24, Section 6. T h e term b e c a m e a p p a r e n t l y a p r i v a t e j o k e b e t w e e n M a r x a n d Engels. W h e n the latter finally g a v e up, in 1869, his c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the family textile firm in o r d e r to d e v o t e himself w h o l l y to the socialist m o v e m e n t , he w r o t e M a r x : " H u r r a h ! T o d a y marks the e n d of the doux commerce, a n d I am a free m a n . " L e t t e r of J u l y 1, 1869, in K a r l M a r x - F r i e d rich Engels, Werke ( B e r l i n : Dietz, 1965), V o l . 32, p.
7

became the eighteenth-century equivalent, especially in England, of the seventeenth-century opposition between

62

63

THE

PASSIONS

AND

THE

INTERESTS

COUNTERACTING

THE

PASSIONS

interests a n d passions;

but

the

two dichotomies

over

c r e a t e s to the p e r s o n h i m s e l f . S u c h a o n e is in r e a l i t y a self-oppressor, and lies h e a v i e r on h i m s e l f t h a n he c a n ever d o o n m a n k i n d . then. rtMfc it is pdsto rancis Hutcheson
82

l a p p e d a n d c o e x i s t e d for a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d ? ) T h e n e w l i n e o f t h o u g h t was d e v e l o p e d , p r i m a r i l y i n c r i t i c a l r e a c t i o n t o H o b b e s ' s t h o u g h t , b y t h e so-called [sentimental school of E n g l i s h a n d Scottish m o r a l phil o s o p h e r s , from Shaftesbury to H u t c h e s o n and Hume.' ' Shaftesbury's m a i n c o n t r i b u t i o n was the r e h a b i l i t a t i o n or rediscovery of w h a t he calls the " n a t u r a l affections," s u c h a s b e n e v o l e n c e a n d g e n e r o s i t y . D i s t i n g u i s h i n g be tween their impact on the p r i v a t e a n d o n t h e p u b l i c g o o d , i t i s n o t difficult for h i m t o s h o w t h a t these f i n e sen t i m e n t s serve b o t h . S h a f t e s b u r y t h e n addresses h i m s e l f t o the less a d m i r a b l e affections o r passions a n d d i v i d e s t h e m into the "self-affections" or "self-passions," which are a i m e d at, a n d m a y l e a d to, t h e p r i v a t e b u t n o t neces sarily t h e p u b l i c g o o d , a n d t h e " u n n a t u r a l a f f e c t i o n s " ( i n h u m a n i t y , e n v y , etc.), w h i c h a c h i e v e n e i t h e r p u b l i c n o r p r i v a t e g o o d . W / t h i n e a c h c a t e g o r y h e f u r t h e r dis t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n m o d e r a t e a n d i m m o d e r a t e affections. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o w a t c h w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n h e tries t o f i t e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t i e s i n t o this c o n c e p t u a l s c h e m e . H e treats t h e m u n d e r t h e r u b r i c o f " s e l f - p a s s i o n s , " b u t t h e n p r o c e e d s t o a r g u e t h e m o u t o f it. If the regard toward [acquisition of wealth] be mod erate, a n d in a reasonable d e g r e e ; if it occasions no passionate pursuitthere is n o t h i n g in this case w h i c h i s n o t c o m p a t i b l e w i t h v i r t u e , a n d e v e n suit able and beneficial to society. B u t if it grows at l e n g t h i n t o a r e a l passion; t h e i n j u r y a n d m i s c h i e f it does the public, is not greater than that w h i c h it
A l t h o u g h A d a m S m i t h was a n i m p o r t a n t m e m b e r o f the school, his Theory of Moral Sentiments d i d n o t d e a l w i t h the p a r t i c u l a r d i s t i n c t i o n s that Shaftesbury a n d H u t c h e s o n in particu l a r treat at c o n s i d e r a b l e l e n g t h . He s i m i l a r l y i g n o r e d the distinc t i o n b e t w e e n t h e passions a n d t h e interests; see b e l o w , p p . n o bb

moaeyaj^infi^B^agj^mi^^JnH^n";!y w h e n .^.tirsueSFm promoted all the_way^1t%"a1^ha!?^^ tffection," which

11

which achieves both private a n d ^ p u l j l i c - j ^ ^ , jul; unnatuial

* * d & Q

^-'-'

simplifies

Shaftesbury s

scheme pas-

a n d ^distinguishes, b e t w e e n

benexoieac^arid^^Ifish

skins, o n t h e o n e h a n d , and c a l m and y i o l e n t ^ ' n r a t i o n s o f the.wiH,'' o n the o t h e r . A m o n g the few e x a m p l e s h e g i v e s t o i l l u s t r a t e the l a t t e r c o n t r a s t , h e t o o c i t e s eco n o m i c activities: . . . the c a l m d e s i r e of w e a l t h will f o r c e one, tho' w i t h r e l u c t a n c e , i n t o s p l e n d i d e x p e n c e s w h e n neces sary to g a i n a good b a r g a i n or a g a i n f u l ment; these e x p e n c e s . 8 3 YThe criterion by which Hutcheson here divides the employ w h i l e the p a s s i o n o f a v a r i c e i s r e p i n i n g a t

" c a l m desire of w e a l t h "

( n o t e that " c a l m " i s the E n g l i s h

e q u i v a l e n t of doux) f r o m a v a r i c e is not i n t e n s i t y of desjre, but w i U m g n e s s t o pay h i g h c o s t s t o a c h i e v e . even hjgirgl' b e n e f i t s . A c a l m d e s i r e is t h u s d e f i n e d a s one that acts w i t h c a l c u l a t i o n and r a t i o n a l i t y , - e x a c t l x e q u i v a l e n t to what jn w a s _ u n d e r s t o o d by i n t e r e s t . \ T h e r e was one problem with the new terminology: w h i l e a v i c t o r y of the i n t e r e s t s o v e r the passions c o u l d be r e a d i l y v i s u a l i z e d , l a n g u a g e m a k e s i t r a t h e r m o r e diffi c u l t to see how the c a l m passions c o u l d c o m e out on top i n a c o n t e s t w i t h the v i o l e n t o n e s . H u m e , who had also 65 and i s t h e r e f o r e century the s e v e n t e e n t h

112. 64

THE

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AND

THE

INTERESTS

a d o p t e d t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n c a l m a n d v i o l e n t passions, f a c e d t h e m a t t e r s q u a r e l y a n d r e s o l v e d i t i n o n e sharp sentence: We m u s t . . . d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w i x t a c a l m a n d a w e a k p a s s i o n ; b e t w i x t a v i o l e n t a n d a s t r o n g one.*' I n this w a y e v e r y t h i n g w a s w e l l : a n a c t i v i t y s u c h as_jhe rationally conducted

PART TWO How Economic Expansion was Expected to Improve the Political Order

he a desire w h i c h , though generally calm and dispassionate, c o m e s w i t h us f r o m the w o m b , a n d n e v e r l e a v e s u s till w e g o i n t o t h e g r a v e . " " A n d a specific e x a m p l e o f this c a l m b u t s t r o n g passion g a i n i n g t h e u p p e r h a n d o v e r a v i o l e n t o n e i s g i v e n b y H u m e i n his essay " O f I n t e r e s t " - / ^
5

It is an i n f a l l i b l e c o n s e q u e n c e of all i n d u s t r i o u s professions, to . . . m a k e the l o v e of g a i n p r e v a i l o v e r the l o v e o f p l e a s u r e . "

8

' E v e n m o r e e x t r a v a g a n t c l a i m s o n b e h a l f o f the " l o v e o f g a i n " w i l l b e e x a m i n e d s h o r t l y . B u t , a t this p o i n t o f o u r story, H u m e ' s s t a t e m e n t can s t a n d a s t h e c u l m i n a ition o f the m o v e m e n t o f i d e a s that has b e e n t r a c e d : capi t a l i s m is h e r e h a i l e d by a l e a d i n g p h i l o s o p h e r of the a g e b e c a u s e i t w o u l d _activate" s o m e E g u l g n hrrnran p r o - clivities at the expense of some m a l i g n a n t onesbecause o f t h e e x p e c t a t i o n that, i n this w a y ; i t w o u l d r e p r e s s a n d perhaps atrophy the more destructive and disastrous components of h u m a n nature.

66

T A P P E A R S t h a t the case for g i v i n g free r e i n a n d encouragement to private acquisitive pursuits was both

the o u t c o m e o f a l o n g train o f W e s t e r n t h o u g h t a n d a n i m p o r t a n t i n g r e d i e n t o f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l c l i m a t e o f the s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . I f the "interestsversus-passions t h e s i s " is n e v e r t h e l e s s q u i t e unfamiliar., i t i s s o p a r t l y o w i n g t o its h a v i n g b e e n s u p e r s e d e d a n d o b l i t e r a t e d by the e p o c h a l p u b l i c a t i o n , in 1776, of The

Wealth

of Nations.

A n o t h e r r e a s o n w h y the thesis i s u n f a m i l i a r c a n b e i n f e r r e d f r o m the l a b o r i o u s w a y i n w h i c h i t h a d t o b e p u t t o g e t h e r i n the p r e c e d i n g p a g e s f r o m bits a n d p i e c e s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l e v i d e n c e . ^By d r a w i n g o n a w i d e r a n g e o f s o u r c e s I h a v e a t t e m p t e d to s h o w that the thesis was p a r t o f w h a t M i c h a e l P o l a n y i has c a l l e d the " t a c i t d i m e n s i o n , " t h a t is, p r o p o s i t i o n s a n d o p i n i o n s s h a r e d by a g r o u p a n d s o o b v i o u s t o i t that t h e y are n e v e r f u l l y o r s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a r t i c u l a t e d ! ) It is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f this s i t u a t i o n t h a t a n u m b e r o f i m p o r t a n t a u t h o r s including, interestingly enough, A d a m Smith himself d e v e l o p e d s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o r v a r i a n t s o f the n o n a r t i c u l a t e d basic t h e o r y . A p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t varia n t i s the s u b j e c t o f the f o l l o w i n g p a g e s . A s w a s p o i n t e d o u t e a r l i e r , the o r i g i n s o f t h e thesis are t o b e f o u n d i n the c o n c e r n w i t h statecraft. T h e pas-j sions that m o s t n e e d b r i d l i n g b e l o n g t o the p o w e r f u l , ' 69

THE

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AND

THE

INTERESTS

IMPROVING

THE

POLITICAL

ORDER

w h o are i n a p o s i t i o n t o d o h a r m o n a h u g e s t a l e a n d w e r e b e l i e v e d t o b e p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l e n d o w e d w i t h pass i o n s in c o m p a r i s o n to the lesser o r d e r s . As a result, the m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s o f the thesis s h o w h o w the w i l l f u l n e s s , t h e disastrous l u s t for g l o r y , a n d , i n g e n e r a l , the p a s s i o n a t e excesses o f the p o w e r f u l are c u r b e d b y the i n t e r e s t s t h e i r o w n a n d those o f t h e i r subjects. T h e p r i n c i p a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f this w a y o f t h i n k i n g i n the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y w e r e M o n t e s q u i e u i n F r a n c e a n d Sir J a m e s S t e u a r t i n S c o t l a n d . T h e i r basic ideas were enriched by John Millar, another prominent memb e r o f that r e m a r k a b l e g r o u p o f p h i l o s o p h e r s , m o r a l i s t s , a n d social scientists s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d to as t h e S c o t t i s h Enlightenment. The Physiocrats and Adam Smith shared some of the premises and concerns of Montesq u i e u a n d S t e u a r t , b u t t h e i r s o l u t i o n s w e r e v e r y differe n t . E x c e p t for the P h y s i o c r a t s , w h o w i l l b e t r e a t e d a s the t i g h t l y u n i f i e d d o c t r i n a l g r o u p they i n d e e d w e r e , e a c h o f these t h i n k e r s w i l l b e e x a m i n e d b y h i m s e l f . S i n c e I shall call a t t e n t i o n to passages in t h e i r w r i t i n g s that h a v e n o t r e c e i v e d m u c h a t t e n t i o n o r s c r u t i n y , i t w i l l be necessary to r e l a t e these passages to the rest of t h e i r w o r k . O n l y in this m a n n e r is it p o s s i b l e to g a i n a pers p e c t i v e o n t h e m e a n i n g a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the v i e w s that w i l l b e s i n g l e d o u t h e r e .

already been noted. T h e cultural impact of commerce is for h i m p a r a l l e l e d by its p o l i t i c a l i m p a c t : in the central p o l i t i c a l P a r t O n e of Esprit des his, M o n t e s q u i e u a r g u e s first a l o n g classical r e p u b l i c a n l i n e s that a d e m o c racy c a n o r d i n a r i l y s u r v i v e o n l y w h e n w e a l t h i s n o t too a b u n d a n t o r too unequally distributed, but he then p r o c e e d s t o m a k e a n i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n t o this r u l e for a " d e m o c r a c y that is b a s e d on c o m m e r c e . ' ' F o r , he says, the s p i r i t o f c o m m e r c e b r i n g s w i t h i t the s p i r i t o f frugality, of economy, of moderation, of work, of wisdom, of tranquility, of order, and of regularity. In this m a n n e r , as l o n g as this spirit p r e v a i l s , t h e r i c h e s i t creates d o n o t h a v e a n y b a d effect.
1

O n e i s a l m o s t t e m p t e d t o dismiss this praise o f c o m m e r c e b e c a u s e i t i s s o e x t r a v a g a n t . B u t , later i n his w o r k , Montesquieu makes a much more detailed and more closely r e a s o n e d a r g u m e n t o n the f a v o r a b l e political effects o f c o m m e r c e . T h i s a r g u m e n t has b e e n r a t h e r neglected, and I shall n o w report it in some detail. It s h o u l d b e n o t e d that the a r g u m e n t , i n c o n t r a s t t o the o n e j u s t m e n t i o n e d , i s n o t o n l y n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o the effects o f c o m m e r c e o n a d e m o c r a c y b u t a p p l i e s w i t h p a r t i c u l a r f o r c e t o the t w o o t h e r forms o f g o v e r n m e n t that M o n t e s q u i e u i s d i s c u s s i n g t h r o u g h o u t his w o r k a n d that h e w a s m o s t i n t i m a t e l y a c q u a i n t e d arid c o n c e r n e d with: monarchy and despotism. In P a r t F o u r of Esprit des lois M o n t e s q u i e u discusses .commerce (Books X X and X X I ) , money (Book X X I I ) , and population (Book X X I I I ) . In Book XX he gives his o p i n i o n o n a w i d e v a r i e t y o f g e n e r a l t o p i c s , f r o m the " s p i r i t o f c o m m e r c e " t o the a d v i s a b i l i t y o f p e r m i t t i n g the n o b i l i t y t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t i e s . I n B o o k X X I , b y contrast, M o n t e s q u i e u d e a l s w i t h a s i n g l e subject, the history of navigation and of c o m m e r c e , and 7i

Elements of a Doctrine
1. M O N T E S Q U I E U

O N T E S Q U I E U saw m a n y virtues i n c o m m e r c e , and t h e r e l a t i o n . h e asserted b e t w e e n the e x p a n s i o n o f (douceur) has

c o m m e r c e a n d . the s p r e a d of g e n t l e n e s s

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is m o r e o v e r as f a c t u a l as he e v e r m a n a g e s to b e . It is t h e n the m o r e r e m a r k a b l e t o see h i m s u d d e n l y f o r m u l a t e a g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e i n the c h a p t e r o f that b o o k i n w h i c h h e discusses " H o w C o m m e r c e E m e r g e d i n E u r o p e f r o m B a r b a r i s m . " M o n t e s q u i e u d e s c r i b e s h e r e first h o w c o m m e r c e w a s h a m p e r e d b y the p r o h i b i t i o n o f interest-taki n g b y the c h u r c h a n d w a s c o n s e q u e n t l y t a k e n u p b y the J e w s ; h o w the J e w s suffered v i o l e n c e a n d c o n s t a n t e x t o r t i o n s a t the h a n d s o f n o b l e s a n d k i n g s ; (lettre de change). The final portion of the and how chapter e v e n t u a l l y t h e y r e a c t e d b y i n v e n t i n g the b i l l o f e x c h a n g e draws striking conclusions: . . . a n d t h r o u g h this m e a n s c o m m e r c e c o u l d e l u d e v i o l e n c e , a n d m a i n t a i n itself e v e r y w h e r e ; for the richest trader had only invisible w e a l t h w h i c h c o u l d b e sent e v e r y w h e r e w i t h o u t l e a v i n g a n y trace. . . . I n this m a n n e r w e o w e . . . t o the a v a r i c e o f r u l e r s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a c o n t r i v a n c e w h i c h s o m e h o w lifts commerce right out of their grip. S i n c e that t i m e , the r u l e r s h a v e b e e n c o m p e l l e d t o g o v e r n w i t h g r e a t e r w i s d o m than t h e y t h e m s e l v e s m i g h t h a v e i n t e n d e d ; for, o w i n g t o these e v e n t s , the g r e a t a n d s u d d e n a r b i t r a r y a c t i o n s o f the sovereign (les grands coups d'autorite) h a v e b e e n p r o v e n to be i n e f f e c t i v e a n d . . . o n l y g o o d g o v e r n m e n t b r i n g s p r o s p e r i t y [to the p r i n c e ] . W e h a v e b e g u n t o r e c o v e r from M a c h i a v e l l i a n i s m , a n d w i l l c o n t i n u e d o i n g s o d a y after day. G r e a t e r m o d e r a t i o n i s n e e d e d i n state c o u n c i l s . W h a t u s e d to be called c o u p d'itat w o u l d today be n o t h i n g b u t i m p r u d e n c e , q u i t e a p a r t f r o m the h o r r o r s u c h actions inspire.

A n d the c h a p t e r e n d s w i t h t h e s e n t e n c e that i s a c r o w n w i t n e s s for the thesis of this essay a n d has b e e n c h o s e n as its e p i g r a p h :

/And it is fortunate for men to be in a situation in which, though their passions may prompt them to be wicked (mchants), they have nevertheless an interest in not being so."
H e r e is a truly magnificent generalization built on the e x p e c t a t i o n that the i n t e r e s t s t h a t is, commerce a n d its c o r o l l a r i e s , s u c h a s the b i l l o f e x c h a n g e w o u l d i n h i b i t t h e passions a n d t h e p a s s i o n - i n d u c e d " w i c k e d " a c t i o n s of the p o w e r f u l . A n u m b e r of r e l a t e d passages i n M o n t e s q u i e u ' s w o r k m a k e i t c l e a r that the i d e a s h e p r o p o s e d -in B o o k X X I w e r e a n i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t o f his t h o u g h t o n politics.
8

the r e l a t i o n

between economics and

H e m a k e s v e r y m u c h the s a m e p o i n t i n the ( X X I I ) w h e n discussing the debase-

following book

m e n t o f c o i n a g e b y the s o v e r e i g n . T h e R o m a n e m p e r o r s e n g a g e d i n this p r a c t i c e w i t h g r e a t relish a n d profit, b u t in m o r e m o d e r n times debasement of coinage is count e r p r o d u c t i v e b e c a u s e o f the e x t e n s i v e f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e a n d a r b i t r a g e o p e r a t i o n s that w o u l d f o l l o w i m m e d i a t e l y :
The o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n the interests and the passions also a p p e a r s elsewhere in M o n t e s q u i e u ' s w o r k : " L i v i n g in a state of p e r m a n e n t e x c i t e m e n t , this nation could be more readily cond u c t e d by its passion than by reasonthe latter n e v e r p r o d u c e d strong effects on men's m i n d s ; ami it w o u l d be easy for those w h o g o v e r n that n a t i o n to have it u n d e r t a k e enterprises that go against its real interests." Esprit des lots, X I X , 27. T h i s p a r a g r a p h is from the famous chapter in w h i c h E n g l a n d is s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y portrayed a t c o n s i d e r a b l e l e n g t h w i t h o u t ever b e i n g m e n t i o n e d by n a m e . As in La B r u y e r e (see a b o v e , p. 46), reason is here assigned the role of a c o m p a r a t i v e l y i m p o t e n t m e m b e r in a manage h~ trots consisting of passion, reason, a n d interest.
ft

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. . . these v i o l e n t o p e r a t i o n s c o u l d n o t t a k e p l a c e in o u r t i m e ; a p r i n c e w o u l d fool himself, a n d w o u l d n o t fool a n y b o d y . F o r e i g n e x c h a n g e o p e r a t i o n s (le change) h a v e t a u g h t b a n k e r s t o c o m p a r e c o i n s f r o m a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d a n d t o assess t h e m a t t h e i r c o r r e c t value. . . . T h e s e operations have d o n e away w i t h t h e g r e a t a n d s u d d e n a r b i t r a r y a c t i o n s o f t h e sover eign (les grands coups d'autorite) or at l e a s t w i t h t h e i r success. 3 T h e two situations appear even more similar because of the almost identical terms for t h e t w o techniques t h e lettre that result in constraints on the politicians:

d i s t i n c t i o n , also for p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e s , a n d h a d s h o w n t h e s a m e p r e f e r e n c e for m o v a b l e o v e r J i x e d c a p i t a l . I n the Tractatus politicus h e w e n t s o far as

5

to a d v o c a t e

state p r o p e r t y for a l l r e a l estate, i n c l u d i n g h o u s e s " i f possible." T h e purpose of the prohibition of private

r

property was to avoid unresolvable disputes and unextinguishable envy:

b y o w n i n g r e a l estate t h a t e x i s t s in.!,

l i m i t e d quantities, m e m b e r s of the same c o m m u n i t y are j necessarily i n v o l v e d in a situation w h e r e o n e m a n ' s g a i n j i s a n o t h e r ' s loss. T h e r e f o r e , i t " i s o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e i n p r o m o t i n g p e a c e a n d c o n c o r d . . . t h a t no c i t i z e n is to have any real estate." C o m m e r c e and m o v a b l e wealth, on the o t h e r hand, are v i e w e d in a w h o l l y b e n i g n light; for t h e y g i v e rise t o " i n t e r e s t s w h i c h a r e e i t h e r i n t e r d e p e n d e n t o r r e q u i r e t h e s a m e m e a n s for t h e i r further a n c e . " 6 F o r Spinoza, the a m o u n t of m o n e y that can be o w n e d b y i n d i v i d u a l s w a s l i m i t e d o n l y b y t h e i r efforts a n d these efforts i n t u r n r e s u l t e d i n a n e t w o r k o f m u t u a l obligations, which would reinforce the ties binding s o c i e t y t o g e t h e r . 7 A s w i l l b e s h o w n , t h e i n c r e a s i n g im portance of m o v a b l e wealth in relation to land and real estate w a s to be u s e d as a basis for s i m i l a r l y o p t i m i s t i c political conjectures_not only by Spinoza and Montes q u i e u b u t b y Sir James Steuart a n d A d a m Smith. Brief m e n t i o n must be made here of seemingly very different attitudes t o w a r d the growih.jjX.lJie_piibh^^bt a n d the c o n s e q u e n t increase in the cm^standing a m o u n t o f g o v e r n m e n t o b l i g a t i o n s o r " p u b l i c s t o c k s . " T h e ex pansion"?^ tms variety of m o v a b l e wealtlTwas considered harniful rather than beneficial by a g r o u p of English and French writers, including H u m e i and Mon,tesquieu.c

de change in t h e first case, a n d s i m p l y le change in t h e other. In his notes M o n t e s q u i e u u n d e r l i n e s the impor tance of the bill of e x c h a n g e " I t is astonishing that the b i l l o f e x c h a n g e h a s b e e n d i s c o v e r e d o n l y s o l a t e , for t h e r e i s n o t h i n g s o u s e f u l i n t h e w o r l d " " a n d i n Esprit des lois h e m a k e s m u c h o f t h e s u b d i v i s i o n o f w e a l t h i n t o land (jonds de terre) and movable property (effets mohiliers) of w h i c h t h e b i l l of e x c h a n g e is part. - 1 Before
h

Montesquieu,

Spinoza had drawn

the same

Mes pensees, N o . 753 in Oeuvres completes (Paris: G a l l i m a r d , P l e i a d e edn., 1949), V o l . I, p. 1206. At the time this praise of the bill of e x c h a n g e , c o m i n g after a l o n g p e r i o d of s u s p i c i o n because of a l l e g e d i n v e n t i o n by the J e w s a n d its possible connec tion w i t h usury, was by no m e a n s u n u s u a l . H a l f a c e n t u r y later, d u r i n g the discussion of the N a p o l e o n i c C o d e of C o m m e r c e , the p r o p o n e n t o f the section o n the bill o f e x c h a n g e e x c l a i m e d : " T h e bill of e x c h a n g e has been i n v e n t e d . In the history of c o m m e r c e this is an e v e n t almost c o m p a r a b l e to the discovery of the c o m p a s s a n d of A m e r i c a . . . . [l]t has set free m o v a b l e capital, has facili tated its m o v e m e n t s , a n d has created an i m m e n s e v o l u m e of credit. F r o m that m o m e n t o n , there h a v e b e e n n o limits t o the e x p a n s i o n o f c o m m e r c e o t h e r than those o f the g l o b e itself." Q u o t e d i n H e n r i L e v y - B r u h l , Histoire de la lettre de change en France aux c e iy and i8 siecles (Paris: Sirey, 1933), p.

e S e e M o n t e s q u i e u , Esprit des lois, X X I I , 17 a n d 18; a n d m a i n l y the e s s a y . " O f P u b l i c C r e d i t " in D a v i d H u m e , Writings on Eco nomics, e d . E. R o t w e i n ( M a d i s o n , W i s . : U n i v e r s i t y of W i s c o n s i n

74

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Although found in

elements of a

"real

bills"

doctrine

can

be

a n d r e a s o n . T h i s sort o f d i s c o u r s e c o n v i n c e s every body, b u t changes nobody. . . . I believe it is better t o f o l l o w a r o u n d a b o u t r o a d a n d t o try t o c o n v e y t o t h e g r e a t a distaste for c e r t a i n p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e s by s h o w i n g h o w little they y i e l d that is at all useful/ M o n t e s q u i e u w a s t h u s m o t i v a t e d b y his c e n t r a l p o l i t - , ical p r i n c i p l e s to ferret out, exaggerate flow from the the beneficial t o w e l c o m e , a n d also t o effects that might
1

their arguments,

they criticized public debt

e x p a n s i o n primarily on political grounds. It turns o u t i n fact t h a t t h e i r c r i t i c i s m s t e m m e d f r o m t h e s a m e b a s i c c o n c e r n o v e r t h e excesses o f state p o w e r t h a t h a d l e d t h e m t o a positive assessment o f t h e i n c r e a s e i n o t h e r types o f m o v a b l e wealth, such a s bills o f e x c h a n g e . T h e latter types w e r e w e l c o m e d b y M o n t e s q u i e u a n d others because d'autorite. they But were this expected ability, to and constrain the govern power m e n t ' s w i l l i n g n e s s a n d a b i l i t y to e n g a g e in grands coups governmental i n g e n e r a l , c o u l d o n l y b e e n h a n c e d i f t h e t r e a s u r y be c a m e a b l e t o f i n a n c e its o p e r a t i o n s b y g o i n g i n t o d e b t o n a l a r g e scale. It w a s t h e r e f o r e p e r f e c t l y c o n s i s t e n t for i n c r e a s e d c i r c u l a t i o n for b i l l s o f these w r i t e r s t o h a i l

political

bill of exchange a n d foreign

exchange

arbitrage. T h e s e institutions and operations accord well o f his w o r k : t o d i s c o y e j a m e a n s ^ p j c h e c k m of u n l i m i t e d power. H i s advocacy of the separation of p o w e r s a h d ^ o f " m i x e d g o v e r n m e n t arose f r o m h i s s e a r c h for c o u n t e r v a i l i n g p o w e r ; for, i n s p i t e o f r a d i c a l l y differ ent conclusions, he agreed w i t h H o b b e s that "every m a n w h o has p o w e r tends to abuse that power; he w i l l go up to the p o i n t w h e r e he meets w i t h barriers."u In his note book he had copied an English phrase he had read in 1730, d u r i n g h i s s o j o u r n in E n g l a n d , in Bolingbroke's critical periodical: T h e love of p o w e r is natural; it is insatiable; almost c o n s t a n t l y w h e t t e d , a n d n e v e r c l o y e d b y possession.' 1 j ' The Craftsman,

w i t h t h e p o l i t i c a l c o n c e r n t h a t a n i m a t e s the m a j o r p a r t

e x c h a n g e w h i l e d e p l o r i n g i t for " p u b l i c s t o c k s . " I n s h o w i n g h o w t h e b i l l o f e x c h a n g e a n d f o r e i g n ex c h a n g e a r b i t r a g e m a k e i t less a t t r a c t i v e for t h e p o w e r f u l to act w i t h their traditional recklessness a n d v i o l e n c e , the pro M o n t e s q u i e u does n o t h i n g b u t follow up on

g r a m h e h a d s k e t c h e d o u t for h i m s e l f i n t h e b r i e f essay " O n P o l i t i c s " w r i t t e n twenty-three years before the pub l i c a t i o n o f Esprit des lots: I t i s useless t o a t t a c k p o l i t i c s d i r e c t l y b y s h o w i n g h o w m u c h its p r a c t i c e s are i n c o n f l i c t w i t h m o r a l i t y
Press, 1970), p p . 90-107. It is here t h a t H u m e p a i n t s a terrifying p i c t u r e of the p o l i t i c a l state to w h i c h E n g l a n d .would be r e d u c e d if the public debt were allowed to e x p a n d indefinitely: " N o expedi e n t at all r e m a i n s for resisting t y r a n n y : E l e c t i o n s are s w a y e d by b r i b e r y a n d c o r r u p t i o n a l o n e : A n d the m i d d l e p o w e r b e t w e e n k i n g a n d p e o p l e b e i n g totally r e m o v e d , a g r i e v o u s despotism must i n f a l l i b l y p r e v a i l " (p. 99). H u m e a n d M o n t e s q u i e u corre s p o n d e d on these matters; see the e x c e r p t s r e p r i n t e d in Writings on Economics, p. 189.

A n d , a s a r e s u l t , h e c o n c e i v e d o f t h e p r i n c i p l e o f separa tion of powers and of various other devices because, as he says in a f a m o u s p h r a s e ,

Oeuvres completes, V o l . I I , p. 1358. In t r a c i n g the influences o n M o n t e s q u i e u ' s p o l i t i c a l d o c t r i n e , R o b e r t S h a c k l e t o n sees great significance in the fact that M o n t e s q u i e u , " a l t h o u g h he had some difficulty in c o p y i n g o u t w o r d s in a foreign l a n g u a g e , r e p r o d u c e d i n h i s s c r a p b o o k , i n his o w n h a n d , the a r g u m e n t s o f the d a n g e r attached t o p o w e r . " " M o n t e s q u i e u , B o l i n g b r o k e , a n d the Separa t i o n of P o w e r s , " French Studies 3 (1949), p- 37

76

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S o t h a t t h e r e m a y b e n o a b u s e o f p o w e r , i t i s nec essary that, t h r o u g h t h e d i s p o s i t i o n of t h i n g s / power.

10

entirely c o n c e r n e d w i t h domestic g o v e r n a n c e a n d poli tics. T h i s was i n d e e d t h e p r i n c i p a l c o n c e r n o f p o l i t i c a l thought, t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a r e n a i n w h i c h p r o p o s a l s for reform through institutional-constitutional engineering were p u t forward. Nevertheless, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there was increasing concern over i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , o v e r t h e vir t u a l l y p e r m a n e n t state o f w a r i n w h i c h t h e m a j o r p o w e r s w e r e e m b r o i l e d . T o the e x t e n t that w a r was t h o u g h t t o be due nomic to the passionate and willful excesses o f curb the such r u l e r s , a n y i m p r o v e m e n t i n d o m e s t i c p o l i t i c a l o r eco organization that w o u l d effectively b e h a v i o r w o u l d o f c o u r s e i n d i r e c t l y h a v e b e n e f i c i a l in t e r n a t i o n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d e n h a n c e t h e c h a n c e s for peace. B u t international c o m m e r c e , b e i n g a transaction b e t w e e n n a t i o n s , c o u l d c o n c e i v a b l y h a v e also a d i r e c t /impact on the l i k e l i h o o d of peace a n d war: o n c e again t h e i n t e r e s t s m i g h t o v e r c o m e t h e passions, specifically t h e p a s s i o n for c o n q u e s t . B e c a u s e o f t h e c o m p a r a t i v e l y u n d e r d e v e l o p e d state o f t h i n k i n g o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l rela tions, s p e c u l a t i o n s o f this sort w e r e g e n e r a l l y f o r m u l a t e d in vague generalities and unsupported pronouncements. A c t u a l l y t h e g e n e r a l o p i n i o n o n t h e effect o f c o m merce on international discord or harmony changed from the seventeenth to the eighteenth substantially

(par

la disposition des choses), p o w e r b e s t o p p e d b y

T h e a p p r o p r i a t e disposition des choses t h a t w i l l re s t r a i n t h e o t h e r w i s e ceaseless e x p a n s i o n o f p o w e r i s t o 9*

De a c

i i i i ^ i L l ' m a r * ' y ^ building various institutional political system.

and c o n s t i t u t i o j M l j a ^ [ u a r ^ J . n t o j h e

B u t w h y n o t i n c l u d e i n t o t h a t disposition a n y t h i n g "else t h a t m a y b e h e l p f u l ? W h e n h e c a m e t o discuss e c o n o m i c matters M o n t e s q u i e u perceived, as n o t e d above, that t h e d e s i r e for g a i n i s s e l f - p r o p e l l i n g a n d i n s a t i a b l e , j u s t l i k e t h e d r i v e for p o w e r . B u t a l t h o u g h h e v i e w e d t h e l a t t e r w i t h g r a v e c o n c e r n , w e k n o w t h a t h e saw n o t h i n g b u t douceur i n t h e f o r m e r . y'' the acquisitive urge could H e n c e it was only natural be incorporated into the t h a t h e s h o u l d h a v e l o o k e d o u t for specific w a y s i n w h i c h p r o p e r disposition des choses. I n t h e k e y s e n t e n c e o f p a g e 74, a b o v e , w h e r e t h e passions o f t h e s o v e r e i g n a r e v i e w e d a s b e i n g t a m e d b y his. interests, h e p e r f o r m e d a j u n c t i o n a n d fusion of p r e v a i l i n g c o n t e m p o r a r y n o t i o n s about c o u n t e r v a i l i n g passion w i t h his o w n theory of c o u n t e r v a i l i n g power. H e h a i l e d the bill o f e x c h a n g e a n d a r b i t r a g e a s a u x i l i a r i e s o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l safe g u a r d s a n d as b u l w a r k s a g a i n s t d e s p o t i s m a n d les grands coups d'autorite; a n d t h e r e c a n b e l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t t h e s e passages o n t h e f a v o r a b l e p o l i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f eco nomic expansion constitute an important, and hitherto n e g l e c t e d , c o n t r i b u t i o n t o his c e n t r a l p o l i t i c a l thesis, j u s t as t h e y r e p r e s e n t a b a s i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n of t h e n e w commercial-industrial age. A s p r e s e n t e d s o far, t h e d o c t r i n e o f M o n t e s q u i e u i s 78

century. W h e t h e r because of mercantilist doctrine or b e c a u s e o f t h e fact t h a t m a r k e t s w e r e i n fact s o l i m i t e d that an e x p a n s i o n of the c o m m e r c e of o n e n a t i o n c o u l d only be secured by displacing that of another, c o m m e r c e > was characterized as " p e r p e t u a l c o m b a t " by C o l b e r t a n d / ~ a s " a k i n d o f w a r f a r e " b y S i r J o s i a h C h i l d . 1 1 B a s i c con-'* d i t i o n s a n d d o c t r i n e s u n d e r w h i c h c o m m e r c e was c a r r i e d o n w e r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y u n c h a n g e d s o m e f i f t y years l a t e r . 79

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ORDER

N e v e r t h e l e s s , J e a n - F r a n c o i s M e l o n , a c l o s e f r i e n d of Montesquieu, p r o c l a i m s in 1734:

tinually faces.

15

T h u s e v e r y t h i n g i s t r u l y for t h e best:

c o m m e r c e acts, at o n e a n d the s a m e t i m e , as a p r e v e n t i v e of w a r a n d as a m o r a l e q u i v a l e n t for it!

T h e spirit o f c o n q u e s t a n d the s p i r i t o f c o m m e r c e are m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e i n a n a t i o n .

12

2. SIR J A M E S S T E U A R T

M o n t e s q u i e u affirms just as c a t e g o r i c a l l y : " t h e n a t u r a l effect of c o m m e r c e is to l e a d to p e a c e . T w o n a t i o n s that, trade t o g e t h e r b e c o m e m u t u a l l y d e p e n d e n t : i f o n e has a n i n t e r e s t i n b u y i n g , the o t h e r has o n e i n s e l l i n g ; a n d all u n i o n s are b a s e d o n mutual needs."
1 3

Set a g a i n s t

the b a c k d r o p of a c o u n t r y w h e r e ,

in

m i d - e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , n o c l e a r r e m e d y a g a i n s t disast r o u s l y a r b i t r a r y r u l e w a s i n sight, M o n t e s q u i e u ' s j x i r t i a l r e l i a n c e on c o m m e r c e , the bin of e x c h a n g e , a n d a r b i - \ trage as s a f e g u a r d s a g a i n s t les grands coups d'autorite !' a n d >yar can be, i n t e r p r e t e d as a c o u n s e l of d e s p a i r or, \ alternatively, as an extraordinary leap of optimistic i m a g i n a t i o n . I n E n g l a n d there w a s less n e e d t o l o o k s o far afield, the p o w e r o f the C r o w n b e i n g a n y t h i n g b u t absolute by the eighteenth century. Nevertheless, similar ideas c r o p u p a m o n g t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m i s t s a n d historical s o c i o l o g i s t s o f the " S c o t t i s h E n l i g h t e n m e n t " i n the s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e c e n t u r y . For such figures as A d a m Smith, Adam. Ferguson, and John Millar, these i d e a s p r o b a b l y s p r a n g f r o m and political their
10

T h i s d r a m a t i c c h a n g e i n o p i n i o n a b o u t the effect o f commerce on peace may be related to M o n t e s q u i e u ' s t h o u g h t o n the d o m e s t i c p o l i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f e c o n o m i c e x p a n s i o n . I t was difficult t o m a i n t a i n that d o mestically such expansion w o u l d lead to constraints on the b e h a v i o r o f the r u l e r s w h i l e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y i t w o u l d c a u s e w a r s w h e n these w e r e i n c r e a s i n g l y v i e w e d a s m o t i v a t e d b y d y n a s t i c a m b i t i o n a n d folly rather than by "true interest." A c t u a l l y M o n t e s q u i e u ' s praise for c o m m e r c e w a s n o t w i t h o u t r e s e r v a t i o n s . I n the s a m e c h a p t e r i n w h i c h h e c o m m e n d s c o m m e r c e for its c o n t r i b u t i o n t o p e a c e , h e regrets the way in w h i c h c o m m e r c e brings w i t h it a m o n e t i z a t i o n o f all h u m a n r e l a t i o n s a n d the loss o f hospitality and of other "moral virtues w h i c h lead one to n o t a l w a y s discuss o n e ' s interests w i t h r i g i d i t y . "
1 4

(as i n

Candide)

c o m m o n c o n v i c t i o n that e c o n o m i c c h a n g e s are t h e basic d e t e r m i n a n t s o f social transformation. B u t for S i r J a m e s S t e u a r t , w h o p r e s e n t e d ideas s i m i l a r t o those o f M o n t e s q u i e u i n the m o s t e x p l i c i t a n d g e n e r a l f o r m , t h e e x p l a n a t i o n i s e v e n s i m p l e r : his m a j o r w o r k ,

the Inquiry into

the Principles of Political Oeconomy

(1767)-,
in

w a s l a r g e l y c o n c e i v e d a n d w r i t t e n d u r i n g his

M e l o n has n o s u c h q u a l m s . O n the c o n t r a r y , h e w i s h e s t o reassure those w h o m i g h t fear t h a t c o m m e r c e , b r i n g i n g p e a c e a n d t r a n q u i l i t y , w o u l d c a u s e t h e loss o f q u a l i t i e s s u c h a s c o u r a g e a n d d a r i n g . H e affirms t h a t these q u a l i t i e s w o u l d n o t o n l y s u r v i v e b u t flourish b e c a u s e o f the p e r i l s o f n a v i g a t i o n that s e a b o r n e t r a d e c o n -

l o n g exile from E n g l a n d on the E u r o p e a n C o n t i n e n t w h e r e the i n t e r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s a n d e c o n o m i c progress w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y o b v i o u s . M o r e o v e r , the influence of Montesquieu's thought is evident t h r o u g h o u t his w o r k , w i t h r e s p e c t t o b o t h g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d n u m e r o u s specific p o i n t s o f analysis. Si

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For example,

M o n t e s q u i e u ' s ideas o n t h e p o l i t i c a l

d e v e l o p m e n t a s w e l l as, p r e s u m a b l y , a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h the n e w h i s t o r i c a l t h o u g h t of his f e l l o w Scots, such as D a v i d H u m e , and W i l l i a m Robertson, pointed to a very d i f f e r e n t set of c o n s e q u e n c e s : trjud_e^3ansjpjo^ e x g e m e j j E _ t h e _ l p r d s a n d e v e n t u a l l y also o f the k i n g . S t a n d i n g a t the crossroads o f these t w o c o n t r a d i c t o r y analyses or conjectures, Steuart b o l d l y reconciled them b y o n e o f those d i a l e c t i c a l s e q u e n c e s w h i c h , t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s , m a k e s i t l i k e l y that his t h o u g h t h a d an_influence.pn H e g e L ^ ^ H e maintains, in true mercan-_ tilist fashion, that t h e " i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t r a d e a n d indus-~7 try" originates turn: in the statesman's ambition to gain^ power, but then shows h o w things take a rather u n e x pected

effects o f the b i l l o f e x c h a n g e a n d o f a r b i t r a g e are dist i n c t l y e c h o e d i n the c h a p t e r i n w h i c h S t e u a r t d e s c r i b e s " T h e general Consequences resulting to a trading Nat i o n u p o n the o p e n i n g o f a n a c t i v e f o r e i g n C o m m e r c e " in the f o l l o w i n g terms: T h e statesman l o o k s a b o u t w i t h a m a z e m e n t ; h e w h o was w o n t t o c o n s i d e r h i m s e l f a s the f i r s t m a n i n the society i n e v e r y respect, p e r c e i v e s h i m s e l f e c l i p s e d by t h e l u s t r e of p r i v a t e w e a l t h , which avoids his grasp when he attempts to seize it. T h i s m a k e s h i s g o v e r n m e n t m o r e c o m p l e x a n d m o r e difficult t o b e c a r r i e d o n ; he must now avail himself of art and address as w e l l as of p o w e r a n d a u t h o r i t y .
17

T h e s a m e i d e a i s e x p r e s s e d a g a i n w h e n S t e u a r t says t h a t "the m o n i e d interest," in contrast to the landlords w i t h t h e i r " s o l i d p r o p e r t y , " " c a n baffle [the statesman's] att e m p t s " a n d c a n frustrate " h i s s c h e m e s o f l a y i n g h o l d of private wealth."
1 8

T r a d e a n d i n d u s t r y . . . o w e d t h e i r e s t a b l i s h m e n t to t h e a m b i t i o n of p r i n c e s . . . p r i n c i p a l l y w i t h a v i e w to enrich themselves, and thereby to become formidable to their neighbours. B u t they did not discover, u n t i l e x p e r i e n c e t a u g h t t h e m , that the w e a l t h t h e y drew from such fountains was b u t the overflowing o f t h e s p r i n g ; a n d that a n o p u l e n t , b o l d , a n d spiri t e d p e o p l e , h a v i n g the f u n d o f the p r i n c e ' s w e a l t h i n t h e i r o w n h a n d s , h a v e i t also i n t h e i r o w n p o w e r , w h e n it becomes strongly their inclination, to shake off his a u t h o r i t y . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f this c h a n g e has b e e n the i n t r o d u c t i o n of a m o r e m i l d , a n d a more regular plan of administration. W h e n o n c e a state b e g i n s t o subsist b y the cohse/ q u e n c e s of i n d u s t r y , t h e r e is less d a n g e r to be a p p r e \/ hended from of the his power of the sovereign. becomes The more mechanism administration

- T h i s t h o u g h t a b o u t the e x p a n s i o n - i n d u c e d c o n s t r a i n t s o n the g r a s p i n g a u t h o r i t y a n d a r b i t r a r y e x a c t i o n s o f the political power holders is elaborated and presented in m o r e g e n e r a l f o r m w h e n t h e social a n d p o l i t i c a l conseq u e n c e s o f e c o n o m i c e x p a n s i o n h e calls i t " t h e establ i s h m e n t o f t r a d e a n d i n d u s t r y " a r e specifically e x a m i n e d later i n the s a m e c h a p t e r . A s i n the p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d passage, S t e u a r t s h o w s h i m self t o b e u n i q u e l y a w a r e o f a r e m a r k a b l e p u z z l e . T h o r oughly familiar with mercantilist thinking and in some respects still u n d e r its i n f l u e n c e , h e k n e w t h a t t r a d e a n d i n d u s t r y , i f c o n d u c t e d p r o p e r l y , w e r e s u p p o s e d t o increase t h e p o w e r o f the r e a l m a n d t h e r e f o r e that o f t h e s o v e r e i g n . A t the s a m e t i m e , o b s e r v a t i o n o f actual social

complex, and . . . he finds himself so b o u n d up by 83

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t h e l a w s o f his p o l i t i c a l o e c o n o m y , that e v e r y transg r e s s i o n o f t h e m r u n s h i m i n t o n e w difficulties. A t this p o i n t S t e u a r t h e d g e s a b i t : I s p e a k o f g o v e r n m e n t s o n l y w h i c h are c o n d u c t e d systematically, constitutionally, and by general laws; and w h e n I mention princes, I mean their councils. T h e principles I am e n q u i r i n g into, regard the cool a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t ; (it b e l o n g s t o another branch of politics, against their passions, vices to contrive bulwarks and weaknesses, as

e n t l y be m a d e use of, for s p l i t t i n g of t i m b e r , stones and other hard bodies, and w h i c h may be thrown aside and taken up again at pleasure), it will at l e n g t h c o m e t o r e s e m b l e the d e l i c a c y o f the w a t c h , w h i c h i s g o o d for n o o t h e r p u r p o s e t h a n t o m a r k the p r o g r e s s i o n o f t i m e , a n d w h i c h i s i m m e d i a t e l y d e s t r o y e d , i f p u t t o a n y o t h e r use, o r t o u c h e d w i t h a n y b u t the g e n t l e s t h a n d . / [ A ] m o d e r n o e c o n o m y , t h e r e f o r e , is t h e m o s t effec[ tual b r i d l e e v e r w a s i n v e n t e d a g a i n s t the f o l l y of
2 1

\ despotism. . . . Here

B u t h e forgets all a b o u t this c a u t i o n w h e n h e r e t u r n s , a few c h a p t e r s later, to the t o p i c of t h e " r e s t r i c t i o n s " t h a t the " c o m p l i c a t e d s y s t e m o f m o d e r n o e c o n o m y " entails for the c o n d u c t o f p u b l i c affairs. H e m a k e s a g a i n a 'two-sided point: on the one hand, increasing wealth f c a u s e s the s t a t e s m a n t o h a v e " s o p o w e r f u l a n i n f l u e n c e ' o v e r the o p e r a t i o n s of a w h o l e p e o p l e . . . w h i c h in form e r ages, e v e n u n d e r t h e m o s t a b s o l u t e g o v e r n m e n t s w a s u t t e r l y u n k n o w n " ; a t the s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , " t h e s o v e r e i g n p o w e r is e x t r e m e l y l i m i t e d , in e v e r y arbitrary exercise of it" I the nature of ( S t e u a r t ' s e m p h a s i s ) . T h e r e a s o n lies i n the "complicated modern oeconomy,"

is another spectacular

formulation

of

the

idea

o r i g i n a l l y f r a m e d b y M o n t e s q u i e u , that o w i n g t o the " c o m p l i c a t e d system o f m o d e r n o e c o n o m y " the interests would win out over arbitrary government, over the " f o l l y o f d e s p o t i s m , " i n short, o v e r the passions o f t h e r u l e r s . T h i s t i m e S t e u a r t t h r o w s his e a r l i e r c a u t i o n t o the w i n d s a n d c l e a r l y sees e x p a n d i n g c o m m e r c e a n d i n d u s t r y a s r e l i a b l e " b u l w a r k s a g a i n s t [men's] passions, vices, a n d w e a k n e s s e s . " A s w i t h M o n t e s q u i e u , the set o f ideas s i n g l e d o u t h e r e is b e t t e r a p p r e c i a t e d if t h e y are r e l a t e d to the rest of S t e u a r t ' s t h o u g h t . F o r M o n t e s q u i e u , i t w a s n o t difficult t o s h o w t h a t his s p e c u l a t i o n s o n the p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a tions o f c o m m e r c i a l e x p a n s i o n fit i n q u i t e c l o s e l y w i t h the l e a d i n g t h e m e s o f his w o r k . B u t , w i t h S t e u a r t , o n e ' s first reaction "statesman"
e

* w h i c h h e also calls " t h e p l a n " o r " t h e p l a n o f o e c o n o m y " : . . . t h e e x e c u t i o n of t h e p l a n w i l l p r o v e a b s o l u t e l y inconsistent w i t h every arbitrary or irregular measure. T h e p o w e r o f a m o d e r n p r i n c e , l e t i t b e , b y the c o n s t i t u t i o n o f his k i n g d o m , e v e r s o a b s o l u t e , i m m e d i a t e l y b e c o m e s l i m i t e d s o s o o n a s h e establishes the p l a n o f o e c o n o m y w h i c h w e are e n d e a v o u r i n g t o e x p l a i n . I f his a u t h o r i t y f o r m e r l y r e s e m b l e d the s o l i d i t y a n d force o f the w e d g e ( w h i c h m a y indiffer84

i s the

i m p u t a t i o n of inconsistency:

the

Inquiry has l o n g b e e n k n o w n as a b o o k in w h i c h the i s c o n s t a n t l y s t e e r i n g t h i n g s i n o n e direction or another to k e e p the e c o n o m y on an even course,

T h i s is Steuart's shorthand expression "to signify the legislature or supreme p o w e r , a c c o r d i n g to the form of g o v e r n m e n t . " Inquiry, V o l . I, p. 16. In general, h o w e v e r , Steuart uses the term w i t h the m e a n i n g of an e n l i g h t e n e d or to-be-enlightcned policy m a k e r interested o n l y in the p u b l i c g o o d .
e

85

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THE
2 4

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a n d a t t e m p t s at r e h a b i l i t a t i n g S t e u a r t as a g r e a t e c o n o mist have shown h i m as a p r e d e c e s s o r o f M a i thus,

2 2

essary t o set i t r i g h t " ; h e n c e w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d , d e l i c a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n s are f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e d . O n e c a n n o t h e l p t h i n k i n g h e r e o f the m e t a p h o r l i k e n i n g t h e u n i v e r s e to a c l o c k that w a s c o n s t a n t l y u s e d in the s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s .

25

Keynes, and of the "economics of c o n t r o l . " time that the "introduction of modern

H o w is it

p o s s i b l e , t h e n , that h e s h o u l d h a v e a r g u e d a t the s a m e oeconomy" w o u l d restrict or constrain the s t a t e s m a n to a p r e v i o u s l y unheard-of extent? T h e e x p l a n a t i o n lies i n the d i s t i n c t i o n , i m p l i c i t i n S t e u a r t , b e t w e e n " a r b i t r a r y " a b u s e s o f p o w e r that s t e m f r o m the v i c e s . a n d passions o f t h e r u l e r s ( a n d that a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to M o n t e s q u i e u ' s grands coups d'autorite), o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d the "fine t u n i n g " c a r r i e d o u t b y a h y p o t h e t i c a l s t a t e s m a n e x c l u s i v e l y m o t i v a t e d b y the c o m m o n g o o d , o n the o t h e r . A c c o r d i n g t o S t e u a r t , m o d ern e c o n o m i c expansion puts an e n d to the former type of i n t e r v e n t i o n , b u t t h e n creates a special n e e d for the l a t t e r k i n d i f the e c o n o m y i s t o m o v e a l o n g a r e a s o n a b l y s m o o t h trajectory. T h e basic c o n s i s t e n c y o f S t e u a r t ' s t h i n k i n g i s best u n d e r s t o o d t h r o u g h his m e t a p h o r o f the w a t c h t o w h i c h h e l i k e n s the " m o d e r n o e c o n o m y . " H e uses i t o n t w o d i f f e r e n t o c c a s i o n s t o i l l u s t r a t e i n t u r n the t w o aspects o f state i n t e r v e n t i o n that h a v e j u s t b e e n m e n t i o n e d . O n the o n e h a n d , the w a t c h i s s o d e l i c a t e t h a t i t "is i m m e d i a t e l y d e s t r o y e d if . . . t o u c h e d w i t h a n y b u t the g e n t l e s t h a n d " ; this m e a n s that the p e n a l t y for o l d f a s h i o n e d a r b i t r a r y coups d'autorite is so stiff that t h e y w i l l s i m p l y h a v e t o cease. O n the o t h e r h a n d , these s a m e w a t c h e s " a r e c o n t i n u a l l y g o i n g w r o n g ; s o m e t i m e s the s p r i n g i s f o u n d too w e a k , a t o t h e r t i m e s t o o s t r o n g for the m a c h i n e . . . a n d t h e w o r k m a n ' s h a n d b e c o m e s necT h e most g e n e r a l assumption of Steuart t h r o u g h o u t his b o o k is that i n d i v i d u a l s are m o t i v a t e d by their self-interest, whereas " p u b l i c spirit . . . o u g h t to be all-powerful in the statesman." Inquiry, V o l . I, p p . 1 4 2 - 1 4 3 . See also above, p p . 49-50.
r

Its c o r o l l a r y

w a s t h a t G o d w a s m a d e t o c h a n g e professions o r "retool": from the potter He h a d been in the O l d Testam e n t , He n o w b e c a m e a m a s t e r c l o c k m a k e r , le Grand Horloger. T h e i m p l i c a t i o n w a s o f c o u r s e t h a t o n c e H e h a d b u i l t the c l o c k , i t w a s g o i n g t o r u n e n t i r e l y b y itself. f ^Steuart's watch (= economy) shares with the clock (= universe) the quality of b e i n g a finely built mechanism that s h o u l d n o t b e t a m p e r e d w i t h b y a r b i t r a r y o u t side i n t e r f e r e n c e , b u t b y c h o o s i n g t h e i m a g e o f a w a t c h h e m a n a g e s t o c o n v e y b o t h the i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f a r b i t r a r y a n d careless h a n d l i n g a n d the n e e d for f r e q u e n t c o r r e c tive m o v e s by the solicitous a n d e x p e r t "statesman." j

3. JOHN M I L L A R

M o n t e s q u i e u a n d S t e u a r t b o t h b e l i e v e d that the e x pansion of commerce and industry w o u l d eliminate a r b i t r a r y a n d a u t h o r i t a r i a n d e c i s i o n m a k i n g b y the sovereign. T h e i r reasoning is similar, if n o t identical. M o n t e s q u i e u g e n e r a l i z e s f r o m s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h _ t h e state is l a r g e l y d e p r i v e d , as a r e s u l t of t h e rise of specific n e w f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , o f its t r a d i t i o n a l p o w e r j o . s e i z e p r o p e r t y a n d t o d e b a s e the c u r r e n c y a t w i l l . F o r S t e u a r t , i f i s r a t h e r the o v e r a l l c o m p l e x i t y a n d v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f the " m o d e r n o e c o n o m y " t h a t m a k e a r b i t r a r y d e c i s i o n s and interferences unthinkablethat is, exorbitantly costly a n d d i s r u p t i v e . In both situations, then, the sovereign is prevented or deterred from acting as violently or unpredictably as 87

2 3

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b e f o r e , e v e n t h o u g h h e m a y still v e r y w e l l w i s h t o d o so. T h e Montesquieu-Steuart position relies m o r e o n con straining, inhibiting, and sanctioning the prince than on m o t i v a t i n g h i m to c o n t r i b u t e directly to the nation's p r o s p e r i t y a course advocated by the Physiocrats, as will be noted shortly. T h e "deterrence m o d e l " chosen by M o n t e s q u i e u and S t e u a r t , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e v a r i a n t p u t f o r w a r d b y t h e lat ter, s t o o d i n n e e d o f f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n . A f t e r all, deter r e n c e m a y fail a n d t h e p r i n c e m a y d e c i d e t o h a v e his f l i n g or grand coup d'autorite a n y w a y . In t h a t e v e n t t h e s i t u a t i o n c o u l d still b e s a v e d i f t h e r e w e r e forces i n t h e society that w o u l d rapidly m o b i l i z e to oppose the prince a n d m a k e h i m r e t r a c t o r m o d i f y his p o l i c i e s . W h a t w a s needed was a feedback or equilibrating mechanism that w o u l d restore c o n d i t i o n s favorable to the e x p a n s i o n of commerce and industry should they be disturbed. S u c h a m e c h a n i s m c o u l d be said to be i m p l i c i t in the rise o f t h e m e r c h a n t a n d m i d d l e classes, a s i t w a s de scribed by m a n y eighteenth-century writers, from H u m e t o A d a m S m i t h and Ferguson. A n e x p l i c i t a c c o u n t o f the h i s t o r i c a l r e a s o n s for w h i c h these classes n o t o n l y c o m e to exercise increasing political influence in general b u t are a b l e t o react t o a b u s e s o f p o w e r b y o t h e r s t h r o u g h c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n w a s p u t f o r w a r d b y J o h n M i l l a r , an other p r o m i n e n t m e m b e r of the Scottish E n l i g h t e n m e n t . I n a p o s t h u m o u s essay e n t i t l e d " T h e A d v a n c e m e n t of Manufactures, Commerce, and the Arts; and the T e n d e n c y o f t h i s A d v a n c e m e n t t o diffuse a S p i r i t o f L i b e r t y a n d I n d e p e n d e n c e , " M i l l a r states his p r i n c i p a l s u b j e c t as f o l l o w s : T h e spirit of liberty appears, in c o m m e r c i a l coun tries, t o d e p e n d chiefly u p o n t w o c i r c u m s t a n c e s : 88

f i r s t , t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e r e l a t i v e t o t h e dis t r i b u t i o n of property, and the means of subsistence: s e c o n d l y , t h e f a c i l i t y w i t h w h i c h t h e several m e m b e r s o f s o c i e t y a r e e n a b l e d t o associate a n d t o act i n concert with one another.20 I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h this o u t l i n e , h e f i r s t s h o w s h o w I f t h e a d v a n c e s o f p r o d u c t i v i t y i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d agri c u l t u r e lead in both these branches to greater " p e r s o n a l independence, and to higher notions of general liberty." H e also b e l i e v e s i t l i k e l y that these a d v a n c e s w i l l n o t b e a c c o m p a n i e d by the very great inequalities of fortune that w e r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e p r i o r age, b u t b y " s u c h a gradation of opulence, as leaving no chasm from top to b o t t o m of the scale."27 H a v i n g satisfied h i m s e l f i n this m a n n e r t h a t t h e ad vance of c o m m e r c e a n d m a n u f a c t u r e s gives rise to a gen eral diffusion of the spirit of liberty, M i l l a r points o u t m o r e specifically h o w this a d v a n c e e n h a n c e s t h e a b i l i t y of certain social g r o u p s to resort to collective action against oppression a n d m i s m a n a g e m e n t . Locke's right to rebel is here subjected to an e n g a g i n g sociological analysis, w h i c h i s w o r t h q u o t i n g a t l e n g t h : . . . w h e n a set of m a g i s t r a t e s , a n d r u l e r s , a r e in v e s t e d w i t h a n a u t h o r i t y , c o n f i r m e d b y a n c i e n t us age, a n d s u p p o r t e d , p e r h a p s , b y a n a r m e d f o r c e , i t c a n n o t be e x p e c t e d that the people, single and un c o n n e c t e d , w i l l b e a b l e t o resist the o p p r e s s i o n o f t h e i r g o v e r n o r s ; a n d t h e i r p o w e r o f c o m b i n i n g for this p u r p o s e , m u s t d e p e n d v e r y m u c h u p o n t h e i r peculiar circumstances. . . . [I] large k i n g d o m s , the people being dispersed over a wide country, have seldom been capable o f . . . vigorous exertions. Liv ing in petty villages, at a distance from o n e another, 89

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and having very imperfect means of communicat i o n , t h e y are o f t e n b u t l i t t l e affected b y the h a r d s h i p s w h i c h m a n y o f their c o u n t r y m e n m a y sustain f r o m the t y r a n n y o f g o v e r n m e n t ; a n d a r e b e l l i o n m a y b e q u e l l e d i n o n e q u a r t e r b e f o r e i t has t i m e t o break out i n another. . . . F r o m the progress, h o w e v e r , o f t r a d e a n d m a n u factures, the state of a c o u n t r y , in this r e s p e c t , is gradually changed. As the inhabitants multiply f r o m t h e f a c i l i t y o f p r o c u r i n g s u b s i s t e n c e , t h e y are c o l l e c t e d i n l a r g e b o d i e s for the c o n v e n i e n t e x e r c i s e o f t h e i r e m p l o y m e n t s . V i l l a g e s are e n l a r g e d i n t o t o w n s ; a n d these are o f t e n s w e l l e d i n t o p o p u l o u s cities. In all those p l a c e s of resort, t h e r e arise l a r g e b a n d s o f l a b o u r e r s o r artificers, w h o b y f o l l o w i n g the same e m p l o y m e n t , and by constant intercourse, are e n a b l e d , w i t h g r e a t r a p i d i t y , t o c o m m u n i c a t e all their sentiments and passions. Among these

those w h o are s u b s e r v i e n t t o c o m m e r c e a n d m a n u factures. objects, By a constant attention to professional people the s u p e r i o r o r d e r s of m e r c a n t i l e

b e c o m e quick-sighted in discerning their c o m m o n interest, a n d , a t all times, i n d e f a t i g a b l e i n p u r s u i n g it. W h i l e t h e f a r m e r , e m p l o y e d i n the separate c u l t i v a t i o n o f his l a n d , c o n s i d e r s o n l y his o w n i n d i v i d u a l profit; while the l a n d e d g e n t l e m a n seeks o n l y to p r o c u r e a r e v e n u e sufficient for t h e s u p p l y o f his w a n t s , a n d i s often u n m i n d f u l o f his o w n i n t e r e s t as w e l l as of e v e r y o t h e r ; the m e r c h a n t , t h o u g h h e n e v e r o v e r l o o k s his p r i v a t e a d v a n t a g e , i s a c c u s t o m e d t o c o n n e c t his o w n g a i n w i t h that o f his b r e t h r e n , a n d is, t h e r e f o r e , a l w a y s r e a d y t o j o i n w i t h those o f t h e s a m e profession, i n s o l i c i t i n g t h e a i d o f g o v e r n m e n t , a n d i n p r o m o t i n g g e n e r a l measures for t h e b e n e f i t of t h e i r trade. T h e p r e v a l e n c e o f this g r e a t m e r c a n t i l e associat i o n i n B r i t a i n , has, i n the c o u r s e o f the p r e s e n t century, b e c o m e gradually m o r e and m o r e conspicuous. T h e clamor and tumultuary proceedings of t h e p o p u l a c e in the g r e a t t o w n s are capable of pene-

t h e r e s p r i n g u p l e a d e r s , w h o g i v e a t o n e a n d direction t o t h e i r c o m p a n i o n s . T h e s t r o n g e n c o u r a g e the feeble; the b o l d a n i m a t e t h e t i m i d ; the r e s o l u t e c o n f i r m t h e w a v e r i n g ; a n d the m o v e m e n t s o f the w h o l e mass p r o c e e d with the uniformity of a machine, a n d w i t h a f o r c e t h a t is o f t e n i r r e s i s t i b l e . In this s i t u a t i o n , a g r e a t p r o p o r t i o n of the p e o p l e are easily r o u s e d b y e v e r y p o p u l a r d i s c o n t e n t , a n d c a n u n i t e w i t h n o less f a c i l i t y i n d e m a n d i n g a redress o f g r i e v a n c e s . T h e least g r o u n d o f c o m p l a i n t , in a t o w n , b e c o m e s the o c c a s i o n of a r i o t ; a n d the flames o f s e d i t i o n s p r e a d i n g f r o m o n e c i t y t o ano t h e r , are b l o w n u p i n t o a g e n e r a l i n s u r r e c t i o n . N e i t h e r d o e s this u n i o n arise m e r e l y f r o m l o c a l s i t u a t i o n s ; n o r is it c o n f i n e d to the l o w e r class of 9o

trating the inmost recesses of administration, of intimidating the boldest minister, and of displacing the most presumptuous favourite of the backstairs. The voice of the mercantile interest never fails to command the attention of government, a n d
w h e n firm and unanimous, is even able to control a n d d i r e c t the d e l i b e r a t i o n s o f the n a t i o n a l c o u n cils.
28

T h e m o s t s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e o f these p a r a g r a p h s i s the p o s i t i v e v j e w M i l l a r takes o f t h e social r o l e o f r i o t s a n d o t h e r mass a c t i o n s . A few d e c a d e s later t h e c l i m a t e h a d

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totally changed,

as Dr. A n d r e w

Lire attested i n

his

Philosophy of Manufactures

(1835):

c u s e d c h a r a c t e r " that a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n the h a l l m a r k of eighteenth-century mobs in Western Europe.

3 3

Just
3 1

M a n u f a c t u r e s n a t u r a l l y c o n d e n s e a vast p o p u l a t i o n w i t h i n a n a r r o w c i r c u i t ; t h e y afford e v e r y f a c i l i t y for secret c a b a l . . .; t h e y c o m m u n i c a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d e n e r g y t o the v u l g a r m i n d ; they s u p p l y i n their liberal wages the pecuniary sinews of c o n t e n t i o n .
2 J

as these m o b s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d to h a v e a " c o n s t i t u t i o n a l role" to play in E n g l a n d and even in colonial A m e r i c a , so John Millar e n d o w e d them with a highly rational and beneficent role in m a i n t a i n i n g and defending economic progress. M o r e o v e r , j u s t a s S t e u a r t h a d l i k e n e d the w o r k i n g o f the " m o d e r n o e c o n o m y " t o the " d e l i c a c y o f a w a t c h , " the m o v e m e n t s o f t h e " m e r c a n t i l e p e o p l e " a n d t h e i r a l l i e s are v i e w e d h e r e a s p r o c e e d i n g " w i t h the u n i f o r m ity o f a m a c h i n e . " C l e a r l y M i l l a r w a s c o n v i n c e d that h e had uncovered an important and_reliable m e l a n i s m that w o u l d i n s u r e that the passions o f t h e _ p r i n c e c o u l d n o t p r e v a i l for l o n g o v e r t h e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t a n d the n e e d s of the . . e x p a n d i n g , . . e c o n o m y . In this sense his t h o u g h t c o m p l e t e s that o f M o n t e s q u i e u a n d S t e u a r t .

By 1835, of c o u r s e , the f r e q u e n t l y " c o n t e n t i o u s " w o r k i n g class h a d c o m e i n t o e x i s t e n c e . T h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y .events o n w h i c h M i l l a r b a s e d his o p t i m i s t i c v i e w o f mass a c t i o n are p r o b a b l y the W i l k e s riots, w h i c h s h o o k L o n d o n i n t e r m i t t e n t l y i n the sixties a n d s e v e n ties. " A s R u d e has s h o w n , these riots w e r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y that very a l l i a n c e o f the m e r c h a n t s a n d o t h e r m i d d l e class e l e m e n t s w i t h the " c r o w d " that i s s o w e l l c o n v e y e d in Millar's account.
3 1 ;i

Nevertheless, other contemporary

o b s e r v e r s s e e m t o h a v e b e e n fairly a l a r m e d b y these riots. T h e y c a u s e d D a v i d H u m e t o t u r n m u c h m o r e c o n s e r v a t i v e a n d to suppress, in a n e w e d i t i o n of his Essays, an e x t e n s i v e o p t i m i s t i c a p p r a i s a l of the p r o s p e c t s for l i b e r t y i n w h i c h h e h a d said, for e x a m p l e , " t h a t the p e o p l e are n o s u c h d a n g e r o u s m o n s t e r a s they h a v e b e e n represented.'"* suring, either
2

Related yet Discordant Views

M i l l a r ' s a c c o u n t is at t i m e s n o t so reas( e x c e p t to a r e v o l u t i o n a r y ) , p a r t i c u l a r l y

H E M o n t e s q u i e u - S t e u a r t v i e w o f the p o l i t i c a l conse-

quences of economic expansion was by no means

w h e n h e a d u m b r a t e s the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a " g e n e r a l insurr e c t i o n " ; b u t o n the w h o l e his e m p h a s i s i s o n the " c o n stant a t t e n t i o n t o p r o f e s s i o n a l o b j e c t s " b y the m e r c h a n t s a n d o n their s u p e r i o r a b i l i t y , i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the w i d e l y scattered farmers, t o o r g a n i z e t h e m s e l v e s for " i n terest g r o u p " a c t i o n , t o r a l l y o t h e r s t o t h e i r c a u s e , a n d t o o b t a i n redress o f g r i e v a n c e s from the w a y w a r d p o l i c y m a k e r s . I n this m a n n e r the process d e s c r i b e d b y M i l l a r e x h i b i t s the " d i s c r i m i n a t i n g p u r p o s e f u l n e s s " a n d " f o -

u n i v e r s a l l y s h a r e d . I n fact, the m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l w r i t e r s

o n e c o n o m i c affairs i n F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d , the P h y s i o crats a n d A d a m S m i t h , n o t o n l y f a i l e d t o a d d t o t h e specific l i n e o f t h o u g h t that has b e e n d e v e l o p e d ; a s w i l l be shown, theyparticularly A d a m Smithcontributed i n v a r i o u s w a y s t o its d e m i s e . A n u m b e r o f i m p o r t a n t i d e a s a n d c o n c e r n s are s h a r e d b y the t w o g r o u p s , b u t e m p h a s i s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s o f t e n differ m a r k e d l y . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e i d e a o f the e c o n o m y a s a n i n t r i c a t e l y b u i l t m e c h a n i s m o r m a c h i n e that func-

92

93

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tions i n d e p e n d e n t l y of men's will was one of the most i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s of the Physiocrats to e c o n o m i c thought.
35

o w n e r s are to some e x t e n t u n k n o w n , since no one k n o w s w h i c h of t h e m are paid and w h i c h of t h e m are o w i n g . No wealth w h i c h is i m m a t e r i a l or kept in people's pockets can ever be g o t h o l d of by the sovereign power, and consequently will yield it n o t h i n g at all. T h i s is a t r u t h w h i c h s h o u l d be con s t a n t l y r e p e a t e d t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t s o f t h o s e agri cultural nations w h i c h take such pains themselves to become merchants, i.e. to school to p l u n d e r

In

t h e c o u r s e o f his E u r o p e a n w a n d e r i n g s
30

Steuart h a d been in touch w i t h several p r o m i n e n t m e m bers of that school, a n d his v i e w o f t h e m o d e r n e c o n o m y a s a w a t c h - l i k e m e c h a n i s m m a y h a v e b e e n influ e n c e d by their way of t h i n k i n g . B u t the c o n c l u s i o n the Physiocrats d r e w from their insight was n o t to prognos ticate, like Steuart, which the that n o b o d y w o u l d dare interfere interference w o u l d and A d a m movable had first be effectively Smith shared with the w o r k i n g of the m a c h i n e b u t to advocate a polit ical o r d e r in barred. Similarly, of the Physiocrats between with their c o n t e m p o r a r i e s the belief in the i m p o r t a n c e distinction This and unmovable the property. distinction suggested

themselves. T h e w e a l t h y m e r c h a n t , trader, banker, etc., w i l l a l w a y s b e a m e m b e r o f a r e p u b l i c . I n w h a t ever place he m a y live, he will always enjoy the im munity which is inherent in the scattered and u n k n o w n c h a r a c t e r o f his p r o p e r t y , all o n e c a n see o f w h i c h i s t h e p l a c e w h e r e b u s i n e s s i n i t i s transa c t e d . | l t w o u l d b e useless for t h e a u t h o r i t i e s t o try t o f o r c e h i m t o fulfill t h e d u t i e s o f a s u b j e c t : t h e y are obliged, in order to i n d u c e h i m to fit in w i t h their plans, to treat h i m as a master, a n d to m a k e it w o r t h his w h i l e to c o n t r i b u t e v o l u n t a r i l y to the public revenue.38^ O b v i o u s l y Q u e s n a y a n d M i r a b e a u feel, f i r s t o f all, t h a t the elusive qualities of c o m m e r c e a n d industry are a l i a b i l i t y r a t h e r t h a n a n asset a n d m a k e i t a d v i s a b l e for a c o u n t r y n o t to e n c o u r a g e these a c t i v i t i e s / Secondly, they simply assume that w e a l t h y m e r c h a n t s and bankers will s o m e h o w r e t u r n to the m e d i e v a l pattern a n d organ ize t h e m s e l v e s i n s e p a r a t e r e p u b l i c s . H e n c e t h e p r o b l e m of political organization in "agricultural societies"

t h o u g h t to M o n t e s q u i e u that g o v e r n m e n t s d e a l i n g w i t h citizens o w n i n g primarily m o v a b l e property will have to b e h a v e q u i t e differently from those facing societies w h e r e u n m o v a b l e p r o p e r t y is the p r i n c i p a l form of pri vately held wealth. tinction [remove and the In The Wealth of Nations this dis to ability of the holders of capital

themselves to a n o t h e r c o u n t r y are m e n t i o n e d

[several times a n d are i n d e e d r e c o g n i z e d as restraints oh 'extortionist tax policies.37 B u t A d a m S m i t h does n o t g o f u r t h e r . In t h e i r b a s i c t e x t , Philosophic rurale, Q u e s n a y and Mirabeau also point to the elusive character of w e a l t h i n c o m m e r c i a l s o c i e t i e s a n d c o m e i n fact q u i t e close to the analysis of M o n t e s q u i e u ; b u t they do so in a very different spirit: A l l t h e possessions [of c o m m e r c i a l s o c i e t i e s ] c o n sisted o f s c a t t e r e d a n d s e c r e t s e c u r i t i e s , a f e w w a r e houses, a n d passive a n d active debts, 94 whose true

T h e fears a n d h o p e s aroused by the e m e r g e n c e of the v a r i o u s forms of movable c a p i t a l as a m a j o r c o m p o n e n t of total w e a l t h in the e i g h t e e n t h century offer m a n y i n t e r e s t i n g parallels w i t h similarly c o n t r a d i c t o r y p e r c e p t i o n s caused m o r e recently by the r i s e o f the m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n .

95

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(among w h i c h France was implicitly included) remains unsolved. Finally and most important, the two groups of writers are e q u a l l y c o n v i n c e d that i n c o m p e t e n t , a r b i t r a r y , a n d w a s t e f u l p o l i c i e s o f the r u l e r s c a n s e r i o u s l y i m p e d e econ o m i c progress. S o m e o f A d a m S m i t h ' s m o s t e l o q u e n t pages d e n o u n c e such policies, principal varieties of
;iD

M o n t e s q u i e u set o u t t o d e s i g n p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t w o u l d e f f e c t i v e l y restrain the passionate excesses of the s o v e r e i g n .

a n d the f o l l o w i n g ingrands coups g f ^ p h e q u e s t for this p a r t i c u l a r h a r m o n y rferests h a d o e e n H o b b e s ' s w a y o f p o s i n g the p r o b l e m o f t h e best f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t , a n d i t h a d l e d h i m t o f a v o r a b s o l u t e m o n a r c h y o v e r d e m o c r a c y a n d aristocracy: . . . w h e r e the p u b l i q u e a n d p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t [of the r u l e r ] are m o s t c l o s e l y u n i t e d t h e r e i s t h e p u b l i q u e m o s t a d v a n c e d . N o w i n M o n a r c h y , t h e p r i v a t e interest i s t h e s a m e w i t h the p u b l i q u e . T h e r i c h e s , p o w e r , a n d h o n o u r o f a M o n a r c h arise o n l y f r o m the r i c h e s , s t r e n g t h a n d r e p u t a t i o n o f his S u b j e c t s . For no K i n g can be rich, nor glorious, nor secure; w h o s e S u b j e c t s are e i t h e r p o o r e , c o n t e m p t i b l e , o r too w e a k t h r o u g h w a n t , o r d i s s e n t i o n , t o m a i n t a i n a w a r a g a i n s t t h e i r e n e m i e s : W h e r e a s in a D e m o c r a c y , o r A r i s t o c r a c y , the p u b l i q u e p r o s p e r i t y conferres n o t s o m u c h t o the p r i v a t e f o r t u n e o f o n e that is c o r r u p t , or a m b i t i o u s , as d o t h m a n y t i m e s a p e r f i d i o u s a d v i c e , a t r e a c h e r o u s a c t i o n , or a C i v i l l warre.
4 1

d i c t m e n t by Q u e s n a y c a n stand as a u s e f u l l i s t i n g of the Montesquieu's

d'autorite:
. . . the d e s p o t i s m of the s o v e r e i g n s a n d of t h e i r u n d e r l i n g s , t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s a n d the i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e l a w s , the d i s o r d e r l y excesses (dereglements) of t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , the u n c e r t a i n t y a f f e c t i n g p r o p erty, the w a r s , the c h a o t i c d e c i s i o n s in m a t t e r s of t a x a t i o n d e s t r o y m e n a n d t h e w e a l t h o f the sovereign.
4 0

' B u t , o n c e a g a i n , n e i t h e r the P h y s i o c r a t s n o r A d a m S m i t h were willing to rely on economic expansion to achieve the " w i t h e r i n g a w a y " o f this sort o f w r o n g h e a d e d n e s s o n the p a r t o f the politicians.^ R a t h e r , they a d v o c a t e d that these ills b e d e a l t w i t h d i r e c t l y : the Physiocrats c a m e o u t i n f a v o r o f a n e w p o l i t i c a l o r d e r that w o u l d e n s u r e the c o r r e c t e c o n o m i c p o l i c i e s a s d e f i n e d b y t h e m , while A d a m Smith aimed more modestly at changing specific p o l i c i e s . W e shall d e a l w i t h t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e positions in turn.

In their political writings the Physiocrats took over

I. THE PHYSIOCRATS

the s a m e t h o u g h t a n d h a d o n l y sarcasm

for M o n t e s -

O n the q u e s t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l differences i n a p p r o a c h l e d M o n t e s q u i e u a n d the P h y s i o c r a t s t o t a k e p e r f e c t l y o p p o s i t e stands. 96

q u i e u ' s a d v o c a c y of a f o r m of g o v e r n m e n t that they saw as c o n d e m n e d to be weak and h o b b l e d . At the same t i m e , t h e y f o r m u l a t e d i n t h e laissez-faire p r i n c i p l e the 97

THE

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other,

b e t t e r k n o w n h a r m o n y - o f - i n t e r e s t s d o c t r i n e ac-

It was L i n g u e t , e t e r n a l enfant terrible a n d a c r i t i c of b o t h M o n t e s q u i e u a n d the P h y s i o c r a t s , w h o c a r r i e d this m a n n e r o f r e a s o n i n g t o its u l t i m a t e c o n c l u s i o n . L o g i c a l l y e n o u g h , h e felt that a c o - p r o p e r t y a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h t h e m o n a r c h w o u l d n o t b e q u i t e sufficient a s a n a s s u r a n c e o f the sought-after i d e n t i t y o f interests; s o h e

c o r d i n g t o w h i c h the p u b l i c g o o d i s the o u t c o m e o f t h e free p u r s u i t b y e v e r y o n e o f his o w n self-interest- B e i n g l o c a t e d at t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of these t w o Harmonielehren.

^ i w i t i l ^ t h i S freedom bv an all powerful ruler whostf

w e n t o n e s t e p f u r t h e r a n d c a m e o u t i n f a v o r o f total o w n e r s h i p o f all n a t i o n a l w e a l t h b y the r u l e r . W i t h g r e a t c o n s i s t e n c y h e praises " o r i e n t a l " o r " A s i a n d e s p o t i s m "

w h i c h they o p p o s e t o the " a r b i t r a r y d e s p o t i s m " t h a t i s g u i l t y o f the m i s d e e d s s o w e l l d e t a i l e d b y Quesnay.

4 2

a n d c o n c l u d e s that the s y s t e m h e a d v o c a t e s does n o t at all favor tyranny contrary to w h a t m a n y t h i n k ; i t i m p o s e s o n t h e k i n g s o b l i g a t i o n s t h a t are m u c h n a r r o w e r t h a n the so-called d e p e n d e n c e i n w h i c h some w o u l d like to place them in relation to t h e i r o w n vassals. [ T h i s i d e a l system] d o e s n o t o n l y a d v i s e t h e m t o b e j u s t ; i t forces t h e m t o b e s o . This passage is strongly reminiscent of
4 5

G o i n g f u r t h e r t h a n H o b b e s , w h o r e l i e d o n the g e n eral c o n v e r g e n c e ' o f interests b e t w e e n the M a n y a n d the O n e w h o r u l e s , s o m e o f the P h y s i o c r a t s i n v e n t e d institutional arrangements specifically designed to m a k e the d e s p o t t r u l y " l e g a l . " O n the o n e h a n d , t h e y e l a b o r a t e d a system o f j u d i c i a l c o n t r o l t h a t w o u l d see t o i t that t h e l a w s i s s u e d b y t h e s o v e r e i g n a n d his c o u n c i l a r e n o t c o n t r a r y t o the " n a t u r a l o r d e r " that i s t o b e r e f l e c t e d i n the f u n d a m e n t a l c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e s t a t e . ' I I I * * II" W i i i ^ e r ^ ^
43

Steuart's

phrase a b o u t the "folly of despotism" b e c o m i n g impossible w i t h " m o d e r n o e c o n o m y . " (The crucial difference of c o u r s e is t h a t t h e P h y s i o c r a t s (as w e l l as L i n g u e t ) e x p e c t e d t h e i r i d e a l system o f p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y t o b e e n a c t e d by e n l i g h t e n e d s t a t e s m e n , as a r e s u l t of t h e persuasiveness o f t h e i r a r g u m e n t s ;
4 0

B u t an

even m o r e i m p o r t a n t safeguard was the Idea that the *0tokmmmmmto***fahu&This w a s t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e institution of co-property that Le M e r c i e r de la R i v i e r e pro-

whereas Sir James Steu-

art t h o u g h t t h a t c h a n g e i n the d e s i r e d d i r e c t i o n w o u l d o c c u r o f its o w n a c c o r d , a s a r e s u l t o f the o n g o i n g p r o c ess o f e c o n o m i c e x p a n s i o n . " ) It is n o t t o o difficult to c o n c e i v e of a p o s i t i o n that

p o s e d in his Ordre naturel et essentiel des ^j^sgoli-

so

tiques

(1767).

4 4

^^&^m%^m^k^^m^rf^t^^^p^

p a r t a k e s o f b o t h these p o i n t s o f v i e w : M a r x i s m has i n fact t h o r o u g h l y h a b i t u a t e d u s t o the p o s s i b i l i t y o f bel i e v i n g a t o n e a n d the s a m e t i m e that h i s t o r i c a l forces

'^*"^^
IfosJ&WrTitya^ the H o b b e s i a n i d e n t i t y o f interests w o u l d b e t r a n s p a r e n t even to the most obtuse and w i c k e d despot. 98

m o v e i n e x o r a b l y t o w a r d a c e r t a i n o u t c o m e and

that

those w h o w i s h for that o u t c o m e h a d b e t t e r d e v o t e all 99

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their energy to b r i n g i n g it about. Actually every policyo r i e n t e d w r i t e r i n the social s c i e n c e s faces the p r o b l e m o f the p r o p e r m i x b e t w e e n p r e d i c t i o n a n d p r e s c r i p t i o n , a n d it is n o w t i m e to take a l o o k at the v e r y c o m p l e x p o s i t i o n t a k e n i n this r e s p e c t b y A d a m S m i t h .

S m i t h ' s o w n b r i l l i a n t l y c a u s t i c w o r d s . " B e f o r e the r i s e of c o m m e r c e and industry, the g r e a t l o r d s s h a r e d the s u r p l u s f r o m t h e i r estates w i t h l a r g e n u m b e r s o f r e t a i n ers, w h o w e r e w h o l l y d e p e n d e n t o n the l o r d s a n d c o n s t i t u t e d a p r i v a t e a r m y , as w e l l as w i t h t h e i r tenants, w h o paid l o w r e n t s b u t h a d n o s e c u r i t y o f t e n u r e . T h i s

2.

ADAM

SMITH

AND

THE

END

OF

VISION

state o f affairs r e s u l t e d i n a s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h " t h e k i n g w a s . . . i n c a p a b l e of r e s t r a i n i n g the v i o l e n c e of the g r e a t l o r d s . . . . T h e y [ m a d e ] w a r a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r o w n discretion, almost continually upon one another, and very f r e q u e n t l y u p o n the k i n g ; a n d the o p e n c o u n t r y . . . [was] a s c e n e of v i o l e n c e , r a p i n e , a n d d i s o r d e r . "
48

i^fP^^^^^^ ^^^^^B^&^^?tte^^uMj^i t^ But

;

no

B u t then matters c h a n g e d as a result of "the silent a n d insensible operation of foreign c o m m e r c e and manufact u r e s . " T h e l o r d s n o w h a d s o m e t h i n g "on w h i c h they c o u l d spend their surplus, w h i c h they h a d p r e v i o u s l y s h a r e d w i t h t h e i r r e t a i n e r s a n d t e n a n t s : " a p a i r o f diam o n d b u c k l e s , or . . . s o m e t h i n g as f r i v o l o u s a n d useless," " t r i n k e t s a n d b a u b l e s , f i t t e r t o b e the p l a y t h i n g s o f c h i l d r e n t h a n the s e r i o u s p u r s u i t s o f m a n , " i s the c o n t e m p t u o u s w a y i n w h i c h A d a m S m i t h refers t o the m e r c h a n d i s e offered b y the t o w n s m e n . T h i s m e r c h a n d i s e w a s s o a t t r a c t i v e t o the l o r d s that t h e y d e c i d e d t o d o w i t h o u t retainers and to enter into longeT -term and generally m o r e businesslike relations with their tenants. I n t h e u p s h o t , " f o r t h e g r a t i f i c a t i o n o f the m o s t c h i l d ish, t h e m e a n e s t a n d the m o s t s o r d i d o f all v a n i t i e s t h e y g r a d u a l l y b a r t e r e d t h e i r w h o l e p o w e r and a u t h o r i t y " *
5 9

a t t e n t i v e r e a d e r o f Wealth

will be surprised that argu-

m e n t s o f t h e l a t t e r k i n d c a n also b e f o u n d i n t h a t p r o t e a n v o l u m e . A c t u a l l y A d a m S m i t h presents a t o n e p o i n t the i d e a that i n c r e a s e i n w e a l t h a n d r e t r e n c h m e n t i n p o w e r go h a n d in hand, and he does so at greater length and with m o r e relish than any other w r i t e r had d o n e up t o his t i m e . T h e p l a c e i s his w e l l - k n o w n a c c o u n t o f t h e erosion of feudalism in C h a p t e r 4 of B o o k III, entitled " H o w the C o m m e r c e o f T o w n s C o n t r i b u t e d t o the I m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e C o u n t r y . " H e r e S m i t h sets o u t t o tell the story h o w commerce and manufactures gradually introduced order and good government, and with them, h a b i t a n t s o f the c o u n t r y , who had before the l i b e r t y a n d s e c u r i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s , a m o n g the inlived a l m o s t i n a c o n t i n u a l state o f w a r w i t h t h e i r n e i g h b o u r s , a n d o f s e r v i l e d e p e n d e n c y u p o n t h e i r superiors. *
7

and " b e c a m e as insignificant as any substantial burgher o r t r a d e s m a n i n a c i t y . " " A n d the g r a n d p o l i t i c a l r e s u l t was that
h It is a mystery h o w S c h u m p e t e r c o u l d have qualified the "wisd o m " of B o o k I I I as "dry and unins'pired." See his History of Economic'Analysis ( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1954), p . 187.

T h e story c a n b e r e t o l d s u c c i n c t l y , a n d t o c o n v e y t h e c o r r e c t flavor I shall use, as m u c h as p o s s i b l e , A d a m

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. . . the g r e a t p r o p r i e t o r s w e r e no l o n g e r c a p a b l e of i n t e r r u p t i n g the r e g u l a r e x e c u t i o n o f j u s t i c e , o r o f d i s t u r b i n g t h e p e a c e o f the c o u n t r y .

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A t one point, w h e n speaking a b o u t "the capricious amb i t i o n o f k i n g s a n d m i n i s t e r s , " h e says specifically: T h e violence and injustice of the rulers of mank i n d i s a n a n c i e n t e v i l , for w h i c h , I a m afraid, the n a t u r e o f h u m a n affairs c a n scarce a d m i t o f a r e m edy.
5 3

O n c e a g a i n , t h e n , the rise o f c o m m e r c e a n d i n d u s t r y m a k e s for m o r e o r d e r l y g o v e r n m e n t , b u t the m o d u s o p e r a n d i i s v e r y different from that i n v o k e d b y M o n t e s q u i e u a n d S t e u a r t . I n the f i r s t p l a c e , the l a t t e r w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h the s u p r e m e a u t h o r i t y o f the k i n g , its uses a n d abuses, w h e r e a s S m i t h a d d r e s s e d h i m s e l f t o the o v e r w e e n i n g p o w e r o f the f e u d a l l o r d s . S e c o n d l y , h e saw a d e c l i n e i n this p o w e r , n o t b e c a u s e the l o r d s c a m e t o r e a l i z e that t h e i r i n t e r e s t l a y i n n o t u s i n g i t s o w a n t o n l y as before, but because they unwittingly relinquished * therr p o w e r as t h e y a t t e m p t e d to t a k e a d v a n t a g e of the ; n e w o p p o r t u n i t i e s for t h e i r o w n c o n s u m p t i o n a n d m a Uerial i m p r o v e m e n t o p e n e d u p b y the " p r o g r e s s o f the arts." In fact, the e p i s o d e is b e t t e r s u m m a r i z e d as a v i c t o r y o f the passions (of c u p i d i t y a n d l u x u r y ) o v e r the l o n g e r - r u n interests o f the l o r d s t h a n a s t h e t a m i n g o f the passions by t h e interests. T h e f o r m o f the a r g u m e n t A d a m S m i t h c h o s e m a d e i t difficult t o e x t e n d i t f r o m t h e l o r d s t o t h e s o v e r e i g n . I n H u m e ' s History of England, w h i c h S m i t h q u o t e s at t h e o u t s e t o f his o w n story, the rise o f t h e " m i d d l e r a n k o f m e n " h a d b e e n set f o r t h i n r a t h e r s i m i l a r , i f c o n s i d e r a b l y less c o l o r f u l , t e r m s ; a n d H u m e s p e c i f i c a l l y p o i n t e d o u t that the loss o f p o w e r o f the l o r d s b e n e f i t e d n o t o n l y the n e w l y r i s i n g m e r c h a n t s a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r s b u t the s o v e r e i g n a s w e l l , a n d A d a m S m i t h h i m s e l f h a d u s e d a s i m i l a r a r g u m e n t in the Lectures. ( w i t h r e s p e c t to a r b i t r a r y d e c i s i o n s a n d h a r m f u l p o l i c i e s o f t h e central g o v e r n m e n t , S m i t h d o e s n o t h o l d o u t m u c h h o p e that e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t itself w i l l b r i n g i m p r o v e m e n t s ^

A n d i n a p o l e m i c w i t h Q u e s n a y h e m a i n t a i n s that c o n siderable e c o n o m i c progress is possible regardless of improvements in the political environment: . . . i n the p o l i t i c a l b o d y , the n a t u r a l effort w h i c h e v e r y m a n i s c o n t i n u a l l y m a k i n g t o b e t t e r his o w n c o n d i t i o n , is a p r i n c i p l e of p r e s e r v a t i o n c a p a b l e of preventing and correcting, i n m a n y respects, the b a d effects of a p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y , in s o m e d e g r e e both partial and oppressive . . . . [ T ] h e wisdom o f n a t u r e has f o r t u n a t e l y m a d e a m p l e p r o v i s i o n s for r e m e d y i n g m a n y o f the b a d effects o f the f o l l y a n d i n j u s t i c e of m a n . . . .
5 4

H e uses v e r y s i m i l a r t e r m s i n his " D i g r e s s i o n o n t h e Corn Trade": T h e n a t u r a l effort o f e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l t o b e t t e r his o w n c o n d i t i o n , w h e n suffered t o e x e r t itself w i t h f r e e d o m a n d s e c u r i t y , is so p o w e r f u l a p r i n c i p l e , t h a t i t i s a l o n e , a n d w i t h o u t a n y assistance, n o t o n l y capable of carrying on the society to wealth and prosperity, but of s u r m o u n t i n g a h u n d r e d impertin e n t o b s t r u c t i o n s w i t h w h i c h the f o l l y o f h u m a n l a w s t o o o f t e n e n c u m b e r s its o p e r a t i o n s .
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w e l l - k n o w n a m b i v a l e n c e t o w a r d m a t e r i a l progress i s i n fefe^^*^iM^^/ y f e r e n t f r o m t h e laissez-faire o r m i n i m a l state d o c t r i n e a n d still w i d e s p r e a d t o d a y a m o n g e c o n o m i s t s , p o l i t i c s i s the p r o v i n c e o f the " f o l l y o f m e n " w h i l e e c o n o m i c p r o g ress, l i k e C a n d i d e ' s g a r d e n , c a n b e c u l t i v a t e d w i t h success p r o v i d e d s u c h f o l l y d o e s n o t e x c e e d s o m e fairly a m p l e and flexible limits. It appears that ^mith advoc a t e d less a state w i t h m i n i m a l f u n c t i o n s t h a n o n e w h o s e c a p a c i t y for f o l l y w o u l d h a v e s o m e c e i l i n g , A d a m S m i t h d i d n o t share the M o n t e s q u i e u - S t e u a r t p e r s p e c t i v e for a n u m b e r o f o t h e r , still m o r e i m p o r t a n t reasons.(For o n e , t o the e x t e n t that h e felt s t r o n g l y a b o u t specific aspects o f g o v e r n m e n t a l " f o l l y " w h i c h d i d , i n his opinion, hold back economic advance (such a s c e r t a i n mercantilist policies), he was intent, like the Physiocrats, o n d e s c r i b i n g these p o l i c i e s a s hard, r e a l i t i e s t h a t h a d t o b e c h a n g e d r a t h e r t h a n o n d i s c o v e r i n g g r o u n d s for h o p e that t h e y w o u l d d i s s o l v e o f t h e i r o w n a c c o r d . _SeQndly, S m i t h w a s n o t n e a r l y s o r e a d y a s M o n t e s q u i e u a n d S t e u a r t t o h a i l t h e n e w era o f trade a n d industry as one that w o u l d deliver m a n k i n d from ancient evils, s u c h a s a b u s e s o f p o w e r , w a r s , a n d the l i k e . H i s
On this p o i n t , as w e l l as elsewhere in the n e x t few pages, my i n t e r p r e t a t i o n differs strongly from that presented by Joseph C r o p s e y in his t h o u g h t - p r o v o k i n g essay Polity and Economy: An Interpretation of the Principles of Adam. Smith (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1957). I shall simply state a n d d o c u m e n t my p o i n t of v i e w rather than c o m p a r e it t h r o u g h o u t w i t h that of C r o p s e y , w h i c h "stated most g e n e r a l l y " is that " S m i t h ' s position m a y be interpreted to m e a n that c o m m e r c e generates freedom a n d c i v i l i z a t i o n , a n d at the same time free institutions are indispensable to the preservation of c o m m e r c e " (p. 95), A recent critical appraisal of C r o p s e y ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is in D u n c a n Forbes, "Sceptical W h i g gism, C o m m e r c e a n d L i b e r t y " i n A . S . S k i n n e r a n d T . W i l s o n , eds., Essays on Adam Smith ( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d University Press, * 9 7 ) . PP- 194-201.
6 1

I n

t h i s

>

v e r

d i f

fact w e l l

illustrated in

the m a n n e r o f the historical

a c c o u n t that has j u s t b e e n r e p o r t e d . W h i l e h e o b v i o u s l y w e l c o m e d the o u t c o m e o f the process h e d e s c r i b e d i t w a s , after all, " o r d e r a n d g o o d g o v e r n m e n t , a n d w i t h t h e m , the l i b e r t y a n d s e c u r i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s " h e was a t the s a m e t i m e e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y s c a t h i n g w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e c h a i n o f e v e n t s a n d the m o t i v a t i o n s that b r o u g h t a b o u t this h a p p y r e s u l t . T h e e x p l a n a t i o n for this a m b i v a l e n t s t a n c e m a y l i e , a t least i n part, i n the d e l i g h t h e took, here as elsewhere, in u n c o v e r i n g and e m p h a s i z i n g the u n i n t e n d e d r e s u l t s o f h u m a n a c t i o n . p l a y e d his I n v i s i b l e H a n d : O n e cannot h e l p f e e l i n g that i n this p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e S m i t h o v e r for the d e r i s i v e a n d e v e n s a v a g e m a n n e r o f the a c c o u n t h e g i v e s o f t h e " f o l l y " o f the l o r d s raises the q u e s t i o n i n t h e r e a d e r ' s m i n d h o w the l o r d s c o u l d h a v e b e e n q u i t e s o b l i n d t o t h e i r class interests.
1

S m i t h ' s a m b i v a l e n c e t o w a r d n a s c e n t c a p i t a l i s m was n o t l i m i t e d t o this i n s t a n c e . Its m o s t f a m o u s m a n i f e s t a t i o n i s p e r h a p s his t r e a t m e n t o f the d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r , w h i c h he celebrates in B o o k I, only to castigate it in B o o k V . M u c h has b e e n w r i t t e n a b o u t this c o n t r a s t .
50

B o t h H u m e , in the History of England (1762), and John M i l l a r , in The Origins of the Distinction of Ranks ( 1 7 7 1 ) , also traced the loss of p o w e r of the lords to e c o n o m i c causes b u t g a v e more i m p o r t a n c e than A d a m Smith to the n e w position of the " m i d d l e r a n k of m e n " w h o dealt w i t h a large n u m b e r of customers instead of b e i n g d e p e n d e n t on the favors of a single person. F o r J o h n M i l l a r ' s essay, see W i l l i a m C. L e h m a n n , John Millar of Glasgow ( C a m b r i d g e : University Press, 1960), p p . 290-291; for H u m e , see below, n o t e 52 of Part T w o .

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I n r e l a t i o n t o t h e f o r m e r h e says i n The Wealth of Nations a b o u t " t h e m a n w h o s e w h o l e l i f e i s s p e n t i n p e r f o r m i n g a few s i m p l e o p e r a t i o n s " : O f the great a n d extensive interests o f his c o u n t r y he is altogether incapable of j u d g i n g ; a n d unless very particular pains have been taken to render h i m otherwise, he is equally incapable of d e f e n d i n g his c o u n t r y in war. T h e u n i f o r m i t y of his stationary l i f e n a t u r a l l y c o r r u p t s t h e c o u r a g e o f his m i n d , a n d makes him regard with abhorrence the irregular, u n c e r t a i n , a n d a d v e n t u r o u s life of a soldier.57 I n t h e Lectures h e h a d m a d e t h e s a m e p o i n t i n r e l a t i o n to c o m m e r c e , totally e s p o u s i n g the classical " r e p u b l i c a n " v i e w t h a t c o m m e r c e l e a d s t o d e b i l i t a t i n g l u x u r y a n d cor ruption. A n o t h e r b a d effect o f c o m m e r c e i s t h a t i t s i n k s t h e * | | t courage of m a n k i n d , and tends to extinguish m a r - 1 | tial s p i r i t . . . . A m a n has . . . t i m e t o s t u d y o n l y o n e I f b r a n c h o f business, a n d i t w o u l d b e a g r e a t d i s a d - J f vantage to o b l i g e every o n e to learn the military a r t j t a n d t o k e e p h i m s e l f i n t h e p r a c t i c e o f it. T h e d e ~ | j | fence of the c o u n t r y is therefore c o m m i t t e d to a c e r - | t a i n set o f m e n w h o h a v e n o t h i n g else a d o , a n d | | a m o n g t h e b u l k o f t h e p e o p l e m i l i t a r y c o u r a g e minishes. By having their minds constantly em$f V:;p l o y e d o n t h e arts o f l u x u r y , t h e y g r o w e f f e m i n a t e ^ ; a n d dastardly.58 I n t h e s u m m a r y o f this s e c t i o n h e r e p e a t s : T h e s e a r e t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s of a c o m m e r c i a l s p i r i t , ip T h e m i n d s o f m e n are contracted, a n d r e n d e r e d in-4; c a p a b l e of e l e v a t i o n . Education is despised, or at ^

least n e g l e c t e d , a n d t h e h e r o i c s p i r i t i s a l m o s t ut te rly e x t i n g u i s h e d . T o r e m e d y these d e f e c t s w o u l d be an object w o r t h y of serious attention. " ^hese passages y i e l d a r a t h e r s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d explana ^)
5

t i o n for S m i t h ' s f a i l u r e t o m a k e m u c h o f t h e h u m a n a n d p o l i t i c a l effects o f t h e rise o f c o m m e r c e a n d i n d u s t r y : w h i l e h e saw s o m e a d v a n t a g e s t o this rise, s u c h a s t h e p o s i t i v e effect o n p r o b i t y a n d p u n c t u a l i t y , " 0 h e p e r c e i v e d as d a m a g i n g some of the very consequences of c o m m e r c e that w e r e h a i l e d by writers such as M o n t e s q u i e u w h o h a d b e c o m e m o r e i m p r e s s e d b y t h e disasters t h a t t h e " m a r t i a l s p i r i t " e n t a i l s i n t h e m o d e r n a g e . T h e douceur that was celebrated by M o n t e s q u i e u a n d others m e a n t corruption and decadence not only to Rousseau but to s o m e e x t e n t also t o S m i t h . A f u l l - b l o w n e x p r e s s i o n o f this p o i n t o f v i e w c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e w o r k o f h i s f e l l o w S c o t , A d a m F e r g u s o n , w h o r e t a i n e d ties w i t h t h e " r u d e " s o c i e t y o f S c o t l a n d a n d w h o s e Essay on the History of

Civil Society
by England.01

(1767)

abounds w i t h reservations a b o u t

the " p o l i s h e d " society of e x p a n d i n g c o m m e r c e e x h i b i t e d

B u t A d a m Smith's major i m p a c t o n the ideas u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n lies still e l s e w h e r e ( N o t o n l y d i d h e n o t share, in the various respects just noted, the MontesquieuSteuart perspective on the ability of e m e r g e n t capital ism to i m p r o v e the political o r d e r t h r o u g h c o n t r o l of the w i l d e r passions; he decisively u n d e r c u t it and, in a sense, g a v e it t h e coup de grace. In h i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d i n f l u e n t i a l w o r k S m i t h sees m e n a c t u a t e d e n t i r e l y ^ by the "desire of b e t t e r i n g [their] c o n d i t i o n , " a n d he f u r t h e r specifies t h a t " a n a u g m e n t a t i o n o f f o r t u n e i s t h e m e a n s by w h i c h the greater part of m e n propose a n d wish to better their c o n d i t i o n . " 0 2 3 T h e r e seems to be no

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p l a c e h e r e for t h e r i c h e r c o n c e p t o f h u m a n n a t u r e i n w h i c h m e n a r e d r i v e n by, a n d o f t e n torn b e t w e e n , di v e r s e passions o f w h i c h " a v a r i c e " was o n l y o n e . S m i t h was o f c o u r s e fully a w a r e o f these o t h e r passions a n d h a d i n d e e d d e v o t e d a n i m p o r t a n t treatise t o t h e m . i B u t i t i s precisely in The Theory of Moral Sentiments that he p a v e s t h e w a y for c o l l a p s i n g these o t h e r passions i n t o t h e d r i v e for the " a u g m e n t a t i o n o f f o r t u n e . " Interest i n g l y e n o u g h , h e d o e s s o i n the g u i s e o f d o i n g t h e o p p o site; for h e g o e s o u t o f his w a y t o stress t h e n o n e c o n o m i c and nonconsumptionist motives that are behind the s t r u g g l e for e c o n o m i c a d v a n c e . S i n c e , as he says r e p e a t edly, m a n ' s b o d i l y n e e d s a r e s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d , . . . i t i s chiefly f r o m [the] r e g a r d t o t h e s e n t i m e n t s o f m a n k i n d that w e p u r s u e r i c h e s a n d a v o i d pov erty. F o r t o w h a t p u r p o s e i s all t h e toil a n d b u s t l e o f this w o r l d ? W h a t i s t h e e n d o f a v a r i c e a n d a m b i tion, of the pursuit of wealth, of p o w e r a n d preemi n e n c e ? . . . F r o m w h e n c e . . . arises t h e e m u l a t i o n w h i c h r u n s t h r o u g h all the different r a n k s o f m e n and w h a t are the advantages w h i c h we propose by t h a t g r e a t p u r p o s e o f h u m a n life w h i c h w e c a l l bet tering our condition? T o b e o b s e r v e d , t o b e at t e n d e d to, t o b e t a k e n n o t i c e o f w i t h s y m p a t h y , c o m p l a c e n c y , a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n , a r e all t h e a d v a n tages w h i c h w e c a n p r o p o s e t o d e r i v e f r o m it. I t i s ^ t h e v a n i t y , n o t t h e ease o r t h e p l e a s u r e , w h i c h inter ests u s . 0 3 M u c h as in H o b b e s and other seventeenth-century w r i t e r s , t h e . . c r a v i n g . f o r h o n o r , d i g n i t y , respect, a n d r e c o g n k i o j r j s ^ s ^ r j ^ h e r e as a basic p r e o c c u p a t i o n of m a n . B u t , a s w i l l b e s e e n shortly, H o b b e s h a d k e p t t h a t crav-

ing separate

from

the

"caring

for

necessary

things." aims

M o r e explicitly, Rousseau had made a fundamental and famous distinction between amour de soi} which a t t h e satisfaction o f o u r " r e a l n e e d s " t h r o u g h t h e ac q u i s i t i o n of a finite a m o u n t of g o o d s , a n d amour propre, w h i c h is keyed to approval and a d m i r a t i o n from our f e l l o w m e n a n d w h i c h b y d e f i n i t i o n has n o l i m i t . 0 4 T h u s h e says: " i t i s easy t o see t h a t all o u r l a b o r s a r e d i r e c t e d u p o n t w o o b j e c t s o n l y , n a m e l y , t h e c o m m o d i t i e s o f life for oneself, a n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f o t h e r s . " This drives a r r a n g e m e n t o f all and passions, into human just two "labors," categories that is, already t h e pas

r e p r e s e n t s s i m p l i f i c a t i o n on a g r a n d scale. ^ I n sage of The

Theory of Moral Sentiments t h a t w a s c i t e d t h e d r i v e for e c o n o m i c

a b o v e , A d a m S m i t h t h e n takes t h e f i n a l r e d u c t i o n i s t step of t u r n i n g two into o n e : advantage is no longer a u t o n o m o u s but becomes a mere v e h i c l e for t h e d e s i r e for c o n s i d e r a t i o n . B y t h e s a m e token, h o w e v e r , the n o n e c o n o m i c drives, powerful as t h e y are, a r e all m a d e t o feed i n t o t h e e c o n o m i c o n e s a n d d o n o t h i n g b u t r e i n f o r c e t h e m , b e i n g thus d e p r i v e d of their erstwhile i n d e p e n d e n t existence.^ T w o c o n s e q u e n c e s f o l l o w . First, t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e c e l e b r a t e d Adam Smith Problemthat is, o v e r t h e c o m p a t i b i l i t y of The ments w i t h The Wealth to t h e p u z z l e here. In Theory of Moral Senti

of Nationsmay l i e

the former work, so it appears, Smith dealt with a w i d e s p e c t r u m o f h u m a n f e e l i n g s a n d passions, b u t h e also c o n v i n c e d h i m s e l f that, insofar a s " t h e g r e a t m o b o f m a n k i n d " is c o n c e r n e d , the p r i n c i p a l h u m a n drives e n d u p m o t i v a t i n g m a n t o i m p r o v e his m a t e r i a l w e l l - b e i n g . And, logically enough, he then proceeded in The Wealth of Nations to i n v e s t i g a t e in d e t a i l t h e c o n d i t i o n s

108

109

THE

PASSIONS

AND

THE

INTERESTS

IMPROVING

THE

POLITICAL

ORDER

under

which

this

objective

on

which

human

action

tends to converge so r e m a r k a b l y can be achieved. As_a r e s u l t o f his e m p h a s i s o n t h e n o n e c o n o m i c s p r i n g s o f economic action, it became possiblejor Smith to concen trate o n e c o n o m i c b e h a v i o r i n a m a n n e r t h a t w a s _ p e i i _ fectly c o n s i s t e n t w i t h his e a r l i e r i n t e r e s t i n o t h e r im p o r t a n t dimensions of the h u m a n personality. iion. is^ffiJ^iftjiffii'i^ft*' : f r n a i i l ^ p \ P i p be" rig*' fo!d: ^ t e ) . : s i B ^ BY economic improv/

society, a m o n g all t h e different e m p l o y m e n t s car r i e d o n i n it, a s n e a r l y a s p o s s i b l e i n t h e p r o p o r t i o n w h i c h is most agreeable to the interest of the w h o l e society.06

larr wrote

Orijhe

vnces and States of Christendom- appeal

S ^ ^ t ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ b n / t h e ^ i i ^ f ^ ^ w e r , and the desirjfj ^wmpttC can' 0 BE satisfied

35^&^;*-wsucceOTon^fe-VEYNGNYMS-n^AIthough it
w o u l d b e f a r f e t c h e d t o see a n y t h i n g c o n s c i o u s o r i n t e n t i o n a l a b o u t it, t h e effect o f this c h o i c e o f l a n g u a g e w a s n e v e r t h e l e s s t o o b l i t e r a t e t h e r a t i o n a l e for r e l i a n c e o n self-interest that was b a s e d o n t h e o p p o s i t i o n o f t h e in terests a n d t h e passions a n d o n t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e f o r m e r to t a m e t h e l a t t e r The^par&gTaph j u s ^ o t e d enthrone*! MKfth'fi own r a t i o n a l e , n a m e l y , the idea that the material,/ FjWeifare of "the whole society ' is advanced when every-^ i s a l l o w e d t o f o l l o w his o w n p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t ; a t t h e sffiev'trtnei- h i s u s e of- l a n g u a g e d e s t r o y e d in 1 p a s s i n g the** ti^petiiig* r a t i o n a l e. / O n e r e a s o n for w h i c h t h e p a s s i o n s c a m e t o b e u s e d h e r e as a r e d u n d a n t s y n o n y m of t h e i n t e r e s t s is t h a t A d a m S m i t h w a s c o n c e r n e d , far m o r e t h a n e a r l i e r writ ers, w i t h t h e " g r e a t m o b o f m a n k i n d , " t h a t is, w i t h t h e a v e r a g e p e r s o n a n d his b e h a v i o r . A c c o r d i n g t o a l o n g t r a d i t i o n , i t w a s p r i m a r i l y t h e a r i s t o c r a c y t h a t i s ani m a t e d b y n u m e r o u s n o b l e o r i g n o b l e passions w h i c h c l a s h w i t h t h e d i c t a t e s o f d u t y a n d r e a s o n o r w i t h o n e an other. M a c h i a v e l l i , in speaking a b o u t the prince, h a d con s i d e r e d it a x i o m a t i c t h a t " h i s o w n p a s s i o n s . . . a r e m u c h v greater p u t it: than those of the people."G7 Or, as Hobbes " A l l m e n n a t u r a l l y s t r i v e for h o n o u r a n d pre

*fciunlti^JIDDEJCUT

T H E idea that passion can BE^pitU

:

it-passion, or the interests against the pissions-'j ^ ^ 9 j w h p i e A t r a m , u f ^ r ^ i ^ i ^ c o j n e s suddenly i " e o r ^Sffl ^^rae- ^f " n^^nf)nsensical'. a n d there
i : i

I SaT E T U R R T

ROIFTRIE^stage, R P R I O R ^ = t o Bacon, w h e n - t h e ..major p a s s i o n s

insert consideree! to BE a soiid bloc and to feed on each other k Small wonder, then that Smith himself wrtualh modus operandi of e ^ f a r e l ^ ^ W ' p a S s i ^ n s w i t h : t h e * m t e r e s t s in: a ' k e y p a s s a g e &P&ifoWffi^$l^$^twn'$"Where-trie

Tt is t h u s t h a t t h e p r i v a t e interests and passions of individuals naturally dispose them to turn their stock towards the e m p l o y m e n t s w h i c h in o r d i n a r y cases are m o s t a d v a n t a g e o u s t o t h e s o c i e t y . B u t i f f r o m this n a t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e t h e y s h o u l d t u r n t o o m u c h o f i t t o w a r d s t h o s e e m p l o y m e n t s , t h e fall o f profit i n t h e m a n d t h e r i s e o f i t i n all o t h e r s im m e d i a t e l y d i s p o s e t h e m t o a l t e r this f a u l t y d i s t r i b u t i o n . W i t h o u t a n y i n t e r v e n t i o n , o f law, t h e r e f o r e , the private interests and passions of m e n n a t u r a l l y lead t h e m to divide a n d distribute the stock of every
* See a b o v e , p. 20.

f e r m e n t ; b u t c h i e f l y they, w h o a r e least t r o u b l e d w i t h

110

111

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AND

THE

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IMPROVING

THE

POLITICAL

ORDER

c a r i n g for necessary t h i n g s " a n d " w h o o t h e r w i s e l i v e at ease, without fear of w a n t . "

0 8

intellectual specialization and professionalization. B u t t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e f r o m v i e w o f the M o n t e s q u i e u - S t e u a r t s p e c u l a t i o n s m u s t also b e t r a c e d t o m o r e g e n e r a l histori c a l factors: it is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g that t h e i r o p t i m i s t i c ideas o n the p o l i t i c a l effects o f e x p a n d i n g c o m m e r c e a n d i n d u s t r y d i d n o t s u r v i v e the a g e o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n a n d the N a p o l e o n i c W a r s . y

Precisely

for

this

reason,

o n l y m e m b e r s o f p r e s e n t o r past a r i s t o c r a c i e s

w e r e c o n s i d e r e d fit to a p p e a r as k e y figures in t r a g e d i e s a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f " h i g h " l i t e r a t u r e that t y p i c a l l y d e a l t w i t h the passions a n d the conflicts a r i s i n g o u t o f t h e m .

UU

F o r those v a r i o u s r e a s o n s , t h e n ,

The Wealth of Na-

tions m a r k s an e n d to the s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t t h e effects o f i n t e r e s t - m o t i v a t e d o n p a s s i o n a t e b e h a v i o r that h a d exercised the m i n d s of some of Smith's more illustrious predecessors. A t t e n t i o n o f b o t h s c h o l a r l y a n d p o l i c y d e b a t e c a m e t o c e n t e r after S m i t h o n h i s p r o p o s i t i o n that the g e n e r a l ( m a t e r i a l ) w e l f a r e i s b e s t s e r v e d b y let(material) t i n g e a c h m e m b e r o f s o c i e t y p u r s u e his o w n

self-interest. T h e success this p r o p o s i t i o n h a d i n eclipsi n g the o l d e r p r o b l e m c a n b e e x p l a i n e d , f i r s t o f all, i n terms o f i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y . E v e n t h o u g h S m i t h w a s careful to avoid and disavow the paradoxical m a n n e r w i t h w h i c h M a n d e v i l l e h a d p u t forth s i m i l a r t h o u g h t s , his p r o p o s i t i o n still t u r n e d o u t t o b e r i d d l e d w i t h s o m a n y i n t e l l e c t u a l p u z z l e s that s o r t i n g a n d s o l v i n g t h e m o c c u p i e d g e n e r a t i o n s o f e c o n o m i s t s . M o r e o v e r , the p r o p o s i t i o n a n d e n s u i n g d o c t r i n e fulfilled a n o t h e r r e q u i r e m e n t o f the h i g h l y successful p a r a d i g m : w h i l e i t w a s a splendid generalization, narrowing of the field it r e p r e s e n t e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e of i n q u i r y over which social

t h o u g h t h a d r a n g e d freely u p t o t h e n a n d t h u s p e r m i t t e d

112

113

PART THREE Reflections on an Episode in Intellectual History

Where the Montesquieu-Steuart Vision Went Wrong

N A N o l d a n d w e l l - k n o w n J e w i s h story, the r a b b i o f K r a k o w i n t e r r u p t e d his p r a y e r s o n e d a y w i t h a w a i l

t o a n n o u n c e that h e h a d j u s t seen the d e a t h o f the r a b b i of W a r s a w two h u n d r e d miles away. T h e K r a k o w congregation, t h o u g h s a d d e n e d , was o f c o u r s e m u c h i m pressed w i t h the v i s i o n a r y p o w e r s of their r a b b i . A few days later s o m e J e w s f r o m K r a k o w t r a v e l e d t o W a r s a w a n d , to t h e i r surprise, saw the o l d r a b b i t h e r e officiate i n w h a t s e e m e d t o b e t o l e r a b l e h e a l t h . U p o n t h e i r ret u r n t h e y c o n f i d e d the n e w s t o the f a i t h f u l a n d t h e r e w a s i n c i p i e n t s n i c k e r i n g . T h e n a few u n d a u n t e d d i s c i p l e s c a m e t o the d e f e n s e o f t h e i r r a b b i ; a d m i t t i n g that h e m a y h a v e b e e n w r o n g o n the specifics, they e x c l a i m e d : "Nevertheless, what vision!" Ostensibly this story p o u r s r i d i c u l e o n the h u m a n a b i l i t y t o r a t i o n a l i z e b e l i e f i n t h e face o f c o n t r a r y evidence. B u t at a deeper level it defends and celebrates visionary and speculative t h e story so thought no matter if such in intellectual t h o u g h t g o e s astray. It is this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t m a k e s p e r t i n e n t to the e p i s o d e history that has b e e n r e l a t e d h e r e . T h e M o n t e s q u i e u S t e u a r t s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t the s a l u t a r y p o l i t i c a l conseq u e n c e s o f e c o n o m i c e x p a n s i o n w e r e a feat o f i m a g i n a tion in t h e r e a l m of p o l i t i c a l magnificent even economy, history a feat t h a t may have remains though

p r o v e n w r o n g the s u b s t a n c e o f those s p e c u l a t i o n s . . H a s it? T h e v e r d i c t o n this q u e s t i o n i s n o t q u i t e s o easy t o r e a c h a s that o n the n o n d e a t h o f the W a r s a w rabbi. T h e century following the N a p o l e o n i c interlude was, after all, c o m p a r a t i v e l y p e a c e f u l a n d also w i t n e s s e d

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a d e c l i n e in " d e s p o t i s m . " But, as we all k n o w , s o m e t h i n g w e n t very m u c h awry thereafter, a n d n o twentieth-cen t u r y o b s e r v e r c a n assert t h a t t h e h o p e f u l M o n t e s q u i e u S t e u a r t v i s i o n has b e e n t r i u m p h a n t l y b o r n e o u t b y t h e course than of events. It should nevertheless be remarked and t h a t the f a i l u r e o f the v i s i o n m a y w e l l h a v e b e e n less total. T h e forces o b s e r v e d b y M o n t e s q u i e u S i r J a m e s S t e u a r t c o u l d h a v e asserted t h e m s e l v e s , o n l y to be overcome, perhaps narrowly, by others that w o r k e d i n the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . W h i c h , t h e n , w e r e t h e c o u n terforces? A n i n q u i r y i n t o this q u e s t i o n i s l i k e l y t o t u r n u p c o n nections between economic structures and political events that escaped the scrutiny of o u r two eighteenthcentury visionaries and pioneers in political economy. A n u m b e r o f s u c h c o n n e c t i o n s w e r e i n fact s o o n n o t e d by a few eighteenthand nineteenth-century writers w h o c o n t i n u e d the tradition of t h o u g h t of the pioneers b u t a d d e d q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a n d p r o v i s o s t h a t , i n effect, l e d to very different conclusions. A b r i e f s u r v e y o f this k i n d o f w r i t i n g c a n b e g i n w i t h Joseph under essay French Barnave, the Assembly of the great of orator of the Constituent interpretative to the of this work an

B u t then comes a w h o l l y different t h o u g h t : T h e morals of a c o m m e r c i a l nation are not com p l e t e l y t h o s e o f m e r c h a n t s . T h e m e r c h a n t i s thrifty; general morals are prodigal. T h e m e r c h a n t main tains his m o r a l s ; p u b l i c m o r a l s a r e d i s s o l u t e .
1

Just as M a n d e v i i i e a n d A d a m Smith had shown how private individuals, by p u r s u i n g their vices or simply t h e i r self-interest, c o u l d c o n t r i b u t e t o the s o c i a l w e l f a r e , s o d i d B a r n a v e a r g u e h e r e t h a t w h a t h o l d s for t h e p a r t i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t r u e for t h e w h o l e , this " f a l l a c y o f c o m p o s i t i o n " " i s n o w i n v o k e d for t h e p u r p o s e o f stand i n g the earlier propositions on their head: B a r n a v e pro c l a i m s t h a t a n a g g r e g a t i o n o f p r i v a t e virtues c a n r e s u l t i n a state t h a t i s a n y t h i n g b u t v i r t u o u s ^ H e d o e s n o t really with. explain why this should be so and asserts his be p a r a d o x o n l y for t h e p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n h e i s d e a l i n g Nevertheless, h e i n t i m a t e s p e r s u a s i v e l y that, c a u s e o f t h e f a l l a c y o f c o m p o s i t i o n , s o c i a l processes a r e j n u c h less t r a n s p a r e n t a n d a m e n a b l e t o p r e d i c t i o n t h a n was confidently assumed by M o n t e s q u i e u . } Barnave's procedure of first paying homage to the

1789-91

a n d author, just before his death an the important emphasis he viewed history, t h e Introduction

c o n v e n t i o n a l w i s d o m a b o u t t h e b e n i g n effect o f c o m merce on society and politics and then b r i n g i n g quali fications to devastating Tocqueville. As a m e m b e r of b o t h a Scottish clan a n d the g r o u p of t h i n k e r s w h o f o r m e d t h e S c o t t i s h E n l i g h t e n m e n t , Fer guson was especially ambivalent about the the advances "rude and "polished" nations had achieved over bear on way by the argument is used in a more by Adam Ferguson and. later

guillotine,

in c o n t e m p o r a r y Revolution. While

on social class has g i v e n B a r n a v e s o m e f a m e as a fore r u n n e r of Marxist thought, himself as a d m i r e r and follower ot M o n t e s q u i e u . In a short paper on the "Effect of C o m m e r c e on G o v e r n m e n t " he i n d e e d starts o u t m u c h l i k e t h e m a s t e r : C o m m e r c e g i v e s rise to a l a r g e class, d i s p o s e d to external peace, internal tranquility, and attached to the established g o v e r n m e n t .

a A c c o r d i n g to P a u l A. S a m u e l s o n , the fallacy of c o m p o s i t i o n is o n e of the most basic a n d distinctive p r i n c i p l e s to be a w a r e of in t h e study of e c o n o m i c s . See Economics, 3rd e d n . ( N e w Y o r k : M c G r a w - H i l l , 1955), p. 9.
J 1

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b a r b a r o u s " o n e s . L i k e A d a m S m i t h , h e n o t e d t h e negat i v e effects o f the d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r a n d c o m m e r c e o n t h e p e r s o n a l i t y a n d social b o n d s o f the i n d i v i d u a l citiz e n ; b u t h e e m p h a s i z e s t h e m r i g h t f r o m the start o f the

B u t i m m e d i a t e l y thereafter he dwells, at m u c h greater l e n g t h , o n the r e a s o n s for w h i c h the p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h i n d i v i d u a l w e a l t h c a n l e a d i n the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n , t o " d e s p o t i c a l g o v e r n m e n t . " A m o n g these reasons there are those that h a d l o n g b e e n ' s t a n d a r d i t e m s i n t h e " r e p u b i^Iican tradition": the c o r r u p t i o n o f r e p u b l i c s
4

Essay on the History of Civil Society

(1767)

and formu-

lates his strictures at a m o r e g e n e r a l l e v e l . In t h e process h e a n t i c i p a t e s n o t o n l y the y o u n g e r M a r x b u t D u r k h e i m a n d T o n n i e s a s h e contrasts the s o l i d a r i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c l o s e l y k n i t t r i b e s w i t h the ("spirit w h i c h r e i g n s i n a c o m m e r c i a l state w h e r e . . . m a n is s o m e t i m e s f o u n d a d e t a c h e d a n d a s o l i t a r y b e i n g , " w h e r e " h e d e a l s w i t h his f e l l o w c r e a t u r e s as he d o e s w i t h his c a t t l e a n d soil, for the sake o f the profits they b r i n g , " a n d w h e r e " t h e b a n d s o f affection are b r o k e n . " ^ A t the s a m e t i m e a n d this i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f o u r a r g u m e n t F e r g u s o n more w i l l i n g than A d a m Smith to speculate on was the

through

luxury and prodigality.

B u t F e r g u s o n w e a v e s s o m e re-

m a r k a b l y n e w ideas into that tradition. F o r e x a m p l e , a m o n g the reasons for w h i c h " t h e f o u n d a t i o n o n w h i c h f r e e d o m was b u i l t , m a y s e r v e t o s u p p o r t a t y r a n n y " h e lists t h e fear of losing wealth a n d s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h "heirs of family find themselves straitened and poor, in the m i d s t o f a f f l u e n c e . " R e l a t i v e d e p r i v a t i o n a n d ressentiment resulting from actual or feared downward m o b i l i t y are h e r e seen a s i n t i m a t e l y b o u n d u p w i t h the a c q u i s i t i v e society a n d its t u m u l t u o u s w a y s , a n d these f e e l i n g s are v i e w e d a s b r e e d i n g g r o u n d for t h e r e a d y acceptance of whatever "strong" g o v e r n m e n t promises t o stave oft such r e a l o r i m a g i n e d d a n g e r s .
5

> w i d e r ^ p o l i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s oJL.ecanomic_ e x p a n s i o n . H e d o e s s o t o w a r d t h e e n d o f the Essay, w h e r e h e starts o u t in a deceptively o r t h o d o x manner: . ^ It has b e e n f o u n d , that, e x c e p t in a few s i n g u l a r cases, t h e c o m m e r c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l arts h a v e advanced together. H e g o e s o n , still v e r y m u c h a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f M o n t e s q u i e u and Sir James Steuart: I n s o m e n a t i o n s the s p i r i t o f c o m m e r c e , i n t e n t o n s e c u r i n g its profits, has l e d the w a y to p o l i t i c a l wisdom.
3

Moreover,

c o m m e r c e creates a d e s i r e for t r a n q u i l i t y a n d efficiency, a n d this m a y b e a n o t h e r s o u r c e o f d e s p o t i s m : W h e n we suppose government to have bestowed a degree of tranquillity, which we sometimes hope to r e a p f r o m it, as t h e best of its fruits, a n d p u b l i c affairs to p r o c e e d , in the s e v e r a l d e p a r t m e n t s of the least possible l e g i s l a t i o n a n d e x e c u t i o n , with

interruption to commerce and lucrative arts; such

a state . . . i s m o r e a k i n t o d e s p o t i s m t h a n w e are apt t o imagine. . . . ^ L i b e r t y is n e v e r in g r e a t e r d a n g e r t h a n it is w h e n w e m e a s u r e n a t i o n a l f e l i c i t y . . . b y the m e r e tranquillity which may attend on equitable administration."

H e also m e n t i o n s a n a r g u m e n t that w a s t o r e c e i v e c o n siderable emphasis in later debates, namely, that wealthy c i t i z e n s m i g h t b e " f o r m i d a b l e t o those w h o p r e t e n d t o dominion."

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H e r e i s t h e o t h e r side o f S i r J a m e s S t e u a r t ' s m e t a p h o r ot the e c o n o m y as a delicate watch. T h e need to k e e p it workingto insure tranquility, regularity, and effi c i e n c y i s not just a bar to princely caprice. Ferguson p e r c e i v e s c o r r e c t l y that it c a n be i n v o k e d as a k e y argu m e n t for a u t h o r i t a r i a n r u l e , a s i n d e e d h a d a l r e a d y b e e n d o n e by the Physiocrats and as was g o i n g to h a p p e n o v e r and o v e r again d u r i n g the n e x t two centuries. Writing under the J u l y Monarchy, almost seventy years after F e r g u s o n , T o c q u e v i l l e was t o e x p r e s s v e r y s i m i l a r a m b i v a l e n t f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g o f eco n o m i c p r o g r e s s tor f r e e d o m . In a c h a p t e r ot Democracy

gracious, beautiful, noble, young, all-powerful fivefranc p i e c e ! " 1 1 T h i s o u t b u r s t is in effect a p a r a p h r a s e of those c o n straints o n t h e p r i n c e t h a t M o n t e s q u i e u a n d Sir J a m e s Steuart discerned even recalls and found so dictum hopeful; Vinteret the passage an Rohan's commande

prince o n c e t h e m e a n i n g R o h a n g a v e to interct. is suit a b l y a l t e r e d i n l i n e w i t h its s u b s e q u e n t s e m a n t i c drift. B u t neither Balzac nor T o c q u e v i l l e was prepared c e l e b r a t e s u c h a state of affairs. In focusing on the dangers that material progress c a n h o l d for l i b e r t y , T o c q u e v i l l e takes a s his p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e a s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h " t h e taste for m a t e r i a l enjoy ments . . . develops m o r e rapidly than the enlighten m e n t s a n d h a b i t s o f l i b e r t y . " U n d e r those c o n d i t i o n s , w i t h m e n n e g l e c t i n g p u b l i c affairs for t h e sake o f m a k i n g private fortunes, T o c q u e v i l l e questions the then already firmly established doctrine and p u b l i c interests: of the harmony of private to

in America

(1835)

lie t o o r e p e a t s a t first t h e c o n v e n

tional w i s d o m : I do not k n o w if o n e can cite a single m a n u f a c t u r ing and c o m m e r c i a l nation from the T y r i a n s to the F l o r e n t i n e s a n d t h e E n g l i s h , t h a t has n o t also b e e n free. T h e r e f o r e a close tie a n d a necessary r e l a t i o n exist b e t w e e n _dustry.7 But although this pronouncement has often been these two things: freedom and in:

These

people

think

they

follow

the

doctrine

of

interest, b u t t h e y h a v e o n l y a c r u d e i d e a o f w h a t i t is, a n d , t o w a t c h t h e b e t t e r o v e r w h a t t h e y c a l l t h e i r business (leurs affaires), they neglect the p r i n c i p a l part of it w h i c h is to r e m a i n their o w n masters. H e r e the i n t e r e s t s are far f r o m t a m i n g o r c h a i n i n g t h e passions o f t h e r u l e r s ; o n t h e c o n t r a r y , i f t h e c i t i z e n s be c o m e a b s o r b e d b y the p u r s u i t o f t h e i r p r i v a t e interests, i t w i l l b e p o s s i b l e for a " c l e v e r a n d a m b i t i o u s m a n t o seize p o w e r . " \. T o c q u e v i l l e d i r e c t s s o m e s u p e r b l y ( w r i t t e n years b e f o r e the

quoted, 1 * T o c q u e v i l l e , l i k e F e r g u s o n b e f o r e h i m , d e v o t e s far m o r e space, i n t h e rest o f t h e c h a p t e r , t o s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h the opposite relation prevails. H i s concern is m o t i v a t e d b y t h e state o f F r a n c e u n d e r L o u i s - P h i l i p p e w h e r e G u i z o t h a d p r o c l a i m e d " Enrichissez-vous!" as a m o d e l o f c o n d u c t for t h e c i t i z e n a n d w h e r e B a l z a c h a d written: I t i s a m i s t a k e . . . t o b e l i e v e that i t i s K i n g L o u i s P h i l i p p e w h o reigns a n d he is n o t deceived on this point. He knows, as well as we do, that a b o v e the C o n s t i t u t i o n is the holy, venerable, solid, a m i a b l e ,

caustic and prophetic words

rise of N a p o l e o n I I I ) at those w h o , for t h e sake of a f a v o r a b l e b u s i n e s s c l i m a t e , ask o n l y for " l a w a n d orclexl':

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A n a t i o n that d e m a n d s f r o m its g o v e r n m e n t n o t h i n g b u t t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f o r d e r i s a l r e a d y a slave in t h e b o t t o m of its h e a r t ; it is t h e slave of its w e l l being, and the m a n w h o is to chain it can arrive on the scene.1" c c o r d i n g t o F e r g u s o n a n d T o c q u e v i l l e , t h e n , eco n o m i c expansion and the p r e o c c u p a t i o n with i n d i v i d u a l e c o n o m i c i m p r o v e m e n t that g o e s w i t h i t b o t h c a u s e t h e a d v a n c e o f the p o l i t i c a l arts a n d c a n also b e r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e i r d e t e r i o r a t i o r i T ^ T h i s t h o u g h t w a s l a t e r t a k e n u p by M a r x in his class a n a l y s i s of t h e turned earlier reactionary as these in events a 1848 r e v o l u t i o n s : the they from progressive, the political role of the bourgeoisie unfolded. ( B u t richer, for f o r m u l a t i o n s are, sense,

pursuit of material interest a w e l c o m e alternative to the passionate scramble for g l o r y a n d power. While not i n v o k i n g the fallacy of c o m p o s i t i o n , they p u t forward a r a t h e r s i m i l a r p o i n t : as l o n g as not everyone is p l a y i n g t h e " i n n o c e n t " g a m e o f m a k i n g m o n e y , t h e total absorp t i o n i n it o f most c i t i z e n s l e a v e s t h e f e w w h o p l a y ^ f o r t h e h i g h e r stakes o f p o w e r freer t h a n b e f o r e t o p u r s u e their a m b i t i o n , (hi this way social arrangements that s u b s t i t u t e t h e i n t e r e s t s for t h e passions a s t h e g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e o f h u m a n a c t i o n for t h e m a n y c a n h a v e t h e s i d e effect o f k i l l i n g t h e c i v i c s p i r i t a n d o f t h e r e b y o p e n i n g the d o o r t o t y r a n n y ^ I n p o i n t i n g o u t that t h e loss o f w e a l t h a n d t h e fear o f s u c h loss m a y p r e d i s p o s e p e o p l e i n f a v o r o f t y r a n n y , F e r g u s o n c a m e close to m a k i n g a final a n d particularly d a m a g i n g c r i t i q u e of the general psychological premise on which the optimistic vision of M o n t e s q u i e u and o t h e r s h a d b e e n b u i l t o f t h e t h o u g h t , t h a t is, t h a t m a n b y p u r s u i n g his m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s w i l l b e c o m e i n u r e d a g a i n s t t h e passions. T h i s i d e a t h a t h a d s e e m e d s o o b v i ous to those w h o observed m o n e y - m a k i n g activities from a distance a n d with some disdain was coupled, as we h a v e seen, w i t h t h e e q u a l l y c o m f o r t i n g t h o u g h t t h a t t h e " l o w e r orders," o r the "great m o b o f m a n k i n d , " have o n l y i n t e r e s t s t o p u r s u e a n d h a v e l i t t l e t i m e o r taste for t h e passions. A s H o b b e s h a d p u t it, " A l l m e n n a t u r a l l y s t r i v e for h o n o u r a n d p r e f e r m e n t ; b u t c h i e f l y t h e y w h o a r e least t r o u b l e d w i t h c a r i n g for n e c e s s a r y t h i n g s . " " A n d y e t this very thought c o u l d have led one to expect things to change markedly once economic growth would take h o l d . T o H o b b e s the p u r s u i t o f t h e p a s s i o n s was h i g h l y i n c o m e - e l a s t i c , a s e c o n o m i s t s w o u l d say, a n d t h e r e f o r e ordinary m e n could be expected to engage m o r e exten s i v e l y i n p a s s i o n a t e b e h a v i o r a s t h e y m o v e d u p t h e in-

d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t e c o n o m i c e x p a n s i o n is basically and simultaneously a m b i v a l e n t i n its p o l i t i c a l effects, w h e r e as M a r x i s t t h o u g h t imposes a temporal sequence with t h e p o s i t i v e effects n e c e s s a r i l y a n t e d a t i n g ones. T h e uneasiness o f Ferguson and T o c q u e v i l l e over the Montesquieu-Steuart doctrine can be summarized in t w o p o i n t s . F i r s t o f all, s o t h e y s h o w e d , t h e r e i s a n o t h e r side t o t h e i n s i g h t t h a t t h e m o d e r n e c o n o m y , its c o m p l e x interdependence and growth constitute so delicate a m e c h a n i s m t h a t t h e grands coups d'autorite of d e s p o t i c g o v e r n m e n t b e c o m e i m p o s s i b l e . ( I f it is t r u e that the economy must be deferred to, t h e n t h e r e is a case n o t only for constraining the imprudent actions of the p r i n c e b u t for r e p r e s s i n g t h o s e o f t h e p e o p l e , for l i m i t i n g p a r t i c i p a t i o n , i n short, for c r u s h i n g a n y t h i n g t h a t c o u l d be interpreted by some economist-king as a threat to the proper f u n c t i o n i n g of the " d e l i c a t e watch.'' ^ S e c o n d l y , F e r g u s o n a n d T o c q u e v i l l e i m p l i c i t l y criti cized the o l d e r tradition of t h o u g h t that had seen in the the n e g a t i v e

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f c o m e scale. I n this m a n n e r e c o n o m i c e x p a n s i o n , h a i l e d o r i g i n a l l y b e c a u s e it. w o u l d d i v e r t m a n f r o m " s t r i v i n g for h o n o u r a n d p r e f e r m e n t , " w o u l d i n t h e e n d g e n e r a t e j r i o r e rather than less passionate behavior, according Rousseau to the very logic of Hobbes's proposition. u n d e r s t o o d this d y n a m i c w e l l w h e n h e w r o t e : . . . W i t h m a n in society, t h i n g s are very d i f f e r e n t : f i r s t the necessary m u s t b e t a k e n c a r e of, t h e n t h e s u p e r f l u o u s : t h e n c o m e the d e l i g h t s , t h e n t h e acc u m u l a t i o n of immense riches, p' then of subjects, t h e n of slaves; n e v e r is there a m o m e n t of r e s p i t e . / W h a t i s m o s t r e m a r k a b l e i s that the less the n e e d s / a r e n a t u r a l a n d p r e s s i n g the m o r e the passions in/ crease a n d , w h a t is w o r s e , / them.
1 2

superficial a c q u a i n t a n c e , a p p e a r s n o t t o d e s e r v e t o b e taken seriously. In the c o n c l u d i n g s e c t i o n s of this essay I shall s h o w w h y , n e v e r t h e l e s s , the d o c t r i n e was w o r t h r e c o n s t r u c t i n g . As a b r i e f aside it is w e l l to n o t e at this p o i n t that the p o l i t i c a l a r g u m e n t s for c a p i t a l i s m w h o s e c a r e e r has b e e n o u t l i n e d h e r e are n o t the o n l y o n e s t o h a v e b e e n put forward. A currently m u c h more familiar a r g u m e n t states that the e x i s t e n c e o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , a n d i n part i c u l a r o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y i n the m e a n s o f p r o d u c t i o n , i s essentia] to p r o v i d e p e o p l e w i t h a m a t e r i a l basis for dissent from a n d o p p o s i t i o n t o the a u t h o r i t i e s o f t h e d a y . F o r e x a m p l e , so it is a l l e g e d , the r i g h t to free s p e e c h m a y be e m p t y if the p e r s o n w h o w i s h e s to e x e r c i s e it has to r e l y for his v e r y l i v e l i h o o d o n the a u t h o r i t i e s h e m i g h t w i s h t o c r i t i c i z e . T h i s i s n o t the p l a c e e i t h e r t o e v a l u a t e that a r g u m e n t o r t o trace i t i n a n y d e t a i l ; b u t t h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t that i t s o u n d s m o r e p l a u s i b l e t o o u r ears t h a n the o n e w i t h w h i c h w e h a v e b e c o m e a c q u a i n t e d in this essay. T h e m a i n s u p p o r t for the " m o d e r n " a r g u m e n t c o m e s from the comparison b e t w e e n c a p i t a l i s t a n d socialist
b

the p o w e r to satisfy

B u t the idea that m e n p u r s u i n g t h e i r interests w o u l d b e f o r e v e r h a r m l e s s was d e c i s i v e l y g i v e n u p o n l y w h e n the r e a l i t y o f c a p i t a l i s t d e v e l o p m e n t was i n f u l l v i e w . A s e c o n o m i c g r o w t h i n the n i n e t e e n t h a n d t w e n t i e t h centuries uprooted millions of people, impoverished n u m e r o u s groups w h i l e e n r i c h i n g some, caused largescale u n e m p l o y m e n t d u r i n g c y c l i c a l d e p r e s s i o n s , a n d p r o d u c e d m o d e r n mass society, it b e c a m e c l e a r to a n u m b e r o f o b s e r v e r s that those c a u g h t i n these v i o l e n t transformations w o u l d on occasion b e c o m e passionate p a s s i o n a t e l y a n g r y , fearful, r e s e n t f u l . T h e r e i s n o n e e d t o list h e r e the n a m e s o f those social scientists w h o rec o r d e d these d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d a n a l y z e d t h e m u n d e r the t e r m s of a l i e n a t i o n , anomie, ressentiment, Vermassung, class s t r u g g l e , a n d m a n y o t h e r s : I t i s p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e w e are u n d e r the i n f l u e n c e o f those analyses, a n d e v e n m o r e u n d e r the i m p a c t o f c a t a c l y s m i c e v e n t s w h i c h w e try t o u n d e r s t a n d w i t h t h e i r h e l p , that t h e d o c t r i n e rev i e w e d h e r e has a n a i r o f u n r e a l i t y a b o u t i t a n d , o n

c o u n t r i e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o the o p p o r t u n i t i e s for d i s s e n t .

Little w o n d e r , then, that the a r g u m e n t was not articul a t e d a t the t i m e o f M o n t e s q u i e u . Y e t its a p p e a r a n c e d i d n o t w a i t for the c o m m u n i s t r e g i m e s o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . It w a s f o r m u l a t e d as s o o n as the i n s t i t u t i o n of private property c a m e under sustained attack and as o t h e r c o n c e i v a b l e social a r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e e x p l o r e d i n s o m e d e t a i l . T h u s the m o d e r n p o l i t i c a l a r g u m e n t for
A n o t h e r reason for the greater plausibility of the a r g u m e n t is that it is slightly more modest: it looks u p o n capitalism as a necessary c o n d i t i o n for political freedom, but not as a sufficient one. See M i l t o n F r i e d m a n , Capitalism and Freedom (Chicago: University of C h i c a g o Press, 196a), p. 10.
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a s o d d t h a t i t c a n t h r o w s o m e l i g h t o n t h e still p u z z l i n g i d e o l o g i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s of t h e rise of c a p i t a l i s m . A n o b v i o u s w a y o f e n t e r i n g i n t o this t o p i c i s t o c o m pare the a c c o u n t of the e m e r g e n c e of m o n e y - m a k i n g as a n h o n o r e d o c c u p a t i o n t h a t has b e e n p r e s e n t e d i n this essay w i t h W e b e r ' s thesis o n t h e P r o t e s t a n t e t h i c a n d w i t h t h e d e b a t e a r o u n d it. A s w a s n o t e d r e p e a t e d l y i n t h e p r e v i o u s pages, t h e e x p a n s i o n o f c o m m e r c e a n d in d u s t r y i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s has been viewed here as being welcomed and(promoted not by some m a r g i n a l social groups, n o r by an insurgent ideology, b u t by a c u r r e n t of o p i n i o n that arose r i g h t in the center of the " p o w e r structure" a n d the "establish m e n t " of the time, o u t of the problems^with w h i c h the p r i n c e a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y his a d v i s o r s a n d o t h e r c o n c e r n e d notables w e r e g r a p p l i n g . E v e r since the e n d of the M i d dle Ages, a n d particularly as a result of the increasing frequency of w a r and civil w a r in the seventeenth and e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , t h e s e a r c h w a s o n for a b e h a v i o r a l e q u i v a l e n t for r e l i g i o u s p r e c e p t , for n e w r u l e s o f c o n d u c t a n d d e v i c e s t h a t w o u l d i m p o s e m u c h n e e d e d dis cipline and constraints on both rulers and ruled, and the e x p a n s i o n of c o m m e r c e and industry was t h o u g h t to h o l d m u c h p r o m i s e i n this r e g a r d . W e b e r a n d his f o l l o w e r s a s w e l l a s m o s t o f h i s c r i t i c s w e r e p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l processes through ^ which some groups of men became single"^ .
3

a s M i s e s , H a y e k , a n d M i l t o n F r i e d m a n was o r i g i n a l l y p u t forward b y n o n e other than P r o u d h o n . T h o u g h a n e l o q u e n t c r i t i c o f the i n s t i t u t i o n o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y h e is, after all, best k n o w n for t h e d i c t u m " P r o p e r t y i s theft"Proudhon was also fearful of the enormous p o w e r o f t h e state. A n d i n his l a t e r w r i t i n g s h e c o n c e i v e d o f t h e i d e a o f o p p o s i n g t o this p o w e r a s i m i l a r " a b s o l u t ist" p o w e r t h a t of private property.13 By the m i d d l e of the n i n e t e e n t h century the e x p e r i e n c e w i t h capitalism h a d b e e n s u c h t h a t t h e a r g u m e n t a b o u t t h e b e n i g n eifects of le doux commerce on human nature had totally c h a n g e d : i t was just b e c a u s e p r o p e r t y w a s n o w s e e n a s a wild, boundless, and r e v o l u t i o n a r y force that P r o u d h o n gave it the r o l e of c o u n t e r v a i l i n g the e q u a l l y terrifying p o w e r o f t h e state. H e a c t u a l l y uses t h e t e r m " c o u n t e r w e i g h t " a n d t h e r e b y c o n n e c t s h i s thesis w i t h t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n t h a t has b e e n t r a c e d h e r e , just a s G a l b r a i t h w a s t o d o for y e t a n o t h e r p u r p o s e after o n e m o r e century.14 But the substance of Proudhon's thought a b o u t the character of p r o p e r t y a n d m o n e y - m a k i n g was at an e n o r m o u s distance from those w h o had w r i t t e n a b o u t these m a t t e r s i n t h e p r e c e d i n g c e n t u r y .

T h e Promise of an Interest-Governed World versus the Protestant Ethic

m i n d e d in the rational pursuit of capitalist accumulat i o n A l y story t a k e s it for g r a n t e d t h a t s o m e m e n b e c a m e s o i m p e l l e d a n d focuses i n s t e a d o n t h e r e a c t i o n t o t h e n e w p h e n o m e n o n by w h a t is called today the intellectual, managerial, a n d administrative elite. T h a t reaction

N C O M P A R I S O N to w h a t o u g h t to be called the P r o u d h o n a r g u m e n t on the political merits of capitalism,

t h e M o n t e s q u i e u - S t e u a r t d o c t r i n e s e e m s o d d , i f n o t ex t r a v a g a n t . B u t t h e r e i n lies m u c h o f its i n t e r e s t a n d v a l u e . It is precisely because it strikes the c o n t e m p o r a r y m i n d

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was f a v o r a b l e , n o t b e c a u s e the m o n e y - m a k i n g a c t i v i t i e s w e r e a p p r o v e d in themselves, but because they were t h o u g h t to h a v e a m o s t beneficial side effect: t h e y k e p t the m e n w h o were engaged in them "out of mischief," as i t w e r e , a n d had, m o r e specifically, the v i r t u e o f i m p o s i n g restraints o n p r i n c e l y caprice,, a r b i t r a r y g o v e r n m e n t , and adventurous foreign capitalistic C.vlViij^ behavior and policies. activities W e b e r claims were the that indirect

d o u b t t h a t h u m a n a c t i o n s a n d social d e c i s i o n s t e n d t o h a v e c o n s e q u e n c e s that w e r e e n t i r e l y u n i n t e n d e d a t the o u t s e t . B u t , o n the o t h e r h a n d , these a c t i o n s a n d decisions are often taken because they are earnestly and

fully expected to have certain effects that then wholly fail to materialize. T h e l a t t e r p h e n o m e n o n , w h i l e b e i n g the s t r u c t u r a l o b v e r s e of t h e f o r m e r , is also l i k e l y to be o n e of its causes; the i l l u s o r y e x p e c t a t i o n s that are assoc i a t e d w i t h c e r t a i n social d e c i s i o n s a t t h e t i m e o f t h e i r a d o p t i o n h e l p k e e p t h e i r real f u t u r e effects f r o m v i e w . H e r e lies o n e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l r e a s o n s for w h i c h the~7 p h e n o m e n o n is of i n t e r e s t : the e x p e c t a t i o n of l a r g e , if u n r e a l i s t i c , benefits o b v i o u s l y serves t o facilitate c e r t a i n social d e c i s i o n s . E x p l o r a t i o n a n d d i s c o v e r y o f s u c h e x pectations intelligible. C u r i o u s l y , t h e i n t e n d e d b u t u n r e a l i z e d effects o f social decisions stand in need of b e i n g discovered even more t h a n those effects that w e r e u n i n t e n d e d b u t t u r n o u t t o be all t o o r e a l : t h e l a t t e r are at least there, w h e r e a s the i n t e n d e d b u t u n r e a l i z e d effects are o n l y t o b e f o u n d i n the e x p r e s s e d e x p e c t a t i o n s of social actors at a c e r t a i n , ^ o f t e n f l e e t i n g , m o m e n t o f t i m e . M o r e o v e r , o n c e these d e s i r e d effects fail t o h a p p e n a n d refuse t o c o m e i n t o the w o r l d , t h e fact that they w e r e o r i g i n a l l y c o u n t e d o n is likely to be not o n l y forgotten b u t actively repressed. T h i s i s n o t j u s t a m a t t e r o f t h e o r i g i n a l actors k e e p i n g t h e i r self-respect, b u t i s essential i f t h e s u c c e e d i n g p o w e r h o l d e r s are t o b e a s s u r e d o f t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e n e w order: w h a t social o r d e r c o u l d l o n g s u r v i v e the d u a l a w a r e n e s s t h a t i t w a s a d o p t e d w i t h the f i r m e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t i t w o u l d s o l v e c e r t a i n p r o b l e m s , a n d that i t clearly, a n d a b y s m a l l y fails t o d o so? '3
1

(and o r i g i n a l l y u n i n t e n d e d ^ r e s u l t of a d e s p e r a t e search for individual salvation.^My c l a i m is t h a t t h e diffusion o f c a p i t a l i s t forms o w e d m u c h t o a n e q u a l l y d e s p e r a t e (^search for a w a y of avoiding society's r m ^ ) p e r m a n e n t l y threatening at the time because of precarious arrangements for internal and external order. Clearly both c l a i m s c o u l d b e v a l i d a t t h e s a m e t i m e : o n e relates t o t h e m o t i v a t i o n s o f the a s p i r i n g n e w elites, t h e o t h e r t o those o f v a r i o u s g a t e k e e p e r s . totally o v e r l o o k e d ^ ] A f u r t h e r i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e exists b e t w e e n W e b e r ' s thesis a n d the c u r r e n t o f ideas that has b e e n r e t r a c e d h e r e . W e b e r s u g g e s t e d t h a t C a l v i n ' s d o c t r i n e o f predest i n a t i o n r e s u l t e d , a m o n g his f o l l o w e r s , n o t i n fatalism, n o r in a frantic search for e a r t h l y pleasures, b u t c u r i o u s l y a n d c o u n t e r i n t u i t i v e l y i n m e t h o d i c a l a c t i v i t y inf o r m e d b y p u r p o s e a n d s e l f - d e n i a l . T h i s thesis w a s m o r e t h a n a m a g n i f i c e n t p a r a d o x ; i t s p e l l e d o u t o n e o f those r e m a r k a b l e u n i n t e n d e d effects o f h u m a n a c t i o n s (or, i n this case, t h o u g h t s ) w h o s e d i s c o v e r y has b e c o m e the pec u l i a r p r o v i n c e a n d h i g h e s t a m b i t i o n o f the social scientist s i n c e V i c o , M a n d e v i i i e , a n d A d a m S m i t h . N o w I s u b m i t o n the basis of the story I h a v e t o l d h e r e t h a t d i s c o v e r i e s o f the s y m m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s i t e k i n d are b o t h possible and valuable. O n the o n e h a n d , there is no B u t W e b e r ' s thesis has a t t r a c t e d s o m u c h ^ a i t e n t i o n that the l a t t e r t o p i c has b e e n

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Contemporary Notes

Cf

H E e x t e n t t o w h i c h the ideas that h a v e b e e n disc u s s e d i n this essay h a v e b e e n erased f r o m the c o l l e c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s can b e g a u g e d b y r e c a l l i n g s o m e contemporary critiques of capitalism.(In one of the most a t t r a c t i v e a n d i n f l u e n t i a l of these c r i t i q u e s , t h e stress is o n the r e p r e s s i v e a n d a l i e n a t i n g f e a t u r e o f c a p i t a l i s m , o n the w a y i t i n h i b i t s the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the " f u l l h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y . " F r o m the v a n t a g e p o i n t o f the p r e s e n t essay, this a c c u s a t i o n s e e m s a b i t u n f a i r , for c a p i t a l i s m w a s p r e c i s e l y e x p e c t e d a n d s u p p o s e d t o repress c e r t a i n h u m a n d r i v e s a n d p r o c l i v i t i e s a n d t o f a s h i o n a less m u l tifaceted, less u n p r e d i c t a b l e , a n d m o r e " o n e - d i m e n sional" h u m a n personality. T h i s position, w h i c h seems s o s t r a n g e today, arose f r o m e x t r e m e a n g u i s h o v e r the c l e a r a n d p r e s e n t d a n g e r s of a c e r t a i n h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d , f r o m c o n c e r n o v e r the d e s t r u c t i v e forces u n l e a s h e d b y t h e h u m a n passions w i t h the o n l y e x c e p t i o n , s o i t s e e m e d a t the t i m e , o f " i n n o c u o u s " a v a r i c e . Q n sum, capitalism was supposed to accomplish exactly what was soon to be denounced as its worst feature?}

a d v o c a c y o f passionate a t t r a c t i o n t o M a r x ' s t h e o r y o f a l i e n a t i o n , a n d from F r e u d ' s thesis o f l i b i d i n a l repression as the p r i c e of p r o g r e s s to W e b e r ' s c o n c e p t of Entzauberung ( p r o g r e s s i v e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of the m a g i c a l v i s i o n o f the w o r l d ) . I n all o f these e x p l i c i t o r i m p l i c i t c r i t i q u e s o f c a p i t a l i s m t h e r e was l i t t l e r e c o g n i t i o n that, t o a n e a r l i e r a g e , the w o r l d o f the " f u l l h u m a n persona l i t y , " r e p l e t e w i t h d i v e r s e passions, a p p e a r e d as a m e n ace that n e e d e d t o b e e x o r c i z e d t o the g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e extent. T h e o p p o s i t e k i n d o f f o r g e t f u l n e s s i s also i n e v i d e n c e : i t consists o f t r o t t i n g o u t t h e i d e n t i c a l ideas t h a t had b e e n p u t f o r w a r d a t a n e a r l i e r p e r i o d , w i t h o u t a n y refe r e n c e s t o t h e e n c o u n t e r t h e y h a d a l r e a d y h a d w i t h reality, a n e n c o u n t e r t h a t i s s e l d o m w h o l l y satisfactory. T o o p e n a brief p a r e n t h e s i s , i t m a y b e r e m a r k e d that S a n t a y a n a ' s m a x i m " t h o s e w h o d o n o t r e m e m b e r the past are c o n d e m n e d t o r e p e a t i t " i s m o r e l i k e l y t o h o l d r i g o r o u s l y for the h i s t o r y of ideas t h a n for the h i s t o r y of e v e n t s . T h e latter, a s w e all k n o w , n e v e r q u i t e r e p e a t s itself; b u t vaguely similar c i r c u m s t a n c e s at t w o different and perhaps distant points of time may very w e l l give rise to identical and identically flawed t h o u g h t - r e s p o n s e s i f the e a r l i e r i n t e l l e c t u a l e p i s o d e has b e e n f o r g o t t e n . T h e r e a s o n i s o f c o u r s e that t h o u g h t abstracts f r o m a n u m b e r of circumstances w h i c h it holds to be nonessential b u t w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e the u n i q u e n e s s o f e v e r y s i n g l e historical situation. T h i s literal and d e p l o r a b l e correctness of Santayana's m a x i m a s a p p l i e d t o t h e history o f ideas c a n b e illust r a t e d h e r e a t t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l o f c o n t e m p o r a r y social t h o u g h t . A f t e r the story t h a t has b e e n t o l d i t i s a l m o s t p a i n f u l to see a K e y n e s resort, in his c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y l o w - k e y d e f e n s e o f c a p i t a l i s m , t o the i d e n t i c a l a r g u m e n t

F o r a s s o o n a s c a p i t a l i s m w a s t r i u m p h a n t a n d "passion" seemed indeed to be restrained and perhaps even extinguished in the comparatively peaceful, tranquil, a n d b u s i n e s s - m i n d e d E u r o p e o f the p e r i o d after the Congress of V i e n n a , the w o r l d suddenly appeared empty, p e t t y , a n d b o r i n g a n d the stage w a s set for the R o m a n t i c c r i t i q u e o f the b o u r g e o i s o r d e r a s i n c r e d i b l y i m p o v e r ished in relation to earlier agesthe new w o r l d seemed t o l a c k n o b i l i t y , g r a n d e u r , m y s t e r y , a n d , a b o v e a l l , pass i o n . C o n s i d e r a b l e traces o f this n o s t a l g i c c r i t i q u e c a n b e f o u n d i n s u b s e q u e n t social t h o u g h t f r o m F o u r i e r ' s

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R a t h e r , t h e y r e s u l t e d from r e s i d u a l , p r e c a p i t a l i s t m e n that w a s used b y D r . J o h n s o n and other eighteenthtalities that unfortunately capitalism were strongly embedded possibly century figures: Dangerous h u m a n proclivities can be canalized into c o m p a r a t i v e l y h a r m l e s s c h a n n e l s b y the e x i s t e n c e o f o p p o r t u n i t y for m o n e y - m a k i n g a n d p r i v a t e w e a l t h , w h i c h , i f they c a n n o t b e satisfied i n this w a y , m a y f i n d t h e i r o u t l e t i n c r u e l t y , the reckless p u r s u i t o f personal power and authority, and other forms of s e l f - a g g r a n d i z e m e n t . It is b e t t e r t h a t a m a n s h o u l d t y r a n n i z e o v e r his b a n k b a l a n c e t h a n o v e r his fell o w - c i t i z e n s ; a n d w h i l s t the f o r m e r i s s o m e t i m e s den o u n c e d as b e i n g b u t a m e a n s to the latter, s o m e times at least it is an a l t e r n a t i v e . H e r e is the old idea of m o n e y - m a k i n g as an " i n n o c e n t " p a s t i m e a n d o u t l e t for m e n ' s e n e r g i e s , a s a n i n s t i t u t i o n that d i v e r t s m e n f r o m the a n t a g o n i s t i c c o m p e t i t i o n for p o w e r t o t h e s o m e w h a t r i d i c u l o u s a n d distasteful, b u t essentially harmless a c c u m u l a t i o n of wealth. A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t f i g u r e w h o m a d e a s t r o n g , i f ind i r e c t , case for c a p i t a l i s m on the basis of its b e n e f i c i a l p o l i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s w a s S c h u m p e t e r . I n his t h e o r y o f imperialism
1r>

a m o n g the r u l i n g g r o u p s o f the m a j o r E u r o p e a n p o w e r s . For Schumpeter, itself c o u l d n o t m a k e for c o n q u e s t a n d w a r : its spirit was r a t i o n a l , calc u l a t i n g , a n d t h e r e f o r e averse t o r i s k - t a k i n g o n the scale i m p l i c i t i n w a r m a k i n g a n d i n o t h e r h e r o i c antics. Intere s t i n g as they w e r e as a c o u n t e r p o i n t to the v a r i o u s Marxist theories of imperialism, Schumpeter's views e v i n c e d less a w a r e n e s s o f the k n o t t i n e s s o f the p r o b l e m h e was d e a l i n g w i t h t h a n those o f A d a m F e r g u s o n a n d T o c q u e v i l l e that h a v e j u s t b e e n r e c a l l e d . T o g o b a c k e v e n f u r t h e r : C a r d i n a l d e R e t z , w i t h his i n s i s t e n c e that t h e passions are n o t t o b e c o u n t e d o u t i n s i t u a t i o n s where interest-motivated behavior is considered to be the r u l e , a p p e a r s t o h a v e h a d the b e t t e r p a r t o f the a r g u V m e n t than either Keynes or Schumpeter. I c o n c l u d e t h a t b o t h critics a n d d e f e n d e r s of capitalism could improve upon their arguments through k n o w l e d g e o f the e p i s o d e i n i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y t h a t has b e e n r e c o u n t e d h e r e . T h i s i s p r o b a b l y all o n e c a n ask o f history, a n d o f t h e h i s t o r y o f i d e a s i n p a r t i c u l a r : n o t t o r e s o l v e issues, b u t t o raise the l e v e l o f the d e b a t e .

S c h u m p e t e r a r g u e d that t e r r i t o r i a l a m b i -

t i o n , the d e s i r e for c o l o n i a l e x p a n s i o n , a n d t h e w a r l i k e s p i r i t i n g e n e r a l w e r e n o t the i n e v i t a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e o f the c a p i t a l i s t system, a s the M a r x i s t s w o u l d h a v e it.

The General Theory of Employment Interest and Money ( L o n d o n : M a c m i l l a n , 1936), p. 374. In w h a t , a m o u n t s to a caricature of this view, H a y e k has a r g u e d in defense of the institution of i n h e r i t a n c e on the g r o u n d that b e q u e a t h i n g w e a l t h is a socially less h a r m f u l w a y of b e s t o w i n g u n e a r n e d benefits on one's children than actively seeking preferred positions for them duri n g o n e ' s lifetime. T h a t the o n e does b y n o means e x c l u d e the o t h e r is particularly o b v i o u s in this case. See F. A. H a y e k , The Constitution of Liberty ( C h i c a g o : University of C h i c a g o Press, i960), p. 9 1 .
u

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NOTES
PART _y The Protestant Ethic and the ONE Spirit of Capitalism, tr. Talcott

Parsons ( N e w Y o r k : Scribner's, 1958), p. 74. a. See W e r n e r Sombart, Der Bourgeois H u m blot, Analysis and 1913); Joseph A. (Munich: D u n c k e r and of Economic S c h u m peter, History

( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, now reprinted ed. in de

1954), p. 9 1 ; and Roover, Business,

R a y m o n d d e R o o v e r , " T h e Scholastic A t t i t u d e T o w a r d T r a d e Entrepreneurship," and Econo?nic Banking Thought, Julius Kirshner (Chicago:

U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o Press, 1974); see also the i n t r o d u c t o r y essay by K i r s h n e r , p p . 1 6 - 1 8 . See Augustine 44-56. 4. Ibid., p p . 52 and 268. 5. Esprit des lois, B o o k I I I , C h a p t e r V I I , A l l translations are m i n e unless n o t e d otherwise. 6. T h e conflict of these t w o i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n s is d o c u m e n t e d in M a r i a R o s a L i d a de M a l k i e l , La idea de la fama en la Edad Media Castellana appropriate ( M e x i c o : F o n d o de C u l t u r a E c o n o m i c a , de la gloire dans la tradition 1952). See also the F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n of this work, w h i c h bears the m o r e title L'idee occidentalc (Paris: K l i n c k s i e c k , 1968). 7. Ibid., C h a p t e r s and 2. T h e c o n t i n u i t y of the m e d i e v a l chivalric ethos w i t h the aristocratic i d e a l of the R e n a i s s a n c e is also stressed by P a u l B c n i c h o u , Morales du grand siecle B u r c k h a r d t , by J o h a n Huizinga, The (Paris: Gallim a r d . C o l l e c t i o n Idees, 1948), p p . 20-23 a n d , in a p o l e m i c w i t h Waning of the Middle Ages ( N e w Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y , 1945), p p . 40 a n d 6gff. 8. B c n i c h o u , ibid., p p . 1 5 - 7 9 . F o r the thesis that C o r n e i l l e ' s heroes and t h e i r projects all e n d up as failures, see Serge D o u b r o v s k y , Corneitte et la dialeclique du hews (Paris: Gallimard, 1963). 9. T h i s is B c n i c h o u ' s forceful phrase in Morales, p p . 155-180. 10. See the c o n v i n c i n g d e m o n s t r a t i o n , , in a p o l e m i c w i t h C. B. Macpherson, of Keith T h o m a s in "Social Origins of Hobbes's Herbert (New A. Deane, The Political and University Social Press, Ideas of St. pp. York: Columbia 1963),

!37

NOTES P o l i t i c a l T h o u g h t " in K. C. B r o w n , ed., Hobbes Studies B l a c k w e l l , 1965). 11. Benichou, 12. The zen: Prince, Morales, pp. 262-267, 285-299. Chapter from XV. Hobbes, ed. Peters (New York: (Oxford: 32. D. W. 34. On Nature Method Political this (The of

NOTES Smith, Helve this, p p . (Paris, topic, Johns 1758), p p . Hopkins 133-135. 159-160. My emphasis. L o v e j o y , Reflections on 1961), Lecture II: Human"The American Alfred

33. De I'esprit

sec A r t h u r O.

13. See the I n t r o d u c t i o n by R i c h a r d S. Peters to Body, Man, Citi Selections Thomas C o l l i e r , 1962), 14. Part I I I , I n t r o d u c t i o n . 15. Pars. 1 3 1 - 1 3 2 , in G i a m b a t t i s i a Vico, Opere, ed. Fa us to N i c o l i n i ( M i l a n : R i c c i a r d i , 1953). 16. See Deane, Political and Social Ideas of St. Augustine, Chap The ter I V , a n d M i c h a e l W a i t e r ' s a c c o u n t o f C a l v i n ' s political t h o u g h t u n d e r the title " T h e State as an O r d e r of R e p r e s s i o n " in Revolution of the Saints (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard 135. Press), p p . 30-48. 17. Scienza nuova, pars. 19. Ibid., p. 438. 20. L e o Strauss, 1 3 2 - 1 3 3 ; see also 130 and 18. Works, ed. J. S p e d d i n g et al. My emphasis. The Treatise Political Philosophy of Hobbes (Oxford: 1946), by ( L o n d o n , 1859), V o l . I l l , p. 418. University

Press, Richard

T h e o r y o f H u m a n N a t u r e i n the A m e r i c a n C o n s t i t u t i o n and the Counterpoise"; and the Men Hof'stadter, The Tradition Who Made It (New York:

A . K n o p f , 1948), C h a p t e r 1 : " T h e F o u n d i n g Fathers: A n A g e o f R e a l i s m " ; a n d M a r t i n D i a m o n d , " T h e A m e r i c a n Idea o f M a n : T h e V i e w from the F o u n d i n g " i n I r v i n g Kristol and P a u l W e a v e r , eds., The Americans 1976 V o l . I I , p p . 1-23. 35. Leviathan, 36. F r i c d r i c h Geschichte 38. Ibid., 37. Ibid., p. pp. of Chapter 13. Die Idee der Slaalsriison in der neueren 1924), p p . Hr^ff. Meinecke, 184. 52-55, Religion of in Men, Works (Oxford: Clarendon Times, Press, reprint ( L e x i n g t o n , Mass.: D. C. H e a t h , 1976),

(Munich:

R. O l d e n b o u r g ,

39. Ibid., p. 2 1 1 . 40. Analogy 1896), V o l . I, p p . 97-98. 4 1 . Characteristic!^ Manners, Opinions, of the 1711 e d n . ( I n d i a n a p o l i s : B o b b s - M e r r i l l , 196-1), p p . 332 a n d 336 (italics in the text). Rochefoucauld, de Silhon, Oeuvres De la (Paris: certitude Hachette, des 1923), V o l . I, 42. Treatise, B o o k I I I , Part I I , Section I I . 43. La

C l a r e n d o n Press, 1936), p. 92; a n d R a c h a c l M. K y d d , Reason and Conduct in Hume's p. 116. a i . Part I V , . H. Stirling Prop. 7. Translation by W. H. W h i t e revised ( L o n d o n ; O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1927). (New York: Russell & Russell,

22. Part I V , P r o p . 14. 23. Part V, P r o p . 42. 24. K y d d , Hume's Treatise, p p . viii, 38, 156-162. 25. Treatise, B o o k I I , Part I I I , Section H I . *6. Ibid., B o o k 111, Part I I , Section I I . 27. " O f Refinement in the Arts" in David Hume, Writings on Economics, ed. E. R o t w e i n sin Press, 1970), p p . 3 1 - 3 2 . 28. Essays 29. F r a n c o Moral, Political, and e Literary, riforma ed. . H. Green and . H. Grose { L o n d o n : L o n g m a n s , 1898), V o l , I , p p . 226-227. Venturi, Utopia nell'Illuminismo (Torino: ( M a d i s o n , Wis.: University of W i s c o n

p . 30. 44. J e a n connaissances humaines

(Paris, 1661), p p . 104-105. 45. Wealth of Nations, ed. E. C a i m a n (New York: Modern Li

brary, 1937), p. 325. 46. L e t t e r of A p r i l 9, p . 1100. 47. A F. tique E. survey of the F r e n c h Gttez de seventeenth-century et son literature el is in Sutclifte, Balzac temps(literature poli 1 5 1 3 , in Opere (Milan: Ricciardi, 1963),

E i n a u d i , 1970), p. 99. H e r e V e n t u r i sketches the r e m a r k a b l e ca reer of the a u t h o r of this article, A l e x a n d r e D c l c y r e . 30. Oeuvres completes (Paris; Hachette, 1968), V o l . T, p, Georg Olms, 239. 3 1 . Systems de la nature (Hildesheim: 1966, repro

(Paris: N i z e t , 1959), p p . 1 2 0 - 1 3 1 . O n the c h a n g i n g r a n k i n g The Seven Deadly Sins (East L a n s i n g , Mich.: Michi

of avarice a m o n g the d e a d l y sins in the M i d d l e Ages, see M o r t o n Bloomfield, g a n State C o l l e g e Press, 1954), p. 95. 48. G u n n , " I n t e r e s t , " p. 559, n o t e 37. 49. De ('esprit, p. 5 3 .

d u c t i o n of 1821 Paris e d i t i o n ) , p p . 424-425.

138

'39

NOTES 50. Politique LeBrim Studies in tiree des propres from paroles Descartes de to I'Ecriture La V, Sainte, ed. J.

NOTES 68. Two Treatises, I I , p a r . 127. 69. Ibid., par. 22. 70. Essays, V o l . I, p. 160. 7 1 . C h a p t e r 39. 7 2 . Esprit des lots, V o l . X X , p. 4. 73. Philosophic 1900), p. 232. 74. Bosioell's 7 5 . Reflexions Jacob Viner, Ameri 76. S a l v a d o r 77. Q u o t e d tions sur War in I'annee Life et de in les of Johnson in (New Oeuvres The York: (Paris: Fall of Oxford Cite the University des livres, des Geldes (Leipzig: Duncker and Humblot,

(Geneva:

Droz,

196a), p. 24, and . J. K r a i l s h e i m e r , Bruyere in (Oxford: The Press,

Self-Interest

C l a r e n d o n Press, 1962), p. 184. 5 1 . Traclatus Political

8

theologico-politicus,

Chapter

Spinoza,

Works, ed. A.

G. W e r n h a m

(Oxford:

Clarendon

' 9 5 ) . 9352. T h e M a r q u i s of H a l i f a x as q u o t e d in R a a b , The English Face of Machiavelli, p. 247. (Paris: in Gamier, p. the Social 1932), p. 76, Order 133. in Characteristicks, quoted 53. Les caracteres 54. Shaftesbury,

Press, 1933), V o l . I, p. 567. T h e d a t e is M a r c h 27, 1 7 7 5 . maximes 1929), V o l . I I , p . 1 5 1 . Madariaga, Fra^ois finances de. de Spanish-American et 1595 considera jusqu'a generate Empire ( L o n d o n : H o l l i s a n d C a r t e r , 1947), p. 7. My emphasis. Forbonnais, France, depuis Recherches I'annee ou

The Role of Providence 55. Analogy, p. Despotism: 57. History Giuseppe 58. F e l i x

(Philadelphia:

can P h i l o s o p h i c a l Society, 1972), p, 70. 121, note. 1649 catechism in R. K o e b n e r , " D e s p o t a n d 14 ( 1 9 5 1 ) . p. 293. 1782), VJ, p. e 127; storico cited Hume politico (Turin: N. J.: 56. C i t e d from a

Vicissitudes of a P o l i t i c a l T e r m , " Journal of the of England (London, David-

(Basle,

1758), V o l . I, p. 436. parfait negociant, Instruction (Paris, 1675), 1 7 1 3 edn., p. 1

burg and Courtauld Institutes Ciarriz/.o, Gilbert,

78. Jacques Savary, Le (italics in the o r i g i n a l ) . 79. V i n e r , Providence, pp.

de tout ce qui regarde le commerce, 36ff. i. College

E i n a u d i , 1962), p. 209. Machiavelli and Guicciardini (Princeton, P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1965), p. 157. 59. G u n n , " I n t e r e s t , " p . 557. 60. G u n n , Politics, p. 6 1 . Inquiry into the 160. Principles of Political Oeconomy (1767), ed.

80. Esprit

des

lois,

XX, du

81. Reglement

interieur

Louis-le-Grand

(1769),

p.

36.

T h i s d o c u m e n t was E x h i b i t N o . 163 i n the E x h i b i t i o n o f D a i l y L i f e i n Paris i n 82. Characteristicks, 83. A System of Works the E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y , A r c h i v e s N a t i o n a l e s , p. Moral 336. Philosophy, facsimile of 1755 edn. in Paris, s u m m e r 1974.

A. S. S k i n n e r ( C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o Press, 1966), V o l . I, p p . 143-144. 62. C h a r l e s H e r l e , 63. Characters (Cambridge: and Wisdomes Tripos . . . Passages from (London, ed. 394; A. see 1655), cited R. also Waller Gunn, i n G u n n , " I n t e r e s t , " p . 557. Notebooks, 1908), p. University Press,

( H i l d e s h e i m : G e o r g O l m s , 1969), V o l . V, p. 12. of Nations, p. 324. My e m p h a s i s . 53.

84. Treatise, B o o k I I , Part I I I , S e c t i o n I V . 85. Wealth 86. Writings on Economics, p.

" I n t e r e s t , " p p . 558-559. 64. G u n n , Politics, C h . I V . 65. Ethics, Part I V , P r o p . 33. 66. See and Leonard Krieger, The Politics of Discretion: Chicago Pufendorf University Treatises 2nd 1. V , 7. 2. X X I , 20. 3 . X X I I , 14. Two 4. X X , 23. Laslett (Cambridge: University Press, 5. C h a p t e r V I , par. 12; see S p i n o z a , The Political Works, p. 321. 6. C h a p t e r V I I , par. 8; ibid., p p . 341-343. the Acceptance of Natural Law (Chicago: PART TWO

Press, 1965), p. 1 1 9 . 67. Peter L a s l e t l , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " in J o h n L o c k e , of Government, ed. e d n . 1967), p. 74.

140

141

NOTES 7. Cf. Alexandre MaLheron, (Paris: Individu el. communautc chez Spinoza 112. 27. Ibid., p. 336.

NOTES

(Paris: M i n u i t , 1969), p p . 17G-178. 8. Oeuvres completes 10. pp. Ibid. in sur Coleman, le commerce (Paris, ed., Revisions in E. in Mercantilism, Econo15-16. politique (1734) Daire, 1843), p. 733. Pleiade, N R F , 1949), V o l . I, p. 9. Esprit des lois, X I , 4. 11 . I n t r o d u c t i o n 12. Essai

28. Ibid., pp. 337-339 29. C i t e d in E. ing Class

(italics m i n e ) . The Making of the English Work

P. T h o m p s o n ,

( N e w Y o r k : V i n t a g e B o o k s , 1963), p. 361. 1801, it is of 1J63 to also

30. Since M i l l a r ' s essay was f o u n d after his death in difficult to d a t e it. 31. George i~J4 Rude, Wilkes and Liberty: Social Study pp. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962),

1 7 9 - 1 8 4 . See

misles franca is du if' siecle 13. X X , 2. 14. Ibid. p. 733. 15. Essai politique, 5 Coyer, La

Frank Ackerman, "Riots, Populism, and Non-Industrial Labor: A C o m p a r a t i v e S t u d y o f the P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y o i the U r b a n C r o w d " (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Harvard University, Department of E c o n o m i c s , 1974), C h a p t e r 2. 32. T h e suppressed passage is r e p r o d u c e d as a f o o t n o t e in Essays, V o l . I, p. 97. T h e e p i s o d e is discussed in G i a r r i z z o , David Hume, p. 82. Other 33. P a u l i n e (Jan. iUaier, " P o p u l a r U p r i s i n g s and America," William and Civil Mary A u t h o r i t y in Quarterly 27 Mobs: pp. Eighteenth-Century

An

extended argument (London, and

that

there and

is in

a great deal of glory in c o m m e r c e is m a d e in A b b e C a b r i e l Frannoblesse L. commercante 1 756), L o u i s de Sacy, mite de la gloire (Paris, 1 7 1 5 ) , pp. 99-100. 16. See Ronald Meek, Economics Ideology and Essays ( L o n d o n : C h a p m a n a n d H a l l , 197), p a r t i c u l a r l y his 1954 essay " T h e Scottish C o n t r i b u t i o n t o Marxist S o c i o l o g y , " p p . 34-50. 17. Inquiry, V o l . I, p. 18. Ibid., p. 213. 19. See Steuart et Paul Hegel Chamley, (Paris: Economic Dalloz, politique and et philosophic chez a 1963), Documents relatifs 181 (italics m i n e ) .

1970), p. 18; see also D i r k H o e r d e r , " P e o p l e and dissertation. F r e i e Universitiil. Berlin,

C r o w d A c t i o n i n Massachusetts d u r i n g the A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t i o n " (unpublished 129-137. 34. M a i e r , ibid., p. 27. 35. See Ronald L. Meek, The Economics of Physiocracy (Cam bridge, Mass.: H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1963). 36. See A. S. S k i n n e r ' s I n t r o d u c t i o n to Steuart's Inquiry, V o l . I, p . x x x v i i , a n d C h a m l e y , Documents, p p . 7 1 - 7 4 . 37. Wealth 38. F r o m Meek, 39. Jacob of Nations, p p . 800, 880. the "Extract p. from 'Rural and pp. i
n

1971),

Sir James Steuart 21. Ibid., pp.

(Paris: D a l l o z , 1965), p p . 89-92 a n d 1 4 3 - 1 4 7 . 278-279. (London: B. B e l l and Sons,

20. Inquiry, V o l . I, p p . 2 1 5 - 2 1 7 . 22. See C h a p t e r 9, " S t e u a r t ' s E c o n o m i c s of Control,'* in S. R. Sen, The Economics of Sir James Steuart Science and Society, Fall 1958. 1957), a n d R . L . M e e k , " T h e E c o n o m i c s o f C o n t r o l Prefigured," 23. Inquiry, V o l . I, p. 278. 24. Ibid., p. 217. 25. P o p u l a r i z e d Nicolas Technology p. afj. 125; Orcsmus by Leibniz (died Change. and Voltaire, 1382) in its Lynn use is traced to A.D. White, Press, Medieval 1963), r300-1y00 1735-1801 The major

Philosophy'" Laissez

included Journal la

in of

Physiocracy, Viuer, 35

63. Smith ('757) 19. . Mass.: Faire," et (April 1927), 198-232. Quesnay Physi-

"Adam

Political Economy 40. A r t i c l e 41. Leviathan, 43. On The

"Hommes" Chapter

Francois

ocratie ( I . N . E . D . , 1958), V o l . I I , p. 570. 42. T h e t e r m i n o l o g y is d u e to Le M e r c i e r de la R i v i e r e . Physiocratic.Doctrine of Judicial Control (Cambridge,

and Social

(Oxford:

Clarendon

see also C a r l o M. C i p o l l a , Clocks and Culture, C, Lehmann, Press, John Millar pp. of Glasgow,

( L o n d o n : C o l l i n s , 1967), p p . 105, 165. William (Cambridge: University 1960), 330-33 1 .

this aspect of P h y s i o c r a t i c t h o u g h t , see M a r i o E i n a u d i ,

works of M i l l a r are r e p r i n t e d in Parts I I I a n d IV of this b o o k .

H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1938).

142

143

NOTES 44. E d . . D e p i t r e (Paris, i g i o ) , C h a p t e r s ig a n d 44; see also Georges Weulersse, Le mouvement physiocratique en France, 1J56-IJJO (Paris: A l c a n , 1910), V o l . I I , p p . 4 4 - 6 1 . 45. Theories des lois chiles ( L o n d o n , 1774), V o l . I, p p . 1 1 8 - 1 1 9 {Oeuvres, I I I ) . 46. T h e i r considerable influence on p u b l i c policy and on the c l i m a t e oF o p i n i o n is traced in Weulersse, Le mouvement physiocratique, V o l . I I , B o o k 4. 47. M o d e r n L i b r a r y edn., p. 385. 48. Ibid., p. 388. 49. Ibid., p. 387. 50. Ibid., p. 3 9 1 . 5 1 . Ibid., p. 390. 52. D a v i d H u m e , The History of England ( O x f o r d , 1826), V o l . V, p. 430 ( A p p e n d i x I I I " M a n n e r s " ) , a n d A d a m Smith, Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms, ed. E. C a n n a n ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n Press, 1896), p p . 42-43. 53. Wealth of Nations, p. 460. 54. Ibid., p. 638. 55. Ibid., p. 508. 56. S o m e recent c o m m e n t a r i e s are i n N a t h a n R o s e n b e r g , " A d a m Smith o n the D i v i s i o n o f L a b o r : T w o V i e w s o r O n e ? " Economica 3 2 ( M a y 1965), p p . 1 2 7 - 1 3 9 , a n d R o b e r t L . H e i l b r o n e r , " T h e P a r a d o x of Progress: D e c l i n e a n d D e c a y in The Wealth of Nations," Journal of the History of Ideas 34 ( A p r i l - J u n e 1973), p p . 242-262. 57. 58. 59. 60. Wealth of Nations, p. Lectures, p. 257. Ibid., p. 259. Ibid., pp. 2 5 3 - 2 5 5 . 735.

NOTES 1968), pp. 3 6 1 - 3 7 4 . As L o v e j o y fias p o i n t e d out, this train of t h o u g h t is a s t r i k i n g a n t i c i p a t i o n of the idea of "conspicuous c o n s u m p t i o n , " which is o n e of the mainstays of V e b l e n ' s Theory of the Leisure Class. See L o v e j o y , Reflections, p p . 208-215. 64. See Emile, Part I V , and Discours sur I'origine et les fondements de I'inegalite parmi les homrnes, note o. 65. C i t e d in L o v e j o y , Reflections, p. 146. 66. Wealth of Nations, p p . 594-595 (italics m i n e ) . 67. Discourses, B o o k 1, C h a p t e r L X V I I I . 68. English Works, V o l . II, p. 160, cited in K e i t h T h o m a s , " T h e Social O r i g i n s of H o b b e s ' s Political T h o u g h t , " in B r o w n , ed., Hobbes Studies, p. 1 9 1 . 6g. See Erich A u e r b a c h , Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature (Princeton, N. J.: P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1953), p p . 1 3 9 - 1 4 1 a n d passim.

PART

THREE

1. C i t e d in E m m a n u e l C h i l l , ed., Power, Property and History: Joseph Barnave's Introduction to the French Revolution and Other Writings ( N e w Y o r k : H a r p e r , 1 9 7 1 ) , p. 142. 2. Essay on the History of Civil Society, edited, w i t h an introduction, by D u n c a n F o r b e s ( E d i n b u r g h : U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1966), p. 19. 3. Ibid., p. 261. 4. See Pocock, Machiavellian Moment, for an ment, from M a c h i a v e l l i to H a m i l t o n . 5. Essay, p. 262. 6. Essay, p p . 268-269 (emphasis mine). 7. V o l . 2, P a r t 2, C h a p t e r 14. 8. John U. N e f used it as the e p i g r a p h for his w e l l - k n o w n twopart essay, "Industrial E u r o p e at the time of the R e f o r m a t i o n , " Journal of Political Economy 49 (Feb.-April 1941), p. 1. 9. C i t e d (in English) in H a r r y L e v i n , The Gates of Horn ( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d University Press, 1963), p p . 1 5 2 - 1 5 3 , from La Cousine Bette (Paris: C o n a r d , 1914), p. 342. 10. V o l . 2, Part 2, C h a p t e r 14. u. English Works, V o l . II, p. 160, cite'd in K e i t h T h o m a s , " T h e exhaustive treat-

6 1 . F o r a full history a n d analysis of this r e p u b l i c a n current of political t h o u g h t from M a c h i a v e l l i to the e i g h t e e n t h century in E n g l a n d and A m e r i c a , see Pocock, Machiavellian Moment. 62. Wealth of Nations, p. 324. 63. The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 9th edn. ( L o n d o n , 1801), V o l . I, p p . 98-99 (italics m i n e ) . T h i s a n d a n u m b e r of similar a n d c o m p l e m e n t a r y passages are cited in an interesting article b y N a t h a n R o s e n b e r g , " A d a m Smith, C o n s u m e r T a s t e s , and E c o n o m i c G r o w t h , " Journal of Political Economy 7 (May-June

144

H5

NOTES Social O r i g i n s o f H o b b e s ' s Hobbes Shtdies, 12. Disrours sur p. 191. I'origine et les fondements de i'inegalitc parmi Political T h o u g h t , " i n B r o w n , ed.,

INDEX
A c k e r m a n , F r a n k , 142 a l i e n a t i o n , 126, 133 A m e r i c a n C o n s t i t u t i o n , coun t e r v a i l i n g passion c o n c e p t in, 28-30 anomie, 1 2G A q u i n a s , St. T h o m a s , 11 arbitrage, foreign e x c h a n g e , 76, 77, 78, 81-82 aristocratic i d e a l : h o n o r a n d glory in, 10-1 1; a n d moneym a k i n g , 58-59, 63; and passions, 112 A u e r b a c h , Erich, 144 A u g u s t i n e , St., 9 - 1 2 , 15, 20, 44 a u t h o r i t y : abuses of, 96; grands coups d'autorite, 72, 74, 76, 78, 81, 86, 88, 96, 124; re b e l l i o n s against, 89-93; restrictions on, see power, restrictions on avarice; as c o u n t e r v a i l i n g passion, 54-55, 108; as sin, 9, 12, 20-21, 4) B a c o n , Francis, 2 1 - 2 3 , 28 Balzac, H o n o r c de, 122-23 B a r n a v e , Joseph, 1 1 8 - 1 9 , 144 B c n i c h o u , Paul, 136, 137 B i e n , D a v i d , viii bills of e x c h a n g e , 7411, 81-82; M o n t e s q u i e u o n , 72-74, 7 6 - 78 B l o o m f i e l d , M o r t o n , 138 B o c c a l i n i , T r a j a n o , 34 R o l i n g b r o k e , H e n r y St. J o h n , V i s c o u n t , 57, 77 B o n a v e n t u r a , F e d e r i c o , 34 Bossuet, J a c q u e s B c n i g n e , B i s h o p , 44 Roswell, James, 140 B o u r d i e u , Pierre, viii b o u r g e o i s ethos and heroic ideal, 12 B r o w n , K . C , 137, 144, 145 B u t l e r , Joseph, B i s h o p , 35, 4 6 47 Butler, S a m u e l , 50 C a l v i n , John, 15, 130 c a p i t a l i s m , 9; a r g u m e n t s for, 127-28; a n d attitudes toward c o m m e r c e , 59; c o n t e m p o r a r y ideas o n , 132-35; m o d e r n , 126-28; Smith's attitude t o w a r d , 105, 107; and W e b e r ' s Protestant ethic, 129-30 C e r v a n t e s Saavedra, M i g u e l de, 11 C h a m l e y , P a u l , 141 C h i l d , Sir Josiah, 79 C h i l l , E m m a n u e l , 144 C h i n a r d , G i l b e r t , 17 chivalry, i d e a l of, 10 C i p o l l a , C a r l o M., 141 class struggle, 126 d o c k m a k e r , m e t a p h o r of, 87 C o l b e r t , Jean B a p t i s t e , 79 c o m m e r c e : attitudes t o w a r d , 5 1 - 5 2 ; B a r n a v e ' s ideas o n , 1 1 8 - 1 9 ; a s harmless and doux, 58-63, 107, 128; inter n a t i o n a l , 79; M o n t e s q u i e u ' s ideas o n , 60, 70-80; n o n c o m mercial m e a n i n g s of word, 6 1 - 6 2 ; Smith's ideas o n , 1001Q2, 104-7; Steuart's ideas o n , 81-83 c o m m u n i s m , 127

les homines, n o t e >, 13. T h i s idea is d e v e l o p e d at l e n g t h in P r o u d h o n ' s p o s t h u m o u s Theorie de la

a

proprietc,

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Oeuvres completes American

(Paris,

1866), The

Vol.

7> PP- 37- ' 3 1 - , 3 8 - ) 8cj-2 1 Kenneth Galbraitii, (Boston: Capitalism: Mifflin, Concept Countervailing Power Houghton 1952).

14. J o h n of

15. " T h e S o c i o l o g y of I m p e r i a l i s m s " Social Classes (New York:

( 1 9 1 7 ) , in Imperialism and

Kclley, 1951).

146

147

INDEX Communist Manifesto, 56 C o n g r e s s ot V i e n n a , 132 C o n s t i t u t i o n o f U n i t e d States, c o u n t e r v a i l i n g passion con c e p t in, 28-30 C o r n e i l l e , P i e r r e , 1 1 , 136 corruption, changing meaning of, 40 c o u n t e r v a i l i n g passions, 41,78 20-31, 100-12; Steuart's v i e w of, 8287; a n d W e b e r ' s P r o t e s t a n t ethic, 129-30 E i n a u d i , M a r i o , 142-43 elites a n d capitalism, 129-30 Encyclopedic, 27 Engels, F r i e d r i c h , 56, 62 E n g l a n d : b a l a n c e o f interests in, 5 1 ; interest, c o n c e p t of, 3^ - 37- m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y in, 64; s p e c u l a t i o n a n d p o l i t i c a l c o r r u p t i o n in, 57 E n l i g h t e n m e n t , 47 fallacy of c o m p o s i t i o n , 1 1 9 , 125 Federalist, The, 29-30 F e r g u s o n , A d a m , 57, 81, 88, 107, 1 1 9 - 2 2 , 124-25, 135 f e u d a l i s m , S m i t h o n , 100-101 Forbes, D u n c a n , 104, 144 F o r b o n n a i s , F r a r ^ o i s dc, 140 foreign e x c h a n g e arbitrage, M o n t e s q u i e u ' s v i e w of, 76, 77- 7, 8. f o r t u n e , c h a n g i n g m e a n i n g of, 40 Fourier, Francois Marie C h a r l e s , 132-33 F r a n c e : a t t i t u d e t o w a r d com merce, 59-63; h e r o i c i d e a l d e m o l i s h e d i n , J I ; interest, c o n c e p t of, 36, 38-39 French Revolution, 113 F r e u d , S i g m u n d , 17, 133 F r i e d m a n , M i l t o n , 12711, 128 G a l b r a i t h , J o h n K e n n e t h , 128, 145 G a l i l e o ' G a l i l e i , 13 G i a r r i z z o , G i u s e p p e , 139, 142 G i l b e r t , F e l i x , 139 glory, p u r s u i t of, 9-12 G o d as c l o c k m a k e r , 87

INDEX Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, '9 g o v e r n m e n t : Physiocrats' ideas o n , 96-99; restrictions on p o w e r , see p o w e r , restric tions o n ; S m i t h ' s d o c t r i n e s o n , 100-104; t r a n q u i l i t y a n d o r d e r i n , 121-24 grands coups d'aitforite, 72, 74, 76, 78, 81, 86, 88, 96, 124 G u i z o t , Krangois, 122 G u n n , [. A. W . , 36, 3 7 , 138, '39 H a l i f a x , G e o r g e Savile, Mar q u i s o l , 45, 46, 139 H a m i l t o n , A l e x a n d e r , 29, 30, 45" harmony-of-inierests 98, 123 H a r t z , L o u i s , 44 H a y e k , F. ., 128, 134 H e g e l , G e o r g W i l h e l m Friedrich, 83; C u n n i n g o f R e a s o n , c o n c e p t , 17, 19 H e i l h r o n e r , R o b e r t L., 143 Helvatius, Claude Adrien, 2728, 43 Herder, Johann Gottfried von,
]

C o v e n a n t , H o h h c s ' s c o n c e p t of, '5 ' 3 ' - 3 2 C o y e r , G a b r i e l F r a i ^ o i s . 141 Craftsman, The, 57, 77 C r o p s c y , J o s e p h , 104 C u n n i n g of R e a s o n , 17, 19 Dairc, E., 141 D a n t e A l i g h i e r i , 1 1 , 20-21 U e a n e , H e r b e r t . , 13G, 137 D e l e y r e , A l e x a n d r e , 137 d e R o o v e r , R a y m o n d , 136 d e s p o t i s m : Physiocrats' ideas o n , 98, 99; Steuart's ideas o n , 5 . 99 D i a m o n d , M a r t i n , 138 D o m a t , Jean, 1 7 D o u b r o v s k y , Serge, 136 D u r k h e i m , E m i l e , 120 e c o n o m i c e x p a n s i o n : Fergu son's view of, 120, 124; M i l l a r ' s v i e w of, 88-93; M o n t e s q u i e u - S t e u a r t doc trines e x a m i n e d , 1 1 7 - 1 8 , 120, 123, 124, 128; Montes q u i e u ' s view of, 78-80, 87; in nineteenth and twentieth centuries, p r o b l e m s of, 1 2 6 27; a n d passions, H o b b e s a n d R o u s s e a u o n , 125-26; Physiocrats' views of, 93-96; S m i t h ' s v i e w of, 93-94, 96,
8

H u i z i n g a , [ o h a n , 136 h u m a n nature, 13, 15, 24, 27, 30, 44 JI, 49, 66; and capital ism, 132; H o b b e s a n d R o u s seau o n , 109, 125-26; S m i t h o n , 108-10 H u m e . D a v i d , 25-26, 37, 47-48, 56, 64, 83, 88, 92, 102, 105, 137, '43- ' o v e g a i n , 54, 54-55, 65-66; on p u b l i c d e b t , 75~76n H u t c h e s o n , Francis, 64, 65 i n d u s t r y . S m i t h ' s ideas o n , 100102 interest: d e f i n i t i o n of, 32-33; e c o n o m i c , 5 1 - 5 2 ; a s new p a r a d i g m , 42-48; a n d pas sions, d i c h o t o m y of, 42-48, 58, 63-64, 69-70, 73, 102, 125-26; a n d passions, S m i t h ' s attitude toward, 1 1 0 - t i ; passions t a m e d by, 3 1 - 4 2 ; in politics, 5 0 - 5 1 ; of p r i n c e or state, 33-36; S m i t h ' s d o c t r i n e of self-interest, 100-12 " I n t e r e s t G o v e r n s the W o r l d , " 43, 46, 48; p r e d i c t a b i l i t y a n d c o n s t a n c y of interest-gov e r n e d w o r l d , 48-56; Protes tant e t h i c a n d interestg o v e r n e d w o r l d , 128-31 " I n t e r e s t W i l l N o t L i e , " 40, 4 2 - 4 3 , 49> 5 interests: b a l a n c e of, 5 1 ; defi n i t i o n of, 32; of g r o u p s and i n d i v i d u a l s , 36-42; h a r m o n y of-interests d o c t r i n e , 98, 123; i d e n t i t y of, H o b b e s ' s doc trine, 97-98; passions tamed by, 31-42 i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s : com merce, 79, 81-82; war, 79, 80

doctrine,

H e r l e , C h a r l e s , 139 h e r o i c ideal, 1 1 - 1 2 , 5 8 H o b b e s , T h o m a s , 1 1 - 1 4 , 42, 52, 53, 77, 98, 108-9, 125-26; C o v e n a n t , c o n c e p t of, 15, 3 1 - 3 2 ; o n m o n a r c h y , 97 H o e r d e r , D i r k , 142 H o f s t a d t e r , R i c h a r d , 138 Holbach, Paul Henri Dietrich, B a r o n d', 27 h o n o r , p u r s u i t of, 1 1 , 108

148

U9

INDEX I n v i s i b l e H a n d , 105; anticipa tions of S m i t h ' s c o n c e p t , 10, 16, 17 Johnson, S a m u e l , 56, 134; on avarice, 5 5 ; on moneym a k i n g , 5 7 - 5 8 , 59 K a n t , I m m a n u e l , 21 K a t z e n e l l c n b o g e n , A d o l f , a 111 Keohane, N a n n e r l ., 17 K e y n e s , John M a y n a r d , 86, '33-> '35 K i r s h n e r , Julius, 136 K o e b n e r , R., 139 K r a i l s h c i m e r , A. J., 139 K r a m n i c k , Isaac, 5 7 Krieger, L e o n a r d , 139 K r i s t o l , I r v i n g , 138 La B r u y e r e , J e a n de, 46, 7311 laissez-faire, 97-98, 104 La Rochefoucauld, Francois de, 1 1 , 12, 15, 38-39, 42, 138 Laslett, Peter, 139-40 L c h m a n n , W i l l i a m C , 142 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von,141 Le Mercier de la Riviere, Paul P i e r r e , 98, 142 L e v i n , H a r r y , 144 Levy-BruTil, H e n r i , 7 4 liberty: F e r g u s o n ' s ideas o n , 1 2 1 ; spirit of, M i l l a r o n , 8890; T o c q u e v i l l e o n , 122 Linguet, Simon Nicolas Henri, L o c k e , J o h n , 89, 139-40; state o f n a t u r e , c o n c e p t , 53-54 L o u i s X I V , 38 L o u i s - P h i l i p p e , 122-23 L o v e j o y , A r t h u r O . , 138, 144 lust, sexual, 9 luxury: and commerce, Smith's view of, 1 0 1 - 2 , 106; M a n d e v i l l c ' s v i e w of, 18; passion for, 18 M a b l y , G a b r i e l B o n n e t de, 5 7 Machiavelli, Niccolo, 13-14, 4011, 49, 53, i n , 137; interest, c o n c e p t of, 33, 41 m a c h i n e , m e t a p h o r of, 90, 9 3 94 M a c p h e r s o n , C . B., 136 M a d a r i a g a , S a l v a d o r de, 140 M a d i s o n , James, 30 M a i e r , P a u l i n e , 142 M a l k i e l , M a r i a R o s a L i d a de, 136 M a l t h u s , T h o m a s R., 86 m a n as he really is, 1 2 - 1 4 , 2 7 28. See also h u m a n n a t u r e M a n d e v i l l e , B e r n a r d , 18, 19, 25, 1 1 2 , 1 1 9 , 130 M a r x , K a r l , 56, 62, 120, 124 M a r x i s m , 99-100, 134, 135 M a t h e r o n , A l e x a n d r e , 141 M e e k , R o n a l d L., 1 4 1 , 142 M e i n e c k e , F r i e d r i c h , 33-35, 138 M e l o n , Jean-Franois, 80 m e r c a n t i l e class, 9 1 ; rise of, 101-2 m e r c a n t i l i s m , 52, 79, 82, 83 M i d d l e Ages, p u r s u i t o f h o n o r , glory, a n d riches i n , 9-10 m i d d l e class, 83; rise of, 101-2 M i l l a r , J o h n , 70, 81, 1 0 5 , 142; doctrines, 87-93 Mirabeau, Victor Riqueti, M a r q u i s de, 94-96 Mises, L u d w i g v o n , 128 Moliere, Jean Baptiste Poquel i n , 12 m o n e y : l o v e of, as interest, 5 4 - 5 7 ; lust for, as sin, 9-10, 12, 20-21, 4 1 . See also w e a l t h

INDEX m o n e y - m a k i n g : as c a l m passion, 63-66; as harmless pursuit, 56-63, 134; nineteenth-cen tury ideas o n , 125; a n d P r o t e s t a n t ethic, 129-30 Montesquieu, Charles Louis de S e c o n d a t , B a r o n de, 9, 55, 56, 7 , 93, 99- " 9 > '5. I 2 7 > J 3 6 : on bills of e x c h a n g e , 7 2 - 7 4 , 7 6 - 7 8 ; on c o m m e r c e , 70-80; on doux commerce, 60; a n d Physiocrats, 96-97; on p o w e r , 7 7 - 7 8 ; on p r o p e r t y , 74, 94; S m i t h c o m p a r e d w i t h , 102, 104, 107; Steuart influenced by, 8 1 - 8 2 , 85-88 M o n t e s q u i e u - S t e u a r t doctrines, 1 1 3 , 1 1 7 - 1 8 , 120, 23, 124, 128 M o r e l l y , 57 N a p o l e o n i c Wars, 113 nations, " p o l i s h e d " a n d " r u d e or barbarous," 61, 119-20 n a t u r e , state of, 53 N e d h a m , M a r c h a m o n t , 36 Nef, J o h n U . , 144 N i c o l e , Pierre, 1 6 - 1 7 O r e s m u s , N i c o l a s , 141 Pascal, Blaise, 1 1 , 12, 16 passions: a n d aristocracy, 1 1 2 ; c o u n t e r v a i l i n g , 20-31, 4 1 , 78; and economic expansion, 125-26; i n c o n s t a n c y of, 5 2 53; a n d interest, d i c h o t o m y of, 42-48, 58, 63-64, 69-70, 73, 102, 125; interest and interests as tamers of, 3 1 - 4 2 ; and interests as s y n o n y m s , 1 1 0 - 1 1 ; and reason, 43-44; S m i t h ' s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d , 108, 1 1 0 - 1 1 ; three basic, 9-10, 12, 20-21; transformed into vir tues, 1 6 - 1 8 ; and war, 79 personality, effect of c a p i t a l i s m o n , 132, 133 Peters, R i c h a r d S., 137 Physiocrats, 70, 104, 122; e c o n o m i c e x p a n s i o n , views of, 93-96; p o l i t i c a l organiza tion, views of, 96-99 I'lato, 43 Pocock, }. G. ., v i i - v i i i , 4011, 5711, 143, 144 P o l a n y i , M i c h a e l , 69 p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , Physio crats' v i e w s o n , 9699 power: countervailing, 77-78; lust for, as sin, 9-10, 12 p o w e r , restrictions o n : M i l l a r ' s ideas, 89-93; M o n t e s q u i e u ' s ideas, 7 7 - 7 8 , 87-88; Proudlion's ideas, 128; Steuart's ideas, 82-88 powers, s e p a r a t i o n of, 7 7 - 7 8 praise, desire for, 10 p r o p e r t y : M o n t e s q u i e u ' s view of, 74, 94; m o v a b l e and fixed, 7 3 - 7 6 , 94; private, ar g u m e n t s for, 127-28; Spino za's v i e w of, 7 4 - 7 5 Protestant ethic, 1 29-30 P r o u d h o n , Pierre J o s e p h , 128, '45 Prudentius, 21 p u b l i c debt, 7 5 - 7 6 P u f e n d o r f , S a m u e l v o n , 53 Q u e s n a y , F r a n c o i s , 7 5 , 94-96, 98, 103 R a a b , F e l i x , 36, 3711, 139 R a c i n e , Jean Baptiste, 11 reason, interest, and passions, 43-44, 46, 7411

INDEX Renaissance, pursuit of honor and glory i n , 11 ressentiment, 1 2 1 , 126 Ret/, j e a n F n ^ o i s d e G o n d i , C a r d i n a l de, 45-46, 135 r e v o l u t i o n of 1848, 124 riots a n d r e b e l l i o n s , M i l l a r ' s v i e w of, 89-93 R o b e r t s o n , W i l l i a m , 6 1 , 83 R o h a n , H e n r i , D u e de, 34, 36 37- 42> 5 1 . 1 1 1 R o m a n t i c i s m , 132 R o s e n b e r g , N a t h a n , 1 8 , 143, sin: A u g u s t i n e ' s idea of, 9-10; avarice as, 12, 20-21, 41 S k i n n e r , A. S., 142 S k i n n e r , Q n e n t i n , viii, 5 7 S m i t h , A d a m , 1 8 - 1 9 , 39-40, 6 4 , 66, 6g, 70, 75, 81, 88, 1 1 9 , 120, 130, 138, 143; doc trines 100-12; e c o n o m i c ex p a n s i o n , view of, 93-94, 96, 10012; Theory of Moral Sentiments a n d Weulth of Nations c o m p a r e d , 108-10 Smith, D . W . , 1 7 , 138 social contract, 53 socialism, 127 S o m b a r t , W e r n e r , 136 South Sea B u b b l e , 57 S p a i n , aristocratic ideal i n , 58 Spinoza, Benedict, 13-14, 21, 44, 46, 52, 139, 1 4 1 ; on p r o p erty, 7 4 - 7 5 state of nature, 53 Steuart, Sir James, 49-50, 70, 7 5 , 93, 99, 139; on c o m m e r c e , 81-83; d o c t r i n e s , 8 1 - 8 7 ; M o n t e s q u i e u ' s influence o n , 81-82, 85-88; a n d Physio crats, 94; S m i t h c o m p a r e d w i t h , 102, 104, 107. See also M o n t e s q u i e u - S t e u a r t doc trines. Stourzh, G e r a l d , 4 5 Strauss, L e o , 1 3 , 137 s u b l i m a t i o n , 17 Sutcliffe, F. E., 138 T e n d l e r , Judith, viii T h a t c h e r , Sanford, v i i i T h o m a s , K e i t h , 136-37, 144, T h o m p s o n , E. P., 142 T o c q u e v i l l e , A l e x i s de, 1 1 9 , 122-25, 135 T o n n i e s , F e r d i n a n d , 120 trade, see c o m m e r c e U re , Andrew, 92

INDEX W a h e r , M i c h a e l , viii, 137 war: a n d capitalism, 134-35; a n d c o m m e r c e , 79, 80 w a t c h , m e t a p h o r of, 85, 86-87 93- 94 i a 2 w e a l t h : fear of losing, 1 2 1 , 125 F e r g u s o n ' s ideas o n , 120-21, 125; and power. Smith's d o c t r i n e of, 100-101; as p r o p e r t y , 94-96; pursuit of, in S m i t h ' s d o c t r i n e , 108. See also m o n e y W e a v e r , P a u l , 138 W e b e r , M a x , 9, 129-30, 133, 136 Weulersse, Georges, W h i t e , L y n n , 141 W i l k e s riots, 92 W a l p o l e , Sir R o b e r t , 57 W i n c h , D o n a l d , viii 143

Vauvenargues, Luc de Clapiers, M a r q u i s de, 27, 57 V e b l e n , T h o r s t e i n , 144 V e n t u r i , F r a n c o , 137 Vermassung, 126 V i c o , G i a m b a t t i s t a , 14, 17, 19, l $o, 137 V i n e r , Jacob, 37-3811, 60, 139, 140 virtues: b a t t l e against vices, 2 1 ; passions transformed i n t o , 16-18 Voltaire, Francois Marie A r o u e t , 141

J 44
R o u s s e a u , J e a n J a c q u e s , 14, 27-28, 107; on amour de soi a n d amour propre, 109; on interests and passions, 126 R u d e , G e o r g e , 92, 142 Sacy, L o u i s de, 141 S a m u e l s o n , P a u l ., 1 1 9 S a n t a y a n a , G e o r g e , 133 Savary, J a c q u e s , 59-60, 62, 140 Schiller, J o h a n n C h r i s t o p h F r i e d r i c h v o n , 48 Scholastics, 9 S c h u m p e t e r , J o s e p h ., ,
1 84-35, 'S6 S c o t l a n d , m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y in, 64, 70

Scottish E n l i g h t e n m e n t , 70, 81, 88, 1 1 9 self-interest, see interest Sen, S, R., 141 s e p a r a t i o n of powers, 7 7 - 7 8 Shackleton, Robert, 77 Shaftesbury, A n t h o n y A s h l e y C o o p e r , L o r d , 37, 46, 47, 139; on m o n e y - m a k i n g , 64-65 Shklar, Judith, viii S i l h o n , j e a n de, 39, 138 Simmel, Georg, 55-56

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Hirschman, Albert O. T h e passions and the interests. Includes bibliographical references, . C a p i t a l i s m H i s t o r y . 2. Intellectual life History. I. T i t l e . HB501.H523 3320419 I S B N 0-691-04214-4 7 6 -24293